Formation of the Golden Horde
For more than two centuries, one of the strongest states in the world existed on the territory of Eurasia - Golden Horde. The descendants of numerous peoples of the Horde today are citizens of the Russian state and inherit the spiritual traditions of the past.
AT early XIII century in Central Asia the Mongolian state emerged. In 1206, Genghis Khan was proclaimed its head. The Mongols launched great campaigns of conquest in Asia and Europe. The first meeting of the combined forces of the South Russian princes and Polovtsy with the advanced Mongol army took place on May 31, 1223 on the river. Kalka. The Russian-Polovtsian army suffered a severe defeat. The Mongols retreated to Asia after the victory.
In 1235 at the kurultai (congress) Mongolian princes The decision was made to go west. The campaign was led by Genghis Khan's grandson Batu. Having defeated the Kama Bulgarians in 1236, the Mongols in the winter of 1237 invaded the territory of North-Eastern Russia. In a short time, Ryazan, Kolomna, Moscow, Vladimir, Suzdal, Yaroslavl, Tver, Kostroma and other cities were taken and ruined. North-Eastern Russia was under the rule of the Mongols. Before reaching Novgorod only 100 km, the Mongols withdrew to the Polovtsian steppes to make up for losses and prepare a new campaign. In 1239, Batu moved his troops to conquer South Russia. Having captured Kyiv in 1240, the Mongols passed through the Galicia-Volyn principality and invaded Europe. Here they were defeated by the combined forces of the Czech Republic and Hungary at Olomouc (1242) and returned to the Polovtsian steppes.
As a result of aggressive campaigns led by Genghis Khan and his descendants, a huge empire of the Mongols was created, which occupied the vast territory of Asia and Europe. The empire was divided into uluses (possessions), among which one of the largest was the ulus of the descendants of Jochi (the eldest son of Genghis Khan). The ulus of Jochi included Western Siberia, Northern Khorezm in Central Asia, the Urals, the Russian Plain, Middle and Lower Volga, North Caucasus, Crimea, Don and Danube steppes. The ulus was divided into two yurts (into two parts). The territory west of the Irtysh became the yurt of the grandson of Genghis Khan - Batu. In Russian chronicles, it was called the Golden Horde.
State structure of the Mongol-Tatar yoke
The history of the Golden Horde began in 1243. Its founder Batu Khan, just like the Genghisides in other uluses, treated the subject territory as a tribal domain, not considering it as an absolutely independent state. All Mongolian uluses legally constituted a single empire with a central government in Karakorum and had to deduct a certain share of income in its favor. All strategic issues were resolved in the capital of the empire. The strength of the central government - given its remoteness from the western uluses - rested only on authority, but this authority was strictly recognized by Batu. However, in the 60s of the XIII century the situation changed. Mengu Timur, who ruled in the Golden Horde, took advantage of intra-dynastic disputes in the center of the empire and refused to obey its supreme ruler. The Golden Horde gained independence.
The intrastate structure of the Horde copied the system introduced in Mongolia by Genghis Khan. The administered territory was first divided into two large administrative units, and from the end of the 13th century into four (Saray, Desht-i-Kypchak, Crimea, Khorezm). They were headed by the governors of the khan - ulusbeks. The legal basis for the internal division of large territorial divisions was the right of nomadic owners to receive pasture land from the governors or the khan himself. These lands also bore the names of uluses. The ulus system determined the administrative-territorial division of the Horde. The owners of the uluses were obliged to field a certain number of cavalry soldiers in the event of hostilities, to perform tax and household duties. The ulus system copied the structure of the Mongolian army: the entire state was divided (like the entire army) in accordance with the ranks - temnik, thousand's manager, centurion's, ten's manager - into possessions determined by the size, from which ten, one hundred, one thousand or ten thousand were sent to the army armed warriors. In the XIV century, there were approximately 70 temniks in the Horde army, and the number of areas controlled by them corresponded to this number. Uluses were not hereditary possessions - no one dared to challenge the right of supreme property on the part of the khan. The apparatus of government was formed under the khans Batu and Berke (40-50s of the XIII century). The capital was founded as an administrative center, the Yamskaya connection between the capital and the regions was organized, taxes and duties were distributed. An apparatus of officials appeared, strictly subordinated to supreme power which was absolute. Sources noted that the khans had "amazing power over everyone." Numerous bureaucracy helped the khans to exercise this power effectively. The top of the bureaucracy was closed by two highest state positions: beklyaribek and vizier. In the hands of the beklyaribek was the leadership of the army, the diplomatic service, and court cases. The vizier concentrated the highest executive power.
The main executive body was called a divan, which consisted of several chambers in charge of financial, tax, trade, domestic political and other areas. public life. Kuriltai - traditional representative congresses - in the Horde quickly lost the role they played in Mongolia. Khan's power in the Horde from below was not limited to anyone.
The political and diplomatic relations between Russia and the Horde. Russian princes received the right to reign at the khan's headquarters. There were punitive campaigns against Russia and predatory raids by uncontrolled nomadic detachments. But at the same time, Russia also had channels of political and spiritual-ideological influence on the Horde. The Russian Orthodox Church played a special role through the diocese opened in Saray in 1261.
Economy of the Golden Horde
The state of the Golden Horde was dominated by steppes, which was directly associated with the basis of its economy - nomadic cattle breeding. The northern and northeastern regions of the country were a forest-steppe zone, where grazing was combined with fur hunting. In the north-west of the Horde there were Mordovian and Chuvash forests, which served as hunting grounds for the local population.
Under Khan Berke, the coast of the Volga and Akhtuba was almost entirely built up with cities, towns, and villages. A settled area, significant in terms of territory, also arose in the place where the Volga and Don were closest to each other. In the capital of the Horde, the cities of Azaka, Madzhar, Tyumen and others, there was a trade in spices, fabrics, perfumes that came from the East, furs, honey, and wax from Russian lands. They actively traded livestock. Local artisans achieved high quality leather and wool products. The food market was saturated with dairy and meat products, fish and caviar were also sold.
As a result of the close union of the steppe and cities, the rapid development of both crafts and caravan trade, a specific economic potential was formed, which for a long time contributed to the preservation of the power of the Horde. Both components - the nomadic steppe and the settled zones - complemented and mutually supported each other, thereby providing the state with conditions important for its existence.
The Horde was one of largest states middle ages. Its military power for a long time had no equal, which allowed the khans to dictate their terms to the outside world - including the countries of Europe, many of which are on own experience they knew the power of the Mongol strikes during the Batu campaign. Friendship with the Horde was sought by the rulers of even distant countries. The most important trade routes connecting East and West passed through the territory of the Golden Horde. The sphere of political, economic, military, cultural ties and interests of the Mongol rulers involved numerous peoples of the entire Asian continent and a significant part of Europe.
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Part 1
Moscow Institute of Economics and Law
Department of State and Legal Disciplines
History of domestic state and law
Topic 4. State and legal entities
nearest neighbors of the early feudal
Russian states in the 13th - 16th centuries.
Lecture 7: Mongolian-Tatar states in the territory
our country (XIII - XIV centuries).
Lecture plan:
1. Empire of Genghis Khan.
2. Uluses of Chagatai and Hulagids.
3. State and law of the Golden Horde.
Moscow 2010
1. Empire of Genghis Khan.
At the end of the XII - beginning of the XIII centuries. events took place in Central Asia that had a very significant impact on the fate of the peoples of our country and neighboring countries.
In the XI - XII centuries. Numerous pastoral tribes and smaller tribal and family-tribal (ail) formations roamed the vast expanses of Mongolia. They did not constitute a single nationality, did not have their own statehood and spoke different dialects of the Mongolian language. Among them, in the eastern part of Mongolia, a large tribe of Tatars stood out during this period. In addition to them, the most numerous were the steppe Mongols, engaged in cattle breeding and hunting. There were also forest Mongols engaged in hunting and fishing. The Mongols roamed as large politically independent kurens.
All of them were still at a rather primitive stage of development. The cult of ancestors, the deification of nature remained characteristic form their consciousness. The Mongols were subsistence farming and produced extremely little food. There was no money circulation, and trade was conducted in the form of exchange.
At the same time, the deepening division of labor and the development of handicraft production led to the emergence of private ownership of the means of production, primarily livestock. Mongolian society was sharply divided into feudal noyons or rich- a very rich tribal military aristocracy, which contained strong military squads - nukers and common people Karachu. This process was accompanied by a fierce struggle for the possession of the richest pastures, comfortable winter camps, for the subordination of weak clans and tribes to stronger, richer and warlike ones.
At the turn of the XII - XIII centuries. among the most powerful leaders-leaders stood out the most adamant and cruel Temujin . In 1206, at the congress of the nomadic Mongolian aristocracy - kurultae - Temujin was elected general Mongol khan and received the name Genghis Khan . All Mongol tribes were united, and the noyon leaders began to recognize only one ruler - Genghis Khan. Thus, the Mongolian state arose.
With the formation of the state, the possibility of economic and political contacts with neighboring peoples appeared. However, this path did not suit the nomadic aristocracy, for whom the war for the sake of robbery had already become the main source of enrichment. In addition, through the constant military robbery of foreign peoples, the ruling elite sought to muffle the internal contradictions of Mongolian society. That is why the country was turned into a military camp.
Genghis Khan carried out a very important military decimal reform. Along with the old organization of society - by tribes, clans and villages - all the population capable of military affairs (and all the Mongols were considered eternally liable for military service on the principle: “there is no Mongol population, but there is a Mongol army”) was divided into darkness 10,000 cavalry troops each, headed by the closest relatives of the khan and the most loyal to him noyons-temniki, at the head of 100 warriors - thousanders, led by 100 warriors - centurions, at the head of ten warriors - foremen. This old and widely known system created favorable conditions for the suppression of one's own people and for aggressive campaigns against neighbors. In addition, it allowed, on the basis of strict military discipline, to overcome the separatist ambitions of tribal leaders and, in case of success, contributed to the growth of the authority of the chief khan.
To strengthen his power and pacify the recalcitrant, Genghis Khan created a ten thousandth corps of guards - the personal guard of the khan, consisting of especially trusted and carefully selected persons, as a rule, from the sons of the ruling military-feudal and bureaucratic aristocracy. At the same time, Genghis Khan began to introduce new rules of law, which later received the name Great Yasa of Genghis Khan, distinguished by the unusual cruelty of punishments for any offense against the established rules.
Having thus strengthened the military-political organization of the power of the feudal lords in Mongolian society, Genghis Khan set about realizing his foreign policy predatory goals. This was highly favored by the situation prevailing in the countries of the East and Eastern Europe. Here reigned everywhere feudal fragmentation and the absence of a strong central authority. At the same time, the Mongols and the peoples involved in their campaigns of conquest, for all their general backwardness, had one very strong military advantage over the settled peoples: a large and very mobile cavalry army.
In 1215, Genghis Khan began to seize China. For 1219 - 1221 his troops defeated the possessions of Khorezmshah in the Semirechye and Central Asia, passed almost all of Kazakhstan, and captured Afghanistan. In 1220 - 1223. The Mongols passed through Persia to the Caucasus, defeated the Polovtsy and first met the Russian army at the Battle of Kalka. But the Mongols managed to carry out the conquest of Russia and its principalities only under the successors of Genghis Khan - Batu and Berke during 1237 - 1254 At the same time, as a result of the long and fierce resistance of the Russian people, the Mongols lost their offensive power and could not realize their plans to conquer Central and Western Europe.
Their conquests were accompanied by the ruthless and barbarous destruction and burning of cities, fortresses and villages, the extermination and slavery of huge masses of the population, the establishment of cruel oppression and predatory exactions. All the territories conquered by the Mongols with the peoples and tribes living on them were considered as property subject to the clan of Genghis Khan.
Thus, the huge empire of Genghis Khan was created. Its management was based on two principles - generic and military-feudal.
At generic principle, originating from the historically established tribal ideology, as a rule, all measures are taken to help maintain centralized control. It manifested itself precisely in the fact that the ulus (i.e. specific) vassal khans were forced from time to time to send a part of the loot to the Great Khan in Mongolia (i.e. to their supreme overlord). Moreover, in some cases, vassal rulers, such as Georgian kings and Armenian princes, traveled to distant Karakoram to receive from the Great Khan shortcuts- letters to own their uluses, and many usurper despots who did not come from “ golden family”, were forced to keep with them dummy khans from the Genghisid clan. So did the emirs of Central Asia, Mamai in the Golden Horde, even the formidable conqueror Emir Timur, who founded his own empire, and others.
But, no matter how great was the significance of the tribal principle, the empire of Genghis Khan, due to geographical, socio-economic, national and many other reasons, could not exist as a single centralized state. It quickly broke up into separate independent uluses.
The thing is that after all the main, decisive military-feudal principle was in complete contradiction with the generic principle. It took shape, developed and strengthened gradually, as the Mongols accumulated their own managerial experience and used the centuries-old experience of the conquered feudal states of China, Central Asia, Persia, Arabs, the peoples of Transcaucasia, Russia.
In the end, the military-feudal principle completely won out. Very soon, he led to the collapse of the empire into independent destinies - uluses, which, in turn, began to disintegrate into smaller possessions. Genghis Khan himself, before his death (1227), was forced to divide the administration of the empire between his four sons.
Eldest son - Jochi - received the farthest ulus from the Irtysh River - the Kypchak steppes, the Volga region, Crimea. This ulus was soon named Blue Hordes , and for Russians - Golden Horde .
Second son - Chagatai - received Central Asia and a number of adjacent territories and peoples.
Third son - Ogedei - received part of Western Turkmenistan, Northern Persia and Transcaucasia.
The younger son, in accordance with the ancient Mongol custom, was left with the indigenous ulus - Mongolia. The owner of the indigenous ulus was considered the Great Khan-suzerain over the owners of the remaining uluses. Its capital was the city Karakoram .
Despite such a division, between the sons of Genghis Khan and their successors for almost two centuries (XIII-XIV centuries.) there was a fierce struggle for the expansion of their uluses and even for the throne of the Great Khan in Karakorum. Therefore, the close connection of the Great Khan with his vassals did not work, and after the transfer of the capital from Karakorum to Khanbaldyn (Beijing) in the second half of the 13th century. all ties were completely cut off. Grand Duke at the same time became huangdi - Emperor of China.
The domination of the Mongol conquerors was based on numerous Mongol and other tribes and clans settled among the conquered peoples, organized according to the decimal system. Despite the imminent collapse of the empire of Genghis Khan into a number of independent feudal ulus states, their common main goals were to perpetuate the dominance of the descendants of the “golden family” of the Genghisides. For this, the following tools and methods were used.
First of all, merciless terror against conquered peoples and tribes.
Secondly, the well-known principle of “divide and rule”: the establishment of privileges not only for the Mongol nobility, but also for the conquered feudal lords, cities, and clergy; the use of a system of ransoms to manage and squeeze out taxes, tributes and other extortions.
Thirdly, the creation of a large financial apparatus for systematic accounting (by means of capitation censuses) and the collection of huge monetary and other material resources from the conquered peoples, involving them in various duties and services.
Fourth, constant military readiness to suppress insubordination, organize raids on neighboring states and peoples.
Fifth, in the presence of the dominant position of Yasa Genghis Khan, labels, orders, orders of khans and their administrations, the assumption of some legal pluralism: the preservation of the local adat (unwritten law, custom), Muslim law, the law of cities and the settled population.
At sixth, understanding the importance of religion and the clergy to maintain their dominance over the conquered peoples, the Mongol feudal lords showed relative religious tolerance, especially since they themselves, being very superstitious, were afraid of the wrath of both their own and foreign gods.
Uluses of Chagatai and Hulagids.
Relying on the Mongol military detachments, led by the Baskaks, on numerous Ilchi officials (messengers), the rulers had to ensure the flow of the Mongol khans Money, agricultural products and handicrafts. In addition, the Mongol khans, their princely relatives and even individual wives of the khans distributed to representatives of the local ruling classes - large landowners, merchants, Muslim clergy who recognized the power of the conquerors, official letters (labels) and paizi (gold, silver, bronze or wooden special signs ), giving them the right to hold positions and acquire numerous privileges. The presentation of letters and paiza to local authorities made it possible to receive appropriate maintenance, means of transportation, and enjoy special attention and honor from the population. At the same time, arbitrariness and exactions, abuses were a widespread phenomenon.
All this placed a heavy burden on the working population - farmers and artisans who survived the hardest ruin and the death of hundreds of thousands of people during the Mongol conquests. It is not surprising that mass discontent was ripening among the people against the conquerors and their henchmen from the ruling classes. In 1238, a powerful uprising of townspeople and farmers took place in Bukhara under the leadership of Mahmud Tarabi. The rebels were able to destroy more than 10 thousand Mongol warriors, although they suffered a severe defeat.
During the operation of the farming system in Central Asia, cities and agriculture began to gradually revive and restore, and at the same time, the power of large local landowners of predominantly Turkic origin, the Begs, or in Arabic, emirs, increased. Farmers had to reckon with them - the rulers from the Yalovach family and their owners - the Mongolian authorities and officials. So, on the territory of the state of Chagatai, several destinies-uluses headed by emirs arose, who sought to strengthen their power and make it as less dependent on the power of the khans and their proteges as farmers.
In the first half of the XIV century. under Khan Kebek - a descendant of Chagatai - an attempt was made to centralize government in the state. The farming system of government was abolished and an administrative-territorial system was introduced (for the settled part of Central Asia). The country was divided into tumens headed by tumens, appointed by khans from among the princes, local feudal nobility and tribal leaders of nomads.
At the same time, a single monetary system was introduced throughout the country: silver and copper coins. However, resistance to the neutralist aspirations of the Chagatai khans on the part of the ulus emirs led the reforms of Khan Kebek to a complete failure. Moreover, in the middle of the XIV century. the entire huge ulus of Chagatai was divided into two independent states - Mogolistan, to which Kashgaria and Semirechye went, and the Chagatai Khanate proper in Maverannahr. Between these two states there were many years of constant wars. Civil strife did not stop inside Maverannahr.
By this time, the Mongols from the Genghisid clan had finally lost power in Central Asia. Only a deeply rooted tribal tradition forced the Central Asian emirs to keep nominal dummy khans with them. In the second half of the XIV century. from among the Central Asian emirs stood out the leader of a large Nuker squad, the head of the large Chagatai tribe of the Barlas Timur - the founder new empire in the East. In the process of aggressive campaigns (1370-1405), accompanied by the destruction and ruin of cities, the extermination of entire peoples, Timur managed to subjugate not only the peoples of Central Asia, but also Persia, Asia Minor, Transcaucasia, the Golden Horde.
This state was formed in Transcaucasia, as well as on the southern and eastern shores of the Caspian Sea. However, until 1256 Transcaucasia was part of the Golden Horde.
In the Kingdom of Georgia and its vassal Northern Armenia, the Mongol conquerors established a dual administration - the traditional Mongol and the historically established administration of local feudal lords. The Mongols divided the Georgian kingdom into eight military-administrative units - tumens, headed by temniki, thousanders and others and appointed on behalf of the khans by representatives of the fiscal department - Baskaks and Darugs, tax and tribute collectors.
Georgian kings, their vassals - Georgian and Armenian princes - retained or regained their former titles and power in their former possessions. To do this, they had to travel to the distant Karakorum to the Great Khan with rich gifts and offerings to receive a label. Thus, the kings of Georgia and local feudal lords were in double feudal dependence on the Great Khan of the Empire and on the Khan of the Golden Horde. Deole, moreover, each of the eight tumens was assigned to individual Georgian and Armenian feudal lords - mtavars and ishkhans - with the imposition on them of responsibility for the proper flow of tribute and the provision of appropriate replenishment of the Mongolian army.
At the same time, the Mongol khans tried in every possible way to undermine the authority and weaken the power of the Georgian kings, destroying the old stable vassal ties of local princes and kings. For rich offerings, the Mongol khans issued labels to individual princes and thus removed them from vassal dependence on the Georgian kings, making them direct vassals of the khan himself. In 1249, the Great Khan Guyuk approved two kings on the Georgian throne at once, which was one of the reasons for the collapse in 1260 of the formally united Georgian kingdom into two, subject to the Mongols. Only a few "royal cities", including Tbilisi and Kutaisi, remained under the joint control of both kings.
By 1256, after long devastating wars between various branches of the Genghis Khan family, the Golden Horde khans lost power over Transcaucasia. It became part of a new huge ulus - the state of the Hulagids, formed with the consent of the Great Khan Munke. Khan Munke's brother, Khulagu Khan, and his Khulagud descendants with the title of Ilkhanov, which means "ruler of peoples", ruled the ulus for almost a century, until 1353. The capital of the Khulagud state was in Azerbaijan: first in Mirag, then in Tabriz. The state languages were Turkic-Uighur and Persian.
Under the Khulagids in Transcaucasia, five main groups more or less steadily formed in the ruling class: the numerous and most privileged clan of the Khulagids and other descendants of Genghis Khan, the military nomadic aristocracy of Mongol-Turkic origin, local melik feudal lords, merchants, Muslim and Christian clergy. Specific representatives of these groups entered into complex and contradictory relations among themselves, military-administrative, seigneurial-vassal, etc. The content of these relationships, economic and political, was based on various forms of feudal land ownership.
The ilkhan and his closest relatives were considered the common owner of all land in the state of the Hulagids. The entire huge land fund of the state was divided into five types (forms): Inju lands, which belonged personally to the Ilkhan and members of his family, as well as to those feudal lords who were under the special protection of his and his closest relatives; lands of the sofa (state treasury), allocated to the largest representatives of the administration for temporary possession as a reward and for maintenance; waqf lands; Mulk lands, which were privately owned by individual feudal lords with the right to transfer them by inheritance, donation and even sale; ikta - lands allocated to military leaders - emirs of tumens and thousands, who were often at the same time leaders of nomadic tribes, for service and under the condition of service.
The working classes were in various forms of feudal dependence. Nomadic pastoralists were actually attached to their tribal and military units. Their duties were constant military readiness and the allocation of part of the livestock and livestock products to tribal and tribal leaders and military leaders. The vast majority of peasant farmers were serfs and carried many duties in favor of feudal lords and conquerors.
The state of the Hulagids was not centralized. Formally, the Khulagid Ilkhans were vassals of the Great Khan of Mongolia, but these vassal relations were fragile and often interrupted. Within the state, local emirs, ruling feudal lords - “meliks of countries” or “meliks of tribes” - had great immunity on the basis of tarkhan labels granted by the ilkhans, which exempted central authorities and departments from interfering.
The Ilkhan had supreme military, judicial and administrative power. Under him, the positions of viziers were established, who carried out his instructions or ruled the country on behalf of the ilkhan. Various departments were established in the capital - divans, the most important of which were the financial, military and divan, which was in charge of accounting for land holdings. The most important affairs in the state were decided at the kurultai, where members of the Khulaghid house, princes, and the largest representatives of the military nomadic aristocracy were present. At the kurultai, the heirs of the deceased Ilkhans were enthroned, issues related to military campaigns were resolved, the conquered lands, positions, booty were distributed among the princes, distinguished generals and commanders.
Local government in Azerbaijan was in the hands of emirs and noyons, as well as individual princes-shirvanshahs. In Georgia and Armenia, state power was in the hands of Georgian kings and local feudal lords. At the same time, many feudal lords and some cities sought to strengthen their relative independence from the central authorities and their deputies, placing themselves under the patronage of the most powerful and authoritative members of the Hulagid house, princes and military leaders.
The state of the Hulagids had a complex legal system based on a variety of national and regional written and oral sources of law. The national ones included the Yasa of Genghis Khan, the labels and laws of the Ilkhans; to local sources of law - oral adats of nomadic peoples, the code of law of Smbat Sparapet of 1265 in Armenia, the code of law of Beka and Akbuga, created in the 14th century, the canon law of the Christian church, etc.
At the end of the XIV century. The Hulagid state was subjected to destructive conquests, first by the Golden Horde Khan Tokhtamysh, and then by Emir Timur, and ceased to exist.
State and law of the Golden Horde.
It is impossible to talk about the Golden Horde as a state with such generally accepted concepts as, for example, clear territorial boundaries. Her power extended not so much to the territory as to the various conquered peoples and tribes. The capital of this state was at first Sarai-Batu , and then Shed-Berke in the lower reaches of the Volga.
Gradually, the Mongols mixed with the Turkic peoples and tribes, and the Turkic language became official. The Mongols themselves among the conquered peoples received a double name - Mongol-Tatars(from the name of one of the most numerous Mongolian tribes - Tatars). Subsequently, some people began to call Tatars Mongolian origin peoples of Siberia, the Volga region, the Caucasus, the Crimea. It became their national name. Over time, the Mongol-Tatars converted to Islam.
Despite the rather variegated social and class composition of this Golden Horde robber state, it still represented feudal state. Its economic basis, be that as it may, was feudal production relations with the same feudal property land, pastures and livestock. All land was nominally the property of the Golden Horde Khan, but each landowner, within the limits of the land granted to him, disposed of the nomad camps of people dependent on him, distributed the best pastures at his own discretion.
At the top of the social ladder were the khan and princes (children, grandchildren, great-grandchildren, etc.) from home Jochi - the eldest son of Genghis Khan and the first Khan of the Golden Horde. It should be noted that with the adoption of Islam, which allowed polygamy, the genus of Jochids greatly expanded and the struggle for power intensified between the increased number of princes. Subsequently, the Jochids and other descendants of Genghis Khan retained a privileged position in the Central Asian khanates and Kazakhstan for centuries, secured a monopoly right to bear the title of sultan and occupy the khan's throne.
The next step in the military-feudal hierarchy of the Golden Horde was occupied by beki(Turkic title ) and nyons(Mongolian title), which represented the largest feudal lords. Not being members of the Jochid clan, they nevertheless traced their genealogies from the associates of Genghis Khan and their sons. They were often appointed by khans to responsible military and state positions: Darugs, Temnikovs, Thousands, Baskaks etc. They were awarded tarkhan letters that freed them from various duties and responsibilities. The signs of their power were labels and paizi.
An important place in the hierarchical system of the Golden Horde was occupied by numerous nukers- warriors of large feudal lords. They were part of the inner circle of their master and were dependent on him. The number of nukers depended on the wealth and nobility of their leader. Often they occupied middle or lower military-administrative positions - centurions, foremen, etc., which allowed them to collect significant income from the population of the territories where military units were stationed or stayed.
From among the nukers and other privileged people in the Golden Horde, a small layer advanced Tarkhanov who received tarkhan letters from the khan or his senior officials, in which they were granted various privileges.
Numerous clergy occupied a special place. Although the role of the Muslim clergy increased with the adoption of Islam, religious tolerance still took place in the Golden Horde. The clergy occupied important positions in the state and judicial apparatus. Church organizations had large material resources.
The ruling classes also included merchants, rich artisans, local feudal lords, tribal and tribal elders and leaders, large landowners in settled agricultural areas.
The working strata of the population included nomadic pastoralists, farmers, urban artisans, and servants. The bulk of the workers were Karachu - pastoral nomads . They lived in villages, ran individual households, owned cattle and grazed it on pastures that belonged to the landowner. Paying household duties, Karacha was also carried military service, kept officials and military units, provided them with transport for movement. When dividing military booty, they received a small part of it.
Feudally dependent peasants worked in the agricultural regions of the Horde: sobanchi and urtakchi. Sobanchi are communal peasants dependent on the landowner. They cultivated the master's land with their inventory, carried duties from vineyards, outbuildings, paid duties from ditches. Urtakchi are impoverished members of the peasant community, deprived of land and inventory. They worked on the master's land for a share of the produce.
In the XIII - XIV centuries. in the Golden Horde there is a revival of urban planning. Cities arose as administrative and political settlements, determined by the needs of the state. Artisans driven from the conquered countries worked in the cities, who created these cities and their architecture.
However, in the second half of the fourteenth century. from among the Central Asian emirs stood out the leader of a large Nuker squad, the head of a large Chagatai (the second son of Genghis Khan) tribe barlasov Timur - the founder of a new empire in the East. In the process of conquest campaigns in 1370 - 1405. Timur managed to subjugate to his power not only the peoples of Central Asia, but also Persia, Asia Minor, Transcaucasia and the Golden Horde. His campaigns were accompanied by the extermination of entire peoples, the destruction and ruin of their cities. As a result of such an invasion in 1395 - 1396. the urban planning culture of the Golden Horde was completely destroyed and could never be revived, however, like its former greatness.
At the very bottom of the social ladder were slaves. Their number in the Golden Horde was extremely large. Captivity was the source of slavery. The slave trade flourished. However, most slaves, both in cities and in agriculture, after one or two generations became feudal dependents or received freedom.
The clarity of the work of the state mechanism, which ensured the retention in unquestioning obedience of both one's own and the conquered peoples, was achieved by the establishment of a terrorist regime, under which the subordination of the younger to the elders was unconditional and even thoughtless. Supreme, despotic in essence, power in the state belonged to the khan. As a rule, it was the eldest son of the previous khan or another closest relative of the Genghisids. Often the struggle for the khan's throne acquired a fierce character, accompanied by intrigues, secret or open assassinations of applicants. So, as a result of the “great zamyan” (feudal strife) for 20 years from 1360 to 1380. changed 20 khans.
First of all, the Khan was the supreme owner and manager of all lands in the state, which he distributed to relatives and officials. He was the head of the armed forces, made appointments and removals of all senior officials. The khan himself or on his behalf carried out foreign policy actions, including the declaration of war and the conclusion of peace. He was the supreme judge, and his will was considered law.
The collegial body was the congress of the Mongol-Tatar nobility - kurultai. It was convened to resolve the most important issues - the choice of a khan, planning campaigns and making peace, resolving the most important disputes and strife between representatives of the feudal elite, revising the boundaries of uluses, etc. As a rule, it was timed to coincide with religious holidays. It was attended by the sons of the khan, his closest relatives, emirs, noyons, temniks, women (khatuni) - widows of khans and other representatives of the ruling elite also took an active part.
Kurultai was an advisory body. Therefore, although the top of the nomadic aristocracy tried to somehow direct and control the activities of the khans, the will of the khan, his decisions at the kurultai were final and indisputable. Moreover, in most cases, the khan resolved issues on his own, in a narrow circle of court nobility.
Top officials were primarily vizier, who was in charge of the khan's treasury and the general administration of state affairs on behalf of and on behalf of the khan. The vizier appointed Basques, divan secretaries and other officials to positions.
Military administration in the state was concentrated in the hands of beklyari-bek who directed military activities emirs, temniks and thousanders. Beklyari-bek was considered the main emir under the khan. In addition, there were two more emirs in the capital who carried out the orders of the khan and his vizier, and bukaul, who was in charge of the supply, weapons, allowances for military units and garrisons, accounting for military booty and its delivery and distribution according to the instructions of the khan and senior officials.
Much in the system of central government was borrowed from the eastern despotic states (China, Persia, Central Asian khanates). At the end of the thirteenth century appeared sofas(office) to conduct business on various industries management. Numerous secretaries and scribes worked in them ( bitakchi). The sofas were subordinate to the highest officials appointed by the khan, carried out their instructions, gave them various information about the state of affairs in a particular branch of government or in the field. There was no clear delimitation of the competence of sofas by branches of management.
The uluses were ruled by members of the khan's family, the Jochids-princes, the most authoritative noyons (often called emirs). Darugs, thousanders and centurions were appointed to separate regions, cities, settlements. Subordinate to all these rulers were many officials involved in the census of the population, the collection of taxes and taxes, and the involvement of the population in the performance of various duties. Each local ruler has always relied on garrisons or mobile troops.
The basis of the statehood of the Golden Horde was its military organization. It is no coincidence that many state officials were at the same time commanders of the respective military formations. Numerous cavalry, consisting of Mongol-Tatars, Kipchaks and other nomadic tribes and peoples, formed the basis of the military power of the Golden Horde and was divided into light and heavy. In some periods, the Horde could put up 150 or more thousand cavalry. The mobile cavalry, built according to the decimal system, could quickly gather in a place indicated by the khan or command into a huge army for offensive operations or instantly disperse over vast spaces, transfer from one area to another, make sudden raids and raids, keeping in constant fear subject peoples. Rams, mobile siege towers, etc. were used as siege equipment.
All commanders were connected with each other by peculiar seigneur-vassal relations. The birth bond was preserved. Therefore, the transition from one darkness, thousands or hundreds to another was strictly forbidden. Such a transition was considered as a betrayal of one's clan, unit and its commander. The most severe discipline was maintained in the army. For any disobedience, not to mention failure to comply with the order, severe punishment threatened, up to the death penalty.
Reconnaissance was skillfully staged in the army. The khans obliged their military commanders to conduct reconnaissance through scouts, traitors, merchants, to obtain information about the number and weapons of the enemy, his commanders, moods, strife, etc. Subsequently secret Service was established for its own state apparatus, covered significant sections of the population, including the feudal elite. All secret information was delivered to the vizier, beklyari-bek and reported to the khan. Thus, iron discipline, good organization and great mobility of the cavalry masses, skillfully staged reconnaissance and surprise attacks, vast combat experience and flexible tactics gave the steppes an advantage over the inactive feudal militias of settled peoples and allowed them to win victories.
Judicial power in the Golden Horde was not much different from similar bodies in other states of that time. It had a pronounced class character and was not separated from the administrative one. Khan and others government bodies and officials themselves administered justice in all cases - criminal, civil, etc.
However, due to the steady Islamization, the Qadi courts were headed by the Supreme Qadi of the state. These courts dealt mainly with cases related to the violation of the requirements of the Qur'an, i.e. religious and marriage and family. When making decisions, they were guided by Sharia law - i.e. the rules of Islamic law. In addition, special yarguchi judges were appointed in the cities to deal with civil cases. Qadis and Yarguchis levied official duties from the disputing parties, and also resorted to arbitrary requisitions. The nomadic peoples of the Horde had traditional courts of tribal elders-biys.
Judicial and administrative arbitrariness, extrajudicial reprisals were characteristic features of the judicial system of the military-feudal state of the Golden Horde.
The sources of law in the Golden Horde were the following.
First of all, letters, labels, orders to local rulers and other documents are the result of the legislative activity of the Golden Horde khans.
Secondly, The Great Yasa of Genghis Khan, compiled in 1206 as an edification to his successors, consisting of 33 fragments and 13 sayings of the Khan himself. Yasa contained mainly the rules of the military organization of the Mongolian army and the norms of criminal law. It was distinguished by the unprecedented cruelty of punishments not only for crimes, but also for misdemeanors.
Thirdly, secret legend (monument of law of a later origin).
Fourth, norms of customary law of nomadic peoples.
Fifth, sharia. It dealt with cases of religious crimes. It was used mainly in cities and in areas with a settled population.
Legal norms were not distinguished from moral and religious norms. So, Yasa threatened with severe punishment to anyone who jumped over a fire, a table, a cup, washed clothes, returned along the road that they left. It was forbidden, under pain of death, to pass over the place where the Khan's headquarters was, to put his hand into the flowing water.
Civil law consisted of the norms of inheritance and marriage and family law.
Property relations in the Golden Horde were regulated by customary law and were very confused. This applies especially to land relations - the basis of feudal society. The ownership of the land, the entire territory of the state belonged to the ruling khan family of the Jochids. In the conditions of a nomadic economy, the inheritance of land was difficult. Therefore, it took place mainly in agricultural areas. The owners of the estates, of course, had to bear various vassal duties to the khan or the local ruler appointed by him.
In the khan's family, power was a special object of inheritance, and political power was combined with the right to own land in the ulus. The youngest son was considered the heir. Under Mongolian law, the youngest son generally had priority in inheritance. When inheriting, the eldest son received most of the property, and the yurt, utensils and the rest of the cattle were inherited by the younger son, who, even after getting married, continued to live with his parents.
The family and marriage law of the Mongol-Tatars and the nomadic peoples subject to them was regulated by ancient customs and, to a lesser extent, Sharia. The head of the patriarchal polygamous family, which was part of the village, clan, was the father. He was the owner of all the property of the family, disposed of the fate of the family members subject to him. Thus, the father of an impoverished family had the right to give his children for debts into service and even sell them into slavery.
The custom demanded to redeem the wife from her parents. The ransom was large. It took time to accumulate it. Therefore, the girls got married at a mature age. Until the sons came of age, after the death of the husband, the eldest (main) wife managed the property.
The number of wives was not limited. Muslims could have no more than four legal wives. The children of wives and concubines were legally in an equal position, with some advantages of sons from older wives and legal wives among Muslims.
Criminal law was characterized by exceptional cruelty. Failure to comply with the laws, the slightest violation of the rules threatened the death penalty. Military crimes were punished with particular cruelty. This stemmed from the very nature of the military-feudal system of the Golden Horde, the despotic power of Genghis Khan and his successors, the severity of relations, the low general culture inherent in the nomadic pastoral society, which is in the very initial stage of feudalism. Cruelty, organized terror were one of the conditions for establishing and maintaining long-term domination over the conquered peoples.
By Great Yasa the death penalty was relied on for treason, disobedience to the khan and other feudal lords and officials, unauthorized transfer from one military unit to another, failure to provide assistance in battle, compassion for a captive in the form of helping him with food and clothing, for advice and assistance from one of the parties in a duel, lying before elders in court, appropriation of someone else's slave or escaped captive.
It was also relied on in some cases for murder, property crimes, adultery, bestiality, spying on the behavior of others, and especially the nobility and superiors, magic, slaughtering cattle in an unknown way, urinating into a fire and ashes; even those who choked on a bone were executed.
The death penalty, as a rule, was carried out in public: backs were broken, slaughtered “like sheep”, strangled with a rope, tied to horses and dragged along the ground or torn to pieces, etc.
Other types of punishments were also used. For example, for a domestic murder, a ransom was allowed in favor of the relatives of the victim. The amount of the ransom was determined by the social status of the victim. For the theft of horses, sheep, a tenfold ransom was required. If the perpetrator was insolvent, he was obliged to sell his children and thus pay a ransom. At the same time, the thief, as a rule, was mercilessly beaten with whips.
Witnesses were involved in the criminal process during the interrogation, oaths were pronounced, cruel torture was used. In the military-feudal organization, the search for an undetected or hidden criminal was assigned to a dozen or a hundred, to which he belonged. Otherwise, all ten or one hundred were responsible.
Among the conquered peoples, the Mongol-Tatars retained their own legal systems.
part 1
Chapter Four
Administrative and political structure of the Golden Horde
The administrative and political structure of the Golden Horde was distinguished by a noticeable originality and unusualness, which was a consequence not only of the combination of nomadic and sedentary ways, but also followed from the peculiarities of the appearance of the state itself. First of all, it must be pointed out that throughout the entire period of its existence it did not have any official name, but was known in contemporary countries under a variety of names. In the earliest sources of Arabic origin, the name of the state is replaced by the name of the ruling khan with the appropriate ethnic specification. For example, "Berke, the great king of the Tatars", "Tokta, the king of the Tatars." Along with this, geographic clarifications are added to the names of the khans, specifying which of the Mongolian states is being referred to in this case (“Mengutemir, the Tatar sovereign in northern countries ah”, “Uzbek, ruler of the northern countries”). The last additions were made in connection with the presence of the southern Mongolian state (Hulaguid Iran) and the eastern one (possessions of the kaan in Mongolia and China). In some sources, the name of the capital was added to the name of the ruling khan (“king of Tokta, owner of Sarai and the Kipchak lands”, “king Uzbek, reigning in Sarai and the northern regions”).
Arabic and Persian sources used the earlier geographical term Desht-i-Kipchak ("King of Desht-i-Kypchak Tokta", "King of Desht-i-Kipchak and adjacent states included in it", "Berke - King of Desht in the north"). In other cases, in the same circle of sources, the Golden Horde is called Ulus Juchi, Ulus Batu, Ulus Berke and Ulus Uzbek, and these names were used not only directly during the reign of one or another khan, but in most cases after their death (“King Uzbek , the ruler of the countries of Berke", "ambassadors of Tokhtamyshkhan, the sovereign of the Uzbek land"). It should be especially emphasized that such a system of names was used in purely official interstate documents. This is evidenced by the manual of diplomatic correspondence between Egypt and the Golden Horde, where one official is said to be the ruler in the "lands of Uzbek", and his address is immediately given: "Kutlubuga Inak, governor of Khan Dzhanibek."
European travelers P. Carpini and G. Rubruk, who are well aware of the names of all the states and peoples that surrounded the possessions of Batu, mentioning his power, use the old terms “country of Komans”, “Komania” or give a too general name - “power of the Tatars”, “ the land of the Tatars. Marco Polo does not give the name of this state at all, but speaks only of his khan as the "king of the West." The same principle was followed in the 14th century. Western European statesmen in diplomatic correspondence with the Golden Horde khans. For example, a letter from Pope Benedict XII is addressed as follows: "His Majesty Khan Uzbek, Emperor of the Tatars", "To the most worthy sovereign Taidol, Empress of northern Tataria."
Of particular interest when considering the name of the state founded by Batu are the materials of Russian chronicles. In the very initial period of the existence of the Golden Horde, the chroniclers used the same ethnic term in relation to it: the Russian princes went “to the Tatars to Batyev” and returned “is the Tatars”. In the earliest chronicles, the name "Horde" was first noted under 1257 (in Laurentian Chronicle). However, most likely, this is the result of a later correction, since under 1258 the expression “to the Tatars” is again found in the annals. In the Trinity Chronicle restored by M. D. Priselkov, the “Horde” first appears under 1277, and before that, the expressions “to the Tatars”, “is Tatars” are used in it. In the Rogozhsky chronicler (mid-15th century), the name "Horde" was first used in 1244. This is a clear tribute to the compiler of the chronicle of the established terminology of the 15th century: he automatically replaced the word "in the Tatars" in the correspondence from an older manuscript with one firmly rooted in 15th century "to the Horde". It is characteristic that in the further presentation, the compiler of the Rogozhsky chronicler was more attentive to the sources at his disposal, retaining their terminology (“to Batu”, “to the Tatars”, “istatars”). The name "Horde" in this source has been firmly established since 1293 for the entire subsequent period of the existence of the Golden Horde. The chronicles compiled in the 15th-16th centuries are characterized by the use of the term "Horde" from the very beginning of the state founded by Batu (the Moscow Chronicle of the end of the 15th century - from 1243, the Simeon Chronicle - from 1243, IV Novgorod Chronicle- from 1246, I Sofia Chronicle - from 1245). At the same time, they sometimes have recurrences of preserving more ancient text, used in compiling these chronicles, for example, in Simeonovskaya under 1252: "Idea ... to the Tatars." An examination of the data of Russian chronicles shows that initially in Russia the new Mongol state did not have any special name, it was replaced by the ethnic definition of "Tatars". In the 80-90s of the XIII century. it is replaced by the name "Horde", which was adopted in all Russian official documents and annals in the XIV century. The use of this name on the pages of chronicles until the 80s of the XIII century. is a characteristic feature of the sources of the XV-XVII centuries. The split of the Golden Horde that took place in the 1360s, which became a consequence internecine wars, also found reflection in Russian chronicles. According to them, at this time the Muratov Horde and Mamaev Horde. The compilers of the Nikon Chronicle, who had a wide range of sources, were aware of the existence of several hordes at the end of the 14th and in the 15th centuries, which can be judged by the title of Tokhtamysh: "King of Volozhsky and all the hordes, the highest king." The Blue Horde and the Zayaitskaya Horde are also called here. In this regard, the compilers of the code, in order to distinguish the possessions of Tokhtamysh from other hordes, introduce a special term in relation to the first - "The Great Horde of the Volga" or simply "The Great Horde". The last name first appears in the Moscow Chronicle of the late 15th century. under 1460. It was not an invention of Russian chroniclers - this is how Khan Ahmed called his possessions in the label to Ivan III, thereby trying to emphasize his supremacy among several hordes that arose on the ruins of the state founded by Batu. Moscow chroniclers, apparently familiar with this label, were the first to introduce the combination "Tsar Akhmut of the Great Horde" into use.
As for the now familiar name of the Golden Horde, it began to be used at a time when there was no trace left of the state founded by Batu. In Russian written sources, this phrase has been recorded since the second half of the 16th century. For the first time it is found in the Kazan chronicler in the form of "Golden Horde" and " Great Horde Golden". Its origin is associated with the khan's headquarters, or rather, with the front yurt of the khan, richly decorated with gold and expensive fabrics, described by travelers of the 13th-14th centuries. Most early story it is contained in the report of P. Carpini in the presentation of the procedure for choosing Guyuk to kaans. For the erection of Guyuk to the throne, a large tent was erected in the steppe, “they call it the Golden Horde ... This tent was placed on pillars covered with gold sheets and nailed to the tree with gold nails, and it was covered with a canopy on top and inside the walls, and outside were other fabrics. The second description of the ceremonial yurt of the Golden Horde Khan Uzbek, dating back to the 30s of the XIV century, was made by the Arab traveler Ibn-Batuta: “He (Uzbek) sits down in a tent called a golden tent, decorated and outlandish. It (consists) of wooden rods covered with gold leaves. In the middle of it is a wooden throne, overlaid with silver gilded sheets, its legs are made of silver, and the top is studded with precious stones.
It is likely that the term "Golden Horde" was known in Russia already in the XIV century. and lived in colloquial speech, however, the Russian chroniclers of that time never used it in relation to the state of Batu and Uzbek. At the same time, as G. A. Bogatova rightly noted, they proceeded from the emotional load of the word “golden”, which was used at that time as a synonym for good and bright, which could not be said about the oppressor state, and even inhabited by “nasty people”. That is why the name Golden Horde appears only after all the horrors Mongol rule erased time. The authors of the 16th century, apparently, borrowed this term from oral stories that have come down to them about the luxurious khan's yurt or from descriptions of it by Russian eyewitnesses that have not survived to this day. The fact that such descriptions existed can be judged from the well-known Russian folk song of the late 14th - early 15th century. about Shchelkan, where a short version of one of these stories is given:
And it worked in the Horde,
Changed to a big one.
On a chair of gold
On dug velvet,
On a worm rock
King Azvyak is sitting here,
Azvyak Tavrulovich ...
It is characteristic that the authors of the song, like the chroniclers, define the Horde with the official prose word "big", while the craving of Russian folklore for the use of colorful epithets in relation to cities and countries is well known. In two versions of the song of the XVI century. Kostruk is also referred to as the "Great Horde". Attempts by L. N. Gumilyov to look for the roots of the name "Golden Horde" in the translation of the Chinese term "Jin", referring to the Jurchen empire of the 12th-13th centuries, which was later (and even in the 16th century) allegedly transferred to the state founded by Batu , look extremely unconvincing and far-fetched.
It is impossible to pass over in silence the question of how the Mongols themselves called their state. In the initial period of the existence of the Mongol Empire, all the conquered lands were considered as a single whole, which was completely the property of the Chingizids family only. Persons who were not related to them had no legal right to claim sovereign power within these territories. Based on this principle, Guyuk, in a letter dated 1246, calls his empire the "Great Mongol Ulus", and himself the "Great Khan" (kaan). Numerous economic and political factors quickly led the unified empire to disintegrate into several parts, one of which was the Golden Horde. In each of them, a ruling dynasty was established, descending from one of the sons of Genghis Khan. Representatives of these dynasties considered the entire vast territory on which they established themselves not as a state unit, but as a tribal possession, in this case belonging to the Jochid house. In full accordance with this, each of the ruling Golden Horde khans called their state simply “ulus”, that is, the people given to inheritance, possession (it was understood that the distribution of uluses was once carried out by Genghis Khan). In a well-known label, Yagailu, Tokhtamysh calls his state the Great Ulus. By adding a magnificent epithet, the khan not only emphasized the power of his state, but, of course, attributed to it the prerogatives of the metropolis that had already disappeared by that time and other Chingizid state formations.
For a long time the existence of the state in question, the very concept of the Horde had different meanings. If in Russia from the end of the XIII century. it denoted not only the headquarters of the khan, but also a specific state (i.e., the Golden Horde), then the Mongols invested in it a narrower meaning. In the XIII-XIV centuries. they did not use it to designate the entire state as a whole, which was always officially called "Ulus" with the addition of the name of the ruling khan or the ancestor of the Jochi dynasty. This combination of the term with the khan's name emphasized that in this case it was the state that was meant, since the same concept ("ulus") also denoted smaller possessions of nomadic feudal lords (Bek-Bulatov ulus, Ak-Bugin ulus). The change in the content of the concept of "Horde" was comprehensively analyzed by G. A. Fedorov-Davydov, who showed on specific materials of its sources different meaning during the XIII-XV centuries. In the 15th century, after the disintegration of the Golden Horde into several independent possessions, the term "Horde" finally became synonymous with the concept of "state". The most significant fragment of the Golden Horde was called the Great Horde.
The population of the Golden Horde from an ethnic point of view was a rather motley conglomerate of the most diverse peoples. Among them were representatives of the Volga Bulgars, Russians, Burtases, Bashkirs, Yases, Circassians, etc., enslaved by the conquerors. the conquerors begin to dissolve in the Kipchak environment, gradually forgetting their language and alphabet. An Arab contemporary wrote about this: “In ancient times, this state was the country of the Kipchaks, but when the Tatars took possession of it, the Kipchaks became their subjects. Then they (Tatars) mixed and intermarried with them (Kipchaks), and the earth prevailed over the natural and racial qualities of them (Tatars), and they all became like Kipchaks, as if they were of the same (with them) clan, because the Mongols settled on the land of the Kipchaks, married with them and remained to live in their land (the Kipchaks). This remark of a medieval historian was confirmed by excavations of the Golden Horde necropolises of the XIV century. Anthropological studies of rather extensive material from these burial grounds fully confirm the idea of the gradual assimilation of newcomers Mongols in the Kipchak environment. About the number of the Mongols proper, who remained on the territory of Desht-i-Kipchak, the sources preserved rather meager news. Rashid ad-Din reports that Genghis Khan allocated to his eldest son Jochi as an ulus possession of as many subjects as 4,000 soldiers could put up. According to Vassaf's report, by the time the campaign against Europe was organized, Batu "became the heir to his father's kingdom, and four personal thousands of Dzhuchievs ... constituting more than one fog of living troops, were under the authority of the elder brother Ordu." After returning from a European campaign, Khan Orda allocated two warriors from every ten to conquer Iran, as a result of which a ten thousandth corps was recruited. Consequently, his army at that time was about 50 thousand people. Hulagu also sent appropriate reinforcements to Batu, but the number of the detachment sent by him was not indicated by Rashid al-Din. One can only assume that it was quite large, since for helping the troops, Hulagu Batu received significant possessions in the territory of conquered Iran. The above sources of information do not refer specifically to the possessions of Batu, but are of a comparative nature, allowing you to create the most general idea of the number of Mongols remaining in the Polovtsian steppes. To this we can add that Rashid ad-Din has information about individual Mongol tribes, partially or completely settled in the Golden Horde.
Historically, it so happened that wherever the troops of Genghis Khan and his heirs appeared, they were called Tatars. Chinese source 13th century refers Genghis Khan himself and his associates also to the black Tatars, although they themselves called their state Mongolian, and themselves Mongols. The Russian chronicles also called the population of the Golden Horde Tatars. After its collapse, the ethnonym "Tatars" automatically passed to the population of new state formations with the appropriate specification (Kazan, Astrakhan, etc.). Moreover, it is characteristic that the population of the former Volga Bulgaria, which was part of the Golden Horde, Russian chronicles in the XIII-XIV centuries. were not called Tatars. After the founding of Kazan in the 70s of the XIV century. and its rise, the population of this region in Russian sources began to be called Kazanians, and only later the ethnonym "Tatars" was transferred to it. It is possible that this was largely influenced by the unfriendly policy of the Kazan rulers towards Russia, where the new khanate for this reason was considered as the heir to the traditionally anti-Russian policy of the Golden Horde, with all the ensuing consequences.
The phrase Mongol-Tatars appeared only centuries after the disappearance of the medieval Mongolian states and is an artificial ethnic name. It mechanically combines two names of the same people. The first part - the Mongols - is well known from a number of ancient sources, from which it follows that the antonym "Mongols" was used as a self-name for a number of Central Asian tribes united by Genghis Khan into a single state. The second part - Tatars - is the name of the same Mongols, established in the XIII century. in China and quickly spread beyond its borders. The penetration of this particular name into Europe and its widespread distribution, most likely, was facilitated by well-established trade relations with the East in the Middle Ages. Apparently, the merchants were the first informers of the European population about the appearance on the historical arena of a new formidable danger - the "Tatars". Russian chronicle sources in relation to the population of the Golden Horde have always used only one designation - "Tatars". In Western European sources, this name also usually appears, although Rubruk specifically explained that the founders of the Jochi ulus themselves preferred to be called Mongols. This was also emphasized by Carpini, whose book was specially titled "the history of the Mongols, called by us Tatars." Yu. Klaproth devoted a special article to this issue in 1823, in which, after analyzing the sources, he came to the conclusion that the names "Mongols" and "Tatars" belong to "the same folk tribe." The appearance of the form "Mongol-Tatars" dates back to the time of the beginning of scientific study and understanding of the history of state formations associated with the Genghisides. Attempts to eliminate the apparent discrepancy between good famous names“Mongols”, “Mongolia” and “Tatars”, “Tataria”, which are constantly found in medieval sources, and led to the emergence of a strange in its content, but outwardly reconciling the historical and geographical traditions of the Middle Ages and modern times, the word formation “Mongol-Tatars”. In the works of V. N. Tatishchev and N. M. Karamzin, “Mongol-Tatars” do not appear - they everywhere use the names “Mongols” and “Tatars” as equivalent. Both historians believed that the name "Tatars" was applied to the conquerors because most of the Mongol army consisted of Tatars. Karamzin was aware that the Chinese in the XIII century. called all their northern neighbors "Tatars", and specifically noted that "none of the current Tatar peoples calls themselves Tatars, but each is called by a special name for his land." The erroneous explanation proposed by Tatishchev and Karamzin of the reason for the existence of two names of conquerors who invaded Europe was firmly established in science in the 19th century. Based on this hypothesis, professor of St. Petersburg University P. Naumov in 1823 first used the phrase "Mongol-Tatars". Moreover, he wrote that “all historians agree among themselves that these fierce conquerors were not Tatars, but Mongols,” and he saw the reason why they were called Tatars in the fact that the Mongols “as they approached the borders of our fatherland and countries Western Asia, were reinforced by local Tatars, i.e., the peoples of the Turkish tribe. However, sources testify that there were actually no Tatars in the troops of Genghis Khan, since he brutally cracked down on them for the murder of his father.
On the pages of the “Secret History of the Mongols”, through the lips of Genghis Khan himself, the following is said about this event: “We crushed the hated enemies - the Tatars, these murderers of our grandfathers and fathers, when we, in fair retribution for their atrocities, completely exterminated Tatar people, trying on their children to the cart axis ... ".
The entire population of the Golden Horde was divided into two unequal parts. Most of them were nomads who moved in the steppe with their cattle along certain routes, which changed depending on the season. A smaller part led a settled way of life in cities and towns, among which were large settlements of medieval scale. So, for example, in the capital of the state, Sarai, there were more than 75 thousand people.
The initial period of the existence of the Golden Horde (under Khans Batu and Berke) is characterized by a rather significant limitation of the possibilities for exercising various state sovereign prerogatives. This was due to the fact that the possessions of the Jochids, like other Mongol princes, legally constituted a single empire with a central government in Karakorum. The kaan who was here, according to one of the articles of the Yasa of Genghis Khan, had the right to a certain part of the income from all the territories conquered by the Mongols. Moreover, he had possessions in these areas that belonged to him personally. Rubruk reports one of them: “Before we got to the Iron Gates, we found one castle of the Alans, belonging to Mangu Khan himself, for he conquered that land.” Other princes who participated in the conquests were also rewarded with certain enclaves outside their possessions with a settled population subject to appropriate duties. An example is Jagatai, who received a quarter in the city of Urgench (Khorezm). Exactly the same enclaves had the Jochids in the neighboring Mongolian states. Batu in Bukhara owned 5 thousand people, for help in the conquest of Iran, Hulagu allocated Tabriz and Meraga to the Jochid. Genghis Khan is considered the creator of such a system of close interweaving and interpenetration of all Mongolian states. One of the reasons for its appearance is connected with an attempt to prevent the inevitable collapse of a huge empire into separate independent parts. The economic and political aspects of the existence of this system, as well as its results, are covered in detail in the study by G. A. Fedorov-Davydov. Limitation of the power of the Golden Horde khans in the XIII century. over the conquered settled areas consisted not so much in the deduction of a certain part of the income in favor of the kaan, but in the exclusive endowment of the imperial government itself (bypassing the Jochids) with a number of economic and political prerogatives. It was from the metropolis that “numerals” were sent to establish the amount of tribute collected, which was a kind of measure of economic control. It was to Karakorum that Russian princes had to go to receive and approve investiture. During this period, the Golden Horde khans were also deprived of the right to conduct any negotiations with other states and receive their diplomatic representatives. The Carpini and Rubruk missions can be considered the most characteristic example in this respect. After reviewing the purpose of their visit and their credentials, Batu did not make any decision, but sent both ambassadors to the kaan in Mongolia. The Jochids who sat on the khan's throne were deprived of one of the politically important prerogatives of a sovereign ruler: the right to mint their name on issued coins. The coins that were in circulation in the Golden Horde during this period were minted with the names of the kaans Munke and Arig-Buga. Finally, the kaan had the right to approve new khans in the uluses on the thrones. Such dependence on the imperial government in solving a number of issues of an economic and political nature to a large extent hampered the development of the Golden Horde as a state. However, the strength of the central government, which, due to the remoteness of its stay, rested, perhaps, only on the authority of Genghis Khan, was still so great that Berke continued to stand in relation to the metropolis on "the path of sincerity, humility, friendship and unanimity."
The subordinate position of the Golden Horde to the Karakoram government was maintained under Batu and Berk. However, with Khan Mengu-Timur coming to power in 1266, the situation changed rather quickly and the Jochids got rid of the guardianship of the metropolis, although formal reverence towards it was preserved. The most noticeable step in the manifestation of the sovereign power of the Jochids on the territory of the Golden Horde was the issuance of new coins with the name of the ruling khan, and not the kaan. The external reason for the break with the mother country was the heated struggle for the throne between Khubilai and Arig Buga, as well as the transfer of the capital of the empire from Karakorum to the territory of conquered China by the victorious Khubilai. It was from that time that the Golden Horde gained complete independence in resolving various issues of a foreign and domestic nature. However, by the time political independence is gained, its intrastate structure appears to be already sufficiently established and developed.
The general principle of the administrative and state structure of the Golden Horde in all its main features copied the system introduced in Mongolia under Genghis Khan, which was based on the decimal division adopted in the Mongolian army. When considering the administrative structure of the Golden Horde in the XIII - early XIV centuries. one cannot but pay attention to such a custom traditional for the Mongols as the division of the entire territory of the state into two wings - right and left. An analysis of written sources allows us to conclude that the division of the entire state and population into wings existed among the nomads long before the formation of the empire of Genghis Khan. In the state he created, this principle was also applied. At the first stage of the existence of the Golden Horde, such internal structure satisfied the needs of the administrative-territorial organization. It is in accordance with this in the first half of the 40s of the XIII century. the entire Ulus of Jochi was divided into two wings, which actually corresponded to two state formations. The right wing consisted of the possessions of Batu and Sheiban, stretching from the Danube to the Irtysh and Chulym. The left wing was under the rule of the eldest son of Jochi - Orda and occupied territories in the south of modern Kazakhstan along the Syr Darya and east of it. The distribution of wing names (right and left) is associated with the traditional Mongolian ratios of orientation to cardinal points and directions. In accordance with this principle, the south was considered the main side (front). That is why the Mongolian yurts were always installed with the door to the south. The opposite was north, defined as the back side. In accordance with this, the west was considered the right side, and the east - the left. Since the possessions of Batu in relation to the location of the Khan of the Horde were located to the west, they received, in accordance with tradition, the name of the right wing of the Jochi Ulus, and the lands that had ceded to the Horde - the left wing. According to the same traditional ideas of the Mongols, each of the cardinal points had its own specific color symbol. The south was indicated in red, the north in black, the west in white, and the east in blue (light blue). The color symbolism in relation to the different wings of the Ulus Jochi was reflected in some sources that called the possessions of Batu and his heirs the Ak-Orda, i.e. the White Horde, and the possessions of the successors of the Khan Orda - the Kok-Orda, i.e. the Blue Horde. Quite a lot of confusion in the question of correlating these names in relation to the right and left wing of the Ulus of Jochi was introduced by the work of Muin-ad-din Natanzi, better known as "Iskander's Anonymous". In it, in relation to the possessions of Batu, the name Kok-Orda is mistakenly applied, and the ulus of the Horde is called Ak-Orda. G. A. Fedorov-Davydov, who was specially engaged in the analysis of this issue, proved, after a scrupulous analysis of a wide range of sources, the incompetence of such an identification. The mistake of Muin-ad-din Natanzi is largely connected with the secondary division of Batu's possessions into the right and left wing, i.e., in relation to the possessions of the Horde, Batu's ulus was the right wing, but, in turn, he also had an internal division on the right and left wings. Information about the existence of such a division is contained in Arabic sources, which mention the chief of the left wing, Mavu, and the chief of the right wing, Taira, who held these positions under Mengu-Timur. There are no direct indications in the sources of the place where the border between the right and left wings of the Golden Horde passes. G. A. Fedorov-Davydov noted the groundlessness of the opinion that the Volga was such a frontier. Most likely, the border between the two wings of the Golden Horde state passed in the area of the river. Yaika (Ural).
From the foregoing, it follows that the concepts of "Ulus Jochi" and "Golden Horde" in the territorial and state-legal terms are not synonymous. Ulus Jochi after 1242 was divided into two wings, which made up the independent possessions of two khans - Batu and Horde. Consequently, the state territory of Batu (according to Russian sources - the Golden Horde) was an integral part of the Ulus of Jochi. The second part of it was the ulus of the Horde (according to Eastern and Russian sources - the Blue Horde). Both possessions, in fact, were independent states with a different range of foreign policy and economic interests. However, the khans of the Blue Horde throughout its history retained a certain (perhaps more purely formal) political dependence in relation to the khans of the Golden Horde. In this regard, Rashid ad-Din noted: “From the very beginning, it never happened that from the Uruk Horde those who took his place came to the khans of the Uruk Batu, because they are far from each other and each was an independent sovereign of his own. ulus. But they (the descendants of the Horde) have such a custom that they recognize Batu’s successors as kings and rulers and write their names on their labels from above. The existence of a certain vassalage of the heirs of the Khan of the Horde from the successors of Batu is also reported by "Anonymous Iskander". Regarding one of the khans of the Blue Horde - Sasa-Buki - it is said that "he still observed the rules of subordination and obedience ... did not leave the high road of service at all ... Uzbek Khan and did not shy away from a single challenge and kuriltai." The heir of Sasa-Buka - Erzen - ascended the throne of Kok-Orda "by decree of Uzbek Khan", after which "in a short time the degree of his position became close to the greatness of Uzbek Khan, but he showed obedience and submission in the same way."
During the “great commemoration” in the Golden Horde (60-70s of the XIV century), the khans of the Blue Horde showed a rather keen interest in the Sarai throne, as a result of which both parts of the Jochi Ulus came into fairly close political interaction. And at the very end of the 70s of the XIV century. Tokhtamysh managed to subdue his power, first the Blue Horde, and then the increasingly western regions of the Ulus of Jochi (the territory of the heirs of Batu), in fact, uniting them into one state. The latter, in particular, testifies to a certain decline of Kok-Orda in the 70-80s of the XIV century.
Returning to the question of the division of the Golden Horde into right and left wings, we can add that in the XIII century. both of these parts territorially corresponded to the largest administrative units of the state. The army concept of the right and left wings was closely connected with them when recruiting troops. At the same time, the sources testify to the uneven number of the population (and possibly the territory) that made up each wing. On this occasion, Rashid ad-Din reports that Genghis Khan had 38 thousand people in the right wing, and 62 thousand people in the left. Most likely in this case we are talking about total population of the wings, and not about the number of warriors exhibited from them. In the future, with the development of statehood, there is a gradual loss of administrative-territorial functions assigned to the wings. This was primarily due to the complication of the administrative system and rapid development bureaucracy. The rather primitive ancient nomadic principle no longer corresponded to the increasingly complicated state life and only hindered its development. In sources on the history of the Golden Horde of the XIV century. the right and left wing are mentioned, as a rule, always in combination with the title "oglan", which denoted the prince who belonged to the reigning family. For example, the label of Timur-Kutlug begins with the phrase: "The right wing of the left wing is oglans." In the event that there were only two oglans, it could be assumed that they command the wings of the army and head the corresponding administrative units. However, the chronicles cite the fact that Tokhtamysh sent an army of 9 fogs to Tabriz “with 12 oglans of the Jochi clan”, i.e. the oglans did not always occupy high command posts in army formations. This is also confirmed by the label of Saadat-Giray, which says: "The great ulus of the right wing of the left wing is darkness, a thousand, a hundred, ten commanding oglans." From this it is clear that the oglan princes occupied a wide variety of positions in the army and had possessions corresponding to these positions, while enjoying all the privileges of members of the royal house. Thus, in the XIV century. the traditional division into right and left wings in the Golden Horde is preserved only in relation to military formations. In the administrative structure of the state, it was replaced by a more convenient division into four main territorial units, headed by ulusbeks.
The basis of the administrative-territorial division of the Golden Horde state was the ulus system. Its essence was the right of the feudal lords to receive from the khan a certain inheritance - the ulus, for which its owner assumed certain military and economic obligations. At the same time, the Khan retained the right (according to at least in the XIII century) replacing one ulus with another or even completely depriving the owner of any rights to it. Most general issues the existence of the ulus system in the Mongolian states are described in the well-known work of B. Ya. Vladimirtsov. As for its features and specific details in the Golden Horde, they are covered in detail in a special section of the study by G. A. Fedorov-Davydov. In accordance with this system, the entire state (Great Ulus) was divided into smaller possessions, also called uluses. The latter were different in size, which depended on the rank of the owner (temnik, thousand's manager, centurion, foreman), administrative-territorial units. For the thirteenth century the scheme of such a division in the most general form is presented by Carpini and Rubruk. The Karpini report contains data on the largest ulus possessions of the state: “We drove through the entire country of the Komans, which is a continuous plain and has four large rivers: the first is the Dnieper, near which Korents roamed from Russia, and on the other side along the local steppes roamed Mautsi, which is higher than Korentsy; the second - Don, with whom a certain prince named Kartan, married to Batu's sister, roams; the third - the Volga, this river is very large, it passes from place to place Batu, the fourth is called Yaik, it has two thousand people moving from place to place, one on one side of the river, the other on the other side. All of them go down to the sea in winter, and in summer they rise to the mountains along the banks of these same rivers. Rubruk's observations contain more general data, characterizing the administrative system of the state as a whole: “They divided Scythia among themselves, which stretches from the Danube to sunrise; and every ruler knows, according to whether he has more or less people under his authority, the boundaries of his pastures, and also where he should pasture his flocks in winter, summer, spring and autumn. It is in winter that they descend south to warmer countries, in summer they rise north to colder ones.
Based on the message of Carpini and supplementing it with data from other sources, it is possible to reconstruct the division of the Golden Horde state in the 13th century. into the largest administrative units that made up the possessions of the temniks and members of the ruling Jochid family. The data cited by Carpini do not contain information about the westernmost region of the state, which lay beyond the Dniester. However, from other sources it is well known that there was in the XIII century. ulus of the powerful temporary worker Nogai. The second ulus was located, according to Karpini, to the west of the Dnieper and belonged to Korenets. The third ulus, subject to Mautsi, occupied lands along the left bank of the Dnieper. The fourth ulus - married to Batu's sister Kartan - extended to the west from the right bank of the Don. The sources do not contain any data on the delimitation of the possessions of Cartan and Mautsi, but it is possible that in the northern part they were separated by the current Seversky Donets. The fifth ulus was Crimean peninsula; the name of its owner at that time is unknown, but sources report that under Burke he lived in the town of Crimea, which was still only a village. The sixth ulus, according to Rubruk's story, belonged to Batu's eldest son Sartak and was located in the steppes between the Volga and the Don. The seventh ulus during a visit to the Golden Horde Karpini was owned by the brother of Khan Batu Berke. Its territory was located in the North Caucasian steppes, and a trade caravan route passed through it through the Derbent passage to Middle East. However, in the fall, Batu took this ulus from Berke and “ordered him to move from that place beyond Etilia (Volga. - V. E.) to the east, not wanting the ambassadors of the Saracens to pass through his possessions, since this seemed unprofitable to Bath. The eighth ulus, according to Karpini, was the personal domain of Khan Batu, which was located along the left bank of the Volga. The same information is confirmed by Rubruk. The ninth and tenth uluses, according to Karpini, were located respectively along the right and left banks of the river. Yaika (Ural). The eleventh ulus, well known by numerous references in the sources, was Khorezm. The twelfth ulus was the possession of the fifth son of Jochi Shiban. It occupied the territories of modern Northern Kazakhstan and Western Siberia to the Irtysh and Chulym. The possessions of Shiban and his heirs, although they were apart from the main part of the Golden Horde, were quite closely connected with it. This, in particular, is evidenced by the fact that one of the grandsons of Shiban - Tokdai - commanded a special guard force guarding the Derbent passage.
Each of the largest administrative units of the state described above was subdivided in turn into smaller ones, headed by nomadic feudal lords of the corresponding ranks. In general, the painted picture of the administrative structure of the Golden Horde in the initial period of its existence is rooted in the old nomadic traditions brought from Central Asia in their frozen forms, consecrated by the name of the creator of the first Mongolian state - Genghis Khan. A certain primitiveness in establishing the internal division of the state into large administrative units is associated primarily with the nomadic nature of the life of its population. That is why the most convenient boundary lines are considered purely natural boundaries, which are most often rivers. The absence at this stage of the Golden Horde history of any developed network of cities over vast areas also ruled out any dissonance in relation to the usual nomadic traditions. The further development of statehood, the emergence of a significant number of cities, and after the introduction of Islam, a closer acquaintance with the Arab and Persian world led to various complications with the simultaneous death of the old nomadic traditions.
Considered large administrative units in the XIII century. were not hereditary possessions passed from father to son. This position of them for this period of the Golden Horde history is comprehensively substantiated by G. A. Fedorov-Davydov. The Khan could, by his power, deprive even the largest representatives of the nomadic aristocracy of the right to own the ulus. A vivid example in this regard is the above-mentioned case, when Batu Khan took away the North Caucasian lands from his brother Berke and annexed them to his domain. The Ipatiev Chronicle reports a similar incident during the reign of Berke. A series of military and political failures, located on the right bank of the Dnieper, Korentsy (the Russian name for Kurems) led to the fact that Berke deprived him of the rights to own this territory and transferred it to Burundai, who came "with many Tatar regiments in heavy force and a hundred in the places of Kuremsenekh." Finally, there is a message that Khan Tokta, for special merits, presented Nogai with Crimea, which was attached to the possessions he already had. In all the above cases, only changes in the owners of uluses are recorded, as for their borders, they did not undergo any changes.
In conclusion, consideration of the largest administrative units of the Golden Horde in the XIII century. special attention should be paid to the personal possessions of the khan. As already mentioned, its domain was the left-bank steppes of the Volga region, where the capital of the state was located. A clear definition of the northern limits of the khan's possessions on the basis of the information contained in the sources is rather difficult. However, based on the fact that the minting of the first Golden Horde coins was started in the city of Bulgar, it can be assumed that the former territory of the Volga Bulgaria was an integral part of the Khan's domain. According to Rubruk, in 1254 Batu increased his personal possessions by annexing the North Caucasian steppes taken from Berke. As a result, a vast administrative unit was formed, territorially not included in either the right or the left wing. Its military correspondence was the center of the army, which, according to the establishment of Genghis Khan, was divided into the right and left wings, between which were the central (guards) regiments. Confirmation of this is contained in the history of Vassaf, where all the personal khan's possessions are called "ulug kul", i.e. " great center". Thus, in the XIII century. the administrative division of the state was an exact copy of the army structure. At the same time, large and small feudal lords received land in accordance with the posts they held in army formations. When distributing land, the Khan, naturally, was engaged in the distribution of fiefs only to the largest feudal lords, who, in turn, provided from the allotments they received land to the thousands who were under their subordination, etc. As for ordinary soldiers, they were mainly content with military booty and in peaceful life continued to depend on the feudal lords just as much as in the war, with the only difference that now they were assigned routes of migration, and not military campaigns. As a result, the internal state structure acquired a pronounced military-feudal character. The transfer of land to the holding at the same time fixed the division of the entire territory of the Golden Horde into clearly demarcated administrative units, headed by feudal lords who had full executive and judicial power. The sources covering the history of the XIV century Horde contain information about the changes and complications that have occurred by that time. Arab historians report that in the Golden Horde, "according to the accepted custom", the entire administration of the state is divided between four senior officials, who are called ulus emirs (ulusbeks). Moreover, from the further context it is clear that one of them was a beklyaribek, who, therefore, in addition to nationwide functions, also carried out direct management of a certain administrative unit, which at the same time was his fief. Considering that the vizier was the next most important dignitary, who was also supposed to have his own linen, corresponding to his high position, it was he who was the second ulusbek. The other two positions were occupied by especially noble or distinguished feudal lords. So, the entire territory of the state in the XIV century. was divided into four large administrative units - uluses, headed by the governors of the khan - ulusbeks. The fact that these areas were precisely the fiefs of the ulusbeks, that is, the sources of their personal income, is confirmed by the following statement by El-Omari: “As for the totality (actions) of all of them in the property affairs of the people, then the emirs for the most part they (deeds) are only as familiar as their deputies know them. Milov Leonid Vasilievich
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At the beginning of the XIII century. in Central Asia on the territory from Baikal to the Great Chinese wall the Mongolian state was formed. By the name of one of the tribes that roamed near Lake Buirnur in Mongolia, these peoples were also called Tatars. Subsequently, all the nomadic peoples with whom Russia fought began to be called Mongolo-Tatars.
The main occupation of the Mongol-Tatars was extensive nomadic cattle breeding, and in the north and in the taiga regions - hunting. In the XII century. among the Mongol-Tatars, the primitive communal system was disintegrating and the process of feudalization began. From the midst of ordinary community members-cattle breeders, who were called karachu - black people stand out noyons(princes) - to know; having squads nukers(warriors), she seized pastures for livestock and part of the young. The noyons also had slaves. The rights of the noyons were protected by laws - "Yasa"(collection of teachings and instructions).
The socio-economic processes that took place among the Mongolian tribes led to the formation of a single Mongolian state. AT 1206 on the Onon River, a congress of the Mongolian nobility took place - kurultai(Khural), on which one of the noyons Temuchin was elected the leader of the Mongol tribes, who received the name Genghis Khan -"great khan", "sent by God" (1206-1227). Having defeated his opponents, he began to rule the country through his relatives and the local nobility.
The Mongol-Tatars had a well-organized army that maintained tribal ties. The army was divided into tens, hundreds, thousands. Ten thousand Mongol warriors were called "darkness" ("tumen"). Tumens were not only military, but also administrative units.
The main striking force of the Mongol-Tatars was the cavalry. Each warrior had two or three bows, several quivers with arrows, an ax, a rope lasso, and was proficient with a saber. The warrior's horse was covered with skins, which protected it from the arrows and weapons of the enemy. The head, neck and chest of the Mongol warrior from enemy arrows and spears were covered with an iron or copper helmet, leather armor. The cavalry of the Mongol-Tatars had high mobility. On their undersized, shaggy-maned, hardy horses, they could travel up to 80 km per day, and up to 10 km with carts, wall-beating and flamethrower guns.
As in other countries, at an early stage in the development of feudalism, the state of the Mongol-Tatars was distinguished by its strength and solidity. The nobility was interested in expanding pastures and in organizing predatory campaigns against neighboring landowning peoples, who were located on much more high level development. Most of them experienced a period of feudal fragmentation, which greatly facilitated the implementation of the conquest plans of the Mongol-Tatars.
The strength of the Mongols was the well-placed reconnaissance of the enemy forces, which they conducted through Muslim merchants, closely connected with the world transit trade. The Mongol conquests also contributed to the principle of religious tolerance towards the conquered peoples, which ensured the loyalty of the majority of the clergy and religious organizations in the occupied territories.
The Mongol-Tatars began their campaigns with the conquest of the lands of their neighbors - Buryats, Evenks, Yakuts, Uighurs, Yenisei Kirghiz. Then they invaded China and in 1215 took Beijing. Three years later, Korea was conquered. Having defeated China (finally conquered in 1279), the Mongol-Tatars significantly increased their military potential. Flamethrowers, ramming guns, vehicles were taken into service.
In the summer of 1219, almost 200,000 Mongol-Tatar troops led by Genghis Khan began the conquest of Central Asia. The ruler of Khorezm, Shah Mohammed, did not accept a general battle, dispersing his forces across the cities. Having suppressed the stubborn resistance of the population, the invaders stormed Khujand, Mern, Bukhara and other cities. The ruler of Samarkand, despite the demand of the people to defend himself, surrendered the city. Mohammed himself fled to Iran, where he soon died.
The rich, flourishing agricultural regions of Semirechye (Central Asia) turned into pastures. Irrigation systems built up over centuries were destroyed. The Mongols introduced a regime of cruel exactions, barbarously destroyed the inhabitants; artisans were taken into captivity. As a result of the conquest of Central Asia by the Mongol-Tatars, numerous Turkic-Mongolian nomadic tribes began to inhabit its territory.
The main force of the Mongol-Tatars with the loot returned from Central Asia to Mongolia. A significant army under the command of the best Mongol commanders Jebe and Subedei was sent to conquer Iran and Transcaucasia. Having defeated the united Armenian-Georgian troops, the invaders, however, were forced to leave the territory of Transcaucasia, since they met with strong resistance from the population. Along the coast of the Caspian Sea, the Mongolian troops entered the steppes of the North Caucasus. Here they defeated the Alans (Ossetians) and Polovtsy, after which they ravaged the city of Sudak (Surozh) in the Crimea. The Polovtsy turned to the Russian princes for help.
On May 31, 1223, the Mongol-Tatars allied forces of the Polovtsian and Russian princes in the Azov steppes on the Kalka River. This was the last major joint military action of the Russian princes on the eve of the invasion of Batu. However, the powerful Russian prince Yuri Vsevolodovich of Vladimir-Suzdal, the son of Vsevolod the Big Nest, did not participate in the campaign.
The Kyiv prince Mstislav Romanovich, having fortified himself with his army on a hill, did not take part in the battle. Regiments of Russian soldiers and Polovtsy, having crossed the Kalka, struck at the advanced detachments of the Mongol-Tatars, who retreated. The Russian and Polovtsian regiments were carried away by the persecution. The main forces of the Mongol-Tatars, who approached, took the pursuing Russian and Polovtsian warriors in pincers and destroyed them.
The Mongol-Tatars laid siege to the hill, where they fortified Kyiv prince. On the third day of the siege, Mstislav Romanovich believed the promise of the enemy to honorably release the Russians in the event of a voluntary surrender and laid down his arms. He and his warriors were brutally killed by the Mongol-Tatars. The Mongol-Tatars reached the Dnieper, but did not dare to enter the borders of Russia. Russia has not yet known a defeat equal to the battle on the Kalka River. "And there was a cry and sorrow in all cities and volosts," the chronicler wrote. Only a tenth of the troops returned from the Azov steppes to Russia. In honor of their victory, the Mongols held a "feast on the bones". The captured princes were crushed with boards on which the victors sat and feasted. This is how the Mongols avenged the murder of their ambassadors on the eve of the Battle of Kalka.
Returning to the steppes, the Mongol-Tatars undertook failed attempt capture Volga Bulgaria. Reconnaissance in force showed that aggressive campaigns against Russia and its neighbors could be carried out only by organizing a general Mongolian campaign against the countries of Europe. At the head of this campaign was the grandson of Genghis Khan - Batu(1227-1255), who inherited from his grandfather all the territories in the west, "where the foot of the Mongol horse sets foot." Subedey, who knew the theater of future military operations well, became his chief military adviser.
In 1235, at the Khural in the capital of Mongolia, Karakorum, a decision was made on a general Mongol campaign to the West. In 1236, the Mongol-Tatars captured the Volga Bulgaria, and in 1237 they subjugated the nomadic peoples of the steppe. In the autumn of 1237, the main forces of the Mongol-Tatars, having crossed the Volga, concentrated on the Voronezh River, aiming at the Russian lands. In Russia, they knew about the impending formidable danger, but feudal fragmentation prevented them from joining forces to repulse the strong and insidious enemy. There was no unified command. Fortifications of cities were erected for defense against neighboring Russian principalities, and not from steppe nomads. The Mongol-Tatar army had a numerical superiority. Batu put up 120-140 thousand soldiers, and all of Russia could then gather no more than 100 thousand. The princely cavalry squads surpassed the Mongol-Tatar cavalry in terms of armament and fighting qualities, but were few in comparison with it. The bulk of the Russian army was the militia - urban and rural warriors. Hence the defensive tactics, designed to deplete the enemy's forces.
In 1237, Ryazan was the first of the Russian lands to be attacked by the Mongol-Tatars. Vladimirsky and Chernihiv princes Ryazan refused to help. The Mongol-Tatars laid siege to Ryazan and sent envoys who demanded obedience and one tenth of "everything". The courageous answer of the people of Ryazan followed: "If we are all gone, then everything will be yours." On the sixth day of the siege, the city was taken, the princely family and the surviving inhabitants were killed. In the old place, Ryazan was no longer revived (modern Ryazan is new town, located 60 km from the old Ryazan, it used to be called Pereyaslavl Ryazansky).
in grateful people's memory there are stories about the feat of the Ryazan hero Yevpaty Kolovrat, who entered into an unequal battle with the invaders and earned the respect of Batu himself for his valor and courage, as well as about the nobility and sacrifice of Princess Evpraksia. She threw herself from a high tower and crashed, having learned about the death of her husband, so as not to become the khan's concubine.
In January 1238, the Mongol-Tatars moved along the Oka River to the Vladimir-Suzdal land. The battle of the Vladimir-Suzdal rati with the Mongol-Tatars took place near the city of Kolomna, on the border of the Ryazan and Vladimir-Suzdal lands. Died in this battle Vladimir army, which actually predetermined the fate of North-Eastern Russia.
Strong resistance to the enemy for 5 days was provided by the population of Moscow, led by the governor Philip Nyank. After the capture by the Mongol-Tatars, Moscow was burned, and its inhabitants were killed.
February 4, 1238 Batu besieged Vladimir. The distance from Kolomna to Vladimir (300 km) was covered by his troops in a month. The attempts of the Mongol-Tatars to take the city for three days were unsuccessful. On the fourth day, the invaders broke into the city through gaps in the fortress wall near the Golden Gate. The princely family and the remnants of the troops closed in the Assumption Cathedral. The Mongol-Tatars surrounded the cathedral with trees and set it on fire.
After the capture of Vladimir, the Mongol-Tatars broke into separate detachments and subjected to the defeat of the city of North-Eastern Russia. Prince Yuri Vsevolodovich, even before the Tatars approached Vladimir, went to the north of his land to gather military forces. Hastily assembled regiments in 1238 were defeated on the City River, and the prince himself died in the battle.
The Mongol-Tatar hordes moved to the north-west of Russia. Everywhere they met stubborn resistance from the Russians. For two weeks, for example, the distant suburb of Novgorod, Torzhok, was defended. As a result of this struggle, North-Western Russia was saved from defeat, although it paid tribute.
Having reached the stone Ignach Cross - an ancient sign on the Valdai watershed (one hundred kilometers from Novgorod), the Mongol-Tatars retreated to the south, to the steppe, in order to restore their losses. The retreat was in the nature of a "raid". Divided into separate detachments, the invaders "combed" the Russian cities from north to south. Smolensk managed to fight back, other centers were defeated. Greatest resistance Mongol-Tatars were rendered during the "raid" by Kozelsk, which held out for seven weeks. The Mongol-Tatars called Kozelsk an "evil city".
In the spring of 1239, Batu defeated Southern Russia(Pereyaslavl South), in autumn - Chernihiv Principality. In the autumn of the next 1240, the Mongol troops crossed the Dnieper and laid siege to Kyiv. After a long defense, led by the governor Dmitr, the Tatars defeated Kyiv. In the next 1241, the Galicia-Volyn principality was defeated. On the territory of Russia, the Mongol-Tatar yoke was established, which lasted more than two hundred years (1240-1480).
After the defeat of Russia, the hordes of the Mongol-Tatars moved to Europe. Poland, Hungary, the Czech Republic, and the Balkan countries were devastated. The Mongol-Tatars reached the borders of the German Empire, reached the Adriatic Sea. However, the Mongols constantly had to reckon with the incessant resistance in the rear of their troops. At the end of 1242 they suffered a series of setbacks in Bohemia and Hungary. From distant Karakorum came the news of the death of the great khan. It was a convenient excuse to stop the difficult campaign. Batu turned his troops back to the east.
A decisive world-historical role in the salvation of European civilization from the Mongol-Tatar hordes was played by the heroic struggle against them by the Russian and other peoples of our country, who took the first blow from the invaders. In fierce battles in Russia, the best part of the Mongol-Tatar army perished. The Tatars have lost their offensive power. They could not but reckon with the liberation struggle unfolding in their rear. A.S. Pushkin rightly wrote: "A great destiny was determined for Russia: its boundless plains absorbed the power of the Mongols and stopped their invasion on the very edge of Europe ...".
At the end of the XII - beginning of the XIII centuries. events took place in Central Asia that had a huge impact on the history of China, Central Asia, the Caucasus and Eastern Europe. These events are connected with the invasion of the Mongol-Tatars.
Mongolian tribes until the end of the 12th century. lived in what is now Mongolia. They did not constitute a single nationality, did not have their own statehood and spoke different dialects of the Mongolian language. Among the Mongol tribes during this period, a large tribe of Tatars stood out, who lived in the eastern part of Mongolia. The Mongol-Tatar tribes led a nomadic lifestyle. The most numerous were the steppe Mongols, engaged in cattle breeding and hunting. Forest Mongols were mainly engaged in hunting and fishing. The Mongols roamed in large kurens, and each kuren had significant political independence.
The Mongols were subsistence farming and produced extremely little food. There was no money circulation, and trade took place in the form of exchange. The development of class relations, the impoverishment of ordinary nomads and the accumulation of wealth in the hands of individual families led to the disintegration of kuren communities into smaller economic associations: villages, yurts, tents of one family.
By the beginning of the thirteenth century in the Mongol-Tatar tribes there was a transition to the early feudal system, although the remnants of tribal relations still survived. In the process of mutual clashes between the clans, alliances of tribes were formed. At the head of the tribes were special leaders or leaders - the most powerful, dexterous, rich (nions, rich). They had their own detachments of nukers, who participated with them in raids, hunts, feasts, and helped with advice in decisions.
The fierce struggle between the tribes ended with the formation by the beginning of the 13th century. The Mongolian state, which had a strong military organization. After long bloody wars, the leader of one of the Mongol tribes, Temujin, conquered the rest of the tribes. In 1206, at the kurultai (meeting of the Mongolian nomadic aristocracy), Temujin was elected khan of all Mongols under the name of Genghis Khan.
The formation of the Mongolian state contributed to the development of productive forces, and at the first stage played a positive role, uniting all the Mongolian tribes. There was an opportunity for economic and political contacts with neighboring peoples. However, this path did not suit the nomadic aristocracy, for which the war for the sake of robbery became the main source of enrichment. For the sake of satisfying the greedy appetites of the military-feudal elite, the country was turned into a military camp. Another reason for the aggressive policy was the desire of the ruling elite to muffle the internal contradictions of Mongolian society through constant military robbery of foreign peoples. However, the conquests not only did not bring any benefits, but also weakened the Mongol people. Mongolia was still a backward pastoral country.
Becoming at the head of a huge army, Genghis Khan led an aggressive policy that fully met the interests and aspirations of the nomadic aristocracy. Genghis Khan and his successors conquered China, Central Asia, the Caucasus and Eastern Europe. The predatory campaigns of the conquerors, which turned rich, prosperous countries into deserts, had the most difficult consequences for the enslaved peoples, especially Russia. The heroic struggle of the Russians and other peoples of Russia weakened the offensive impulse of the invaders and
saved European civilization from destruction. The stubborn resistance that Batu met in Russia had an important consequence for herself: Russia did not become a "Horde ulus", retained its own statehood, culture, and faith. In fact, there was no Horde administration on the territory of the Russian principalities, which in the historical perspective created an opportunity for self-development and struggle against the oppressors.
The Mongol-Tatar yoke slowed down the economic development of Russia for a long time, destroyed its agriculture, undermined Russian culture, and led to a decline in the role of cities in political and economic life. As a result of the destruction of cities, their destruction in the fire of fires and the removal of skilled artisans into captivity, complex types of crafts disappeared for a long time, urban construction was suspended, fine and applied arts fell into decay.
A severe consequence of the yoke was the deep disunity of Russia and the isolation of its individual parts. The weakened country was unable to defend a number of western and southern lands, later captured by Lithuanian and Polish feudal lords. Russia's trade relations with the West were dealt a blow. Trade connections with foreign countries survived only near Novgorod, Pskov, Polotsk, Vitebsk and Smolensk. The population of the country has declined sharply.
The fragility of the empire of Genghis Khan was revealed quite early. During his lifetime, he divided it among his four sons. The eldest, Jochi, got the lands most remote from Mongolia. Jochi's son Batu continued aggressive wars. As a result of his conquests on a vast territory from the Irtysh to the southern Black Sea steppes of the Crimea, the Caucasus, and part of Central Asia in the 30s and 40s of the 13th century. formed big state. In Russian sources, it was called the Golden Horde. The separation of the Horde from the general imperial power occurred in the last third of the 13th century.
The Golden Horde reached its power under Khan Uzbek and Dzhanibek. In these decades, its state apparatus, both military and administrative-judicial, is being formed. state religion Islam becomes. However, the internal and external achievements of the Golden Horde proved to be fragile. In the 60s of the fourteenth century. she entered a period of long-term strife, which called into question her state-political existence. As a result, in 20 years, from 1360 to 1380, 20 khans were replaced. In 1380, the Battle of Kulikovo took place. The troops under the command of Dmitry Donskoy defeated the Golden Horde, from which she was no longer able to recover.
