The word “method” translated from Greek means “research, method, path to achieving a goal,” a path to something. The etymology of this word also affects its interpretation as a scientific category. “Method – in the most general sense – is a way of achieving a goal, a certain ordered activity,” says the philosophical dictionary. It is obvious that in the learning process, the method acts as an orderly way of interconnected activities of the teacher and students to achieve certain educational goals.
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Plan
2. Choice of teaching methods.
4. Verbal teaching methods
7. Conclusion.
1 The concept of teaching methods and techniques.
The word "method" translated from Greek means “research, method, path to achieving a goal”,way to something
The etymology of this word also affects its interpretation as a scientific category. “Method – in the most general sense – is a way of achieving a goal, a certain ordered activity,” says the philosophical dictionary. It is obvious that in the learning process, the method acts as an orderly way of interconnected activities of the teacher and students to achieve certain educational goals. From this point of view, each teaching method organically includes the teaching work of the teacher (presentation, explanation of new material) and the organization of active educational and cognitive activity of students. That is, the teacher, on the one hand, explains the material himself, and on the other, strives to stimulate the educational and cognitive activity of students (encourages them to think, independently formulate conclusions, etc.). Sometimes, as will be shown below, the teacher himself does not explain the new material, but only defines its topic, conducts an introductory conversation, instructs students in the upcoming learning activity (learning work), and then invites them to comprehend and master the material from the textbook themselves. As we see, here too the teaching work of the teacher and the active educational and cognitive activity of students organized by him are combined.
All this allows us to draw a conclusion: teaching methods should be understood as the methods of the teacher’s teaching work and the organization of educational and cognitive activities of students to solve various didactic problems aimed at mastering the material being studied.
2. Choice of teaching methods.
The choice of teaching methods cannot be arbitrary. When choosing one or another teaching method, the teacher must take into account many dependencies each time. First of all, the main goal and specific tasks that will be solved in the lesson are determined. They “specify” a group of methods that are generally suitable for achieving the intended objectives. This is followed by a targeted selection of optimal ways to best carry out the cognitive process.
The choice of teaching method depends on:
1. General goals of education, upbringing and development and the leading guidelines of modern didactics.
2. Features of the content and methods of this science and the subject or topic being studied.
3. Features of the teaching methodology of a specific academic discipline and the specific requirements determined by it for the selection of general didactic methods.
4. Goals, objectives, content of material at a specific level.
5. Time allocated for studying this or that material.
6. Age characteristics of students, level of real cognitive capabilities.
7. Level of preparedness of students (education, good manners, development).
8. Material provision of the educational institution, availability of equipment, visual aids, technical means.
9. The capabilities and characteristics of the teacher, the level of theoretical and practical preparedness, methodological skills, his personal qualities.
The following pattern has been established in didactics: the more aspects the teacher has justified the choice of teaching methods, the higher and more lasting educational results will be achieved in the learning process, and in less time.
Let's consider an approximate algorithm for choosing a training method.
Thus, depending on the didactic goal, when the task of acquiring new knowledge by students comes to the fore, the teacher decides whether in this case he will present this knowledge himself; does he organize their acquisition by students by organizing independent work, etc.
In the first case, it may be necessary to prepare students for listening to the teacher’s presentation, and then he gives the students a task either to carry out certain preliminary observations or to preliminary read the required material. During the presentation itself, the teacher can use either an informational presentation-message or a problematic presentation (reasoning, dialogical). At the same time, when presenting new material, the teacher systematically refers to the material that students received in their preliminary independent work. The teacher's presentation is accompanied by a demonstration of natural objects, their images, experiments, experiments, etc. At the same time, students make certain notes, graphs, diagrams, etc. The totality of these intermediate decisions constitutes one holistic decision on the choice of a certain combination of teaching methods.
Classification of teaching methods
No less complex and controversial is the issue of classification of teaching methods. Didactic research shows that the nomenclature (name) and classification of teaching methods are characterized by great diversity depending on the approach chosen in their development. Let's look at the most important of them.
Some didactics (E.I. Perovsky, E.Ya. Golant, D.O. Lordkipanidze, etc.) believed that when classifying teaching methods, it is necessary to take into account the sources from which students draw knowledge, i.e., by sources of transmission and the nature of information perception. On this basis, they identified three groups of methods:
a) visual;
b) verbal;
c) gaming;
D) practical.
Indeed, the word, visual aids, practical work and games - classified as innovative methods (dramatization, idea generation, etc.) are widely used in the educational process.
3. Visual teaching methods.
The group of visual teaching methods includes observation, demonstration visual aids (objects, pictures, filmstrips, slides, videos, computer programs).
Visual methods and techniques - their use corresponds to the didactic principle of clarity and is associated with the characteristics of children's thinking.
Observation - this is a child’s purposeful, systematic perception of objects and phenomena of the surrounding world, in which perception, thinking and speech actively interact. Using this method, the teacher directs the child’s perception to highlight the main, essential features in objects and phenomena, to establish cause-and-effect relationships and dependencies between objects and phenomena.
Different types of observations are used in teaching children:
I) recognizing nature, with the help of which knowledge is formed about the properties and qualities of objects and phenomena (shape, color, size, etc.);
2) for the change and transformation of objects (growth and development of plants and animals, etc.) - provides knowledge about processes and objects of the surrounding world;
3) reproductive nature, when, based on individual characteristics, the state of the object is established, and in part - the picture of the entire phenomenon.
Demonstration method includes various techniques:
a) showing objects is one of the most common teaching methods: children look at doll furniture and clothes, dishes, household items, tools, equipment for drawing, modeling, appliqué, etc.;
b) showing a sample is one of the techniques used when teaching visual arts and design. The sample can be a drawing, applique, or craft;
c) demonstration of a method of action - used in classes on the development of movements, music, artistic activities, etc., it must be accurate, expressive, divided into parts; may be complete or partial;
d) demonstration of pictures and illustrations helps children imagine those aspects and properties of the objects and phenomena being studied that they cannot directly perceive.
The use of TSO - in teaching preschoolers, demonstrations of transparencies, filmstrips, and films are used. Recently, computers have been used. This method allows you to show children those phenomena of life with which direct acquaintance is impossible; makes the learning process more attractive.
4. Verbal teaching methods
Verbal – explanation, story, reading, conversation
Verbal methods and techniques - their effectiveness largely depends on the teacher’s own speech culture, on its imagery, emotional expressiveness, and accessibility for children’s understanding.
Explanation is used in the process of observing phenomena and examining objects, paintings, during exercises, etc.; with its help, children’s immediate perceptions are clarified; should be expressive, emotional, accessible to children. A story is a lively, imaginative, emotional presentation of events containing factual material. One of the most emotional learning methods. The narrator has the opportunity to freely communicate with children, notice and take into account their reactions.
The teacher's story: should be an example of literary correct, figurative and expressive speech.
A children's story can be a retelling of fairy tales, literary works, stories based on paintings, objects, from childhood experience, creative stories.
Reading expands and enriches children's knowledge about the environment, and forms children's abilities to perceive and understand fiction.
5. Game methods and teaching techniques.
The advantage of game methods and teaching techniques is that they cause increased in- Igoevye me- Teres, positive emotions, help methods and techniques concentrate attention on the learning task, which becomes not imposed from the outside, but a desired, personal goal. Solving a learning task during a game involves less expenditure of nervous energy and minimal volitional efforts.
At one time, E. A. Flerina drew attention to the fact that gaming methods and techniques make it possible to clearly and completely carry out educational tasks in an atmosphere of ease and interest, and the activity of children. Modern research has revealed that these methods make it possible to direct not only the mental activity of children, but also motor activity. Motor activity contributes to the formation of rich associative connections, which facilitates the acquisition of knowledge and skills. In a game situation, perception processes occur in the child’s mind more quickly and accurately.
Gaming methods and techniques are characterized by a number of features. First of all, they transfer the learning action V a conditional plan that is specified by the corresponding system of rules or scenario. Another feature is that from the child requires full inclusion V game situation. Consequently, the teacher must play with children and refuse direct educational influence, comments, and reproaches.
Gaming methods and techniques are quite diverse. The most common isdidactic game.It has two functions in the learning process (A. P. Usova, V. N. Avanesova).The first function isimprovement and consolidation of knowledge. At the same time, the child does not simply reproduce knowledge in the form in which it was learned, but transforms, transforms it, learns to operate with it depending on the game situation. For example, children distinguish and name colors, and in the didactic game “Traffic Light” this knowledge is rearranged in accordance with the assimilation of traffic rules. Essence second function didactic game is that children acquire new knowledge and skills of different content. For example, in the game “North, South, East, West” (author I.S. Freidkin), preschoolers learn to navigate by compass and use models (route diagrams).
Used as a gaming methodimaginary situation in expanded form:with roles, play activities, and appropriate play equipment. For example, to improve knowledge about plants and develop coherent speech, the game “Flower Shop” is played, to clarify knowledge about one’s hometown - a travel game, to enrich ideas about arts and crafts - the games “Exhibition”, “Souvenir Shop”, “Travel” into the past." Sometimes it is advisable to use a game component such as a role in teaching. Grandma Riddle asks riddles, the Absent-Minded Man, as always, confuses everything, and the children correct him. A toy can also “play” the role. For example, Parsley asks the children to teach him polite words and rules of behavior.
Play techniques such as the sudden appearance of objects, toys, and the teacher’s performance of various play actions are important for increasing children’s activity in the classroom. These techniques, with their unexpectedness and unusualness, evoke an acute sense of surprise, which is the prologue to any knowledge (suddenly the teacher “turned” into a Fox with a rolling pin and on her behalf talks about his “adventures”, suddenly there was a knock on the door and Winnie the Pooh entered).
Classes are held with great emotional excitement, including dramatizations of short stories, poems, everyday scenes, and elements of dramatization.
Game techniques include making and guessing riddles, introducing elements of competition (in older groups), creating a game situation (“Let’s show the bear our toys”; “Let’s teach Parsley to wash his hands”; “Let’s help the bunny arrange the pictures”).
Game - game methods, elementary experiments, modeling
6. Practical teaching methods and techniques.
Practical teaching methods and techniques - exercise.
Verbal methods and techniques make it possible to convey information to children in the shortest possible time, set them an educational task, and indicate ways to solve it. Verbal It was noted above that verbal methods
methods and techniques are combined with visual ones,
game, practical methods, making the latter more effective. Purely verbal methods in teaching preschoolers have limited value. When working with preschool children, when only initial ideas about the world around them are formed, it is not enough to just read and tell - it is necessary to show the objects themselves or their images. As children gain experience, the volume of visual material may decrease, as they gradually develop the ability to understand educational material, which is presented primarily in verbal form.
The teacher's story is the most important verbal method, which allows children to present educational material in a form accessible to children. In the story, knowledge of different contents is conveyed in figurative form. These could be stories about current events; about the seasons; about writers, composers, artists; about their hometown, etc. Literary works are used as material for stories (stories by K.D. Ushinsky, L.N. Tolstoy, V.V. Bianka, V.A. Oseeva, etc.). The teacher’s stories from personal experience “My first teacher”, “How I learned to read”, “Games of my childhood”, “My favorite toy”, “My friends”, etc. are very interesting for preschoolers.
The story is one of the most emotional methods of verbal teaching. Usually it has a strong impact on the child, since the teacher puts his own attitude towards the events he narrates. Fluency in educational material gives the teacher the opportunity to easily communicate with children, notice their reaction, enhance or, on the contrary, dampen it, using facial expressions, gestures, and verbal expressive means.
A story achieves its goal in teaching children if it clearly shows the main idea, thought, if it is not overloaded with details, and its content is dynamic, consonant with the personal experience of preschoolers, and evokes a response and empathy in them. Of no small importance for the perception of a story are the artistry of its form, the novelty and unusualness of the information for children, and the expressiveness of an adult’s speech. If the story meets these requirements, it encourages children to exchange impressions about the content not only in the form of remarks and value judgments, but also in the form of coherent statements that are in tune with the story they heard. Such reactions allow the teacher to draw a conclusion about the effectiveness of the work done.
Before the story, the teacher sets an educational and cognitive task for the children. During the story, intonation and rhetorical questions focus their attention on the most essential.
The ability to understand a story, that is, the ability to listen, respond to content, answer questions, and simply retell it, develops in the third year of life. In younger groups, the story is accompanied by a demonstration of visual material (objects, their images). This clarifies the images of the characters and makes it easier to perceive the sequence of events. Visual material is also used in teaching middle-aged and older children, when the story tells about events that did not occur in the children’s personal experience (the exploits of Russian heroes, space flights, etc.). In such cases, verbal images rely on visual ones. But in older groups it is not recommended to overuse visual material: children should be taught to think based on words, develop the ability to learn orally, without relying on visual aids, when it comes to objects that are familiar to them from past experience.
Conversation is used in cases where children have some experience and knowledge about the objects and phenomena to which it is devoted. During the conversation, children's knowledge is clarified, enriched, and systematized. Participating in a conversation instills a number of useful skills and abilities: listening to each other, not interrupting, complementing but not repeating what has already been said, tactfully and kindly evaluating statements. Conversation requires concentrated thinking, attention, and the ability to manage one’s behavior. It teaches you to think logically, express yourself definitely, draw conclusions and generalizations. Through the content of the conversation, the teacher cultivates the children’s feelings and forms an attitude towards the events in question.
Conversation is a dialogical teaching method, which assumes that all participants in the conversation can ask and answer questions and express their point of view. The teacher’s task is to structure the conversation in such a way that the experience of each child becomes the property of the entire team (E. A. Flerina).
Ethical conversations are aimed at cultivating moral feelings, forming moral ideas, judgments, and assessments. The topics of ethical conversations can be: “About politeness”, “How to behave at home and on the street”, “About friend and friendship”, “My beloved grandmother”, etc. It is advisable to combine an ethical conversation with reading a work of art, showing illustrative material, showing the film.
Subjects educational conversationsdetermined by the training program. It is also closely related to the content of children’s lives, current life events, the surrounding nature and the work of adults.
By didactic purposesThere are introductory and generalizing (final) conversations. Purpose introductory conversation -prepare children for upcoming activities and observations. For this purpose, the teacher identifies the experience of children, updates the knowledge that will become the basis for the perception of new objects and phenomena, arouses interest in the upcoming activity, and poses practical or cognitive tasks.
Summarizing (final) conversationis carried out with the aim of summarizing, clarifying, and systematizing the knowledge acquired by children on a particular topic of educational work over a fairly large period of time. For example, in the senior group, educational work was carried out on the topic “Our Defenders.” Fiction was read to the children; they made an album about their grandparents who were participants in the war. The album included their photographs, as well as children's stories about them. The children watched fragments of videos about the Great Patriotic War and listened to songs from the war years. An excursion to the Eternal Flame took place. The children sculpted and drew. Thus, a lot of knowledge and skills were learned, creative works were accumulated, which reflected new knowledge and skills, as well as the feelings of the children. After this, the teacher conducts a generalizing conversation. Previously, he creates an appropriate psychological mood in the pupils: he puts together an exhibition of children’s works, prepares photographic materials (photos taken on an excursion, at a meeting with Petya’s grandfather, a military doctor), arranges an exhibition of books about the war, etc. All this helps to revive the existing impressions, gives a boost to the imagination, creates a favorable emotional background. During the conversation, children are asked questions aimed at establishing connections, relationships, and generalizing the acquired knowledge. Techniques such as stories from the teacher and children, reading poems, listening to music, and commenting on visual material are also effective.
Reading fiction.Fiction is a source of knowledge about the world around us, the most important means of educating a child’s feelings, developing thinking, imagination, and memory. In preschool education, reading works of art pursues another goal, namely: developing in children the ability to perceive and understand a work of art. This task is associated with the development of visual-figurative and verbal-logical thinking in the child. Its solution largely depends on the level of emotional development of children: the impact of a literary work is stronger, the more subtly and deeply the child feels, understands, and is imbued with the experiences of other people.
Reading works of fiction for educational purposes requires compliance with a number of didactic requirements. It is necessary to select works that are educationally valuable and appropriate to the age and level of development of children. The teacher prepares children to perceive the work with a short conversation and sets an educational and cognitive task for them. You should consider combining reading with other methods, in particular with visual ones (the same rules apply here that apply to the story method). After reading, a conversation is held to help the child more fully understand the content of the work. During the conversation, the teacher tries to strengthen its emotional and aesthetic impact on the students.
In the learning process, verbal techniques are used: questions to children, instructions, clarification, explanation, pedagogical assessment.
When teaching preschoolers, it is necessary to combine different types of questions (A.I. Sorokina):
requiring a simple statement of facts known to the child (such as who?, what?, which?, where?, when?);
encouraging children to engage in mental activity, to formulate inferences and conclusions (such as why?, why?, why?, for what purpose?).
Questions must be specific, suggesting one or another answer from the child; precise in wording.
7. Conclusion.
Training is carried out using various methods. A teaching method is a system of sequential, interconnected methodsthe work of the teacher and the children being taught, which are aimed at achieving didactic objectives.This is a two-sided nature; it is not limited only to the activities of the teacher, but it is assumed that, using special methods, he stimulates and directs the cognitive and related practical activities of the children themselves. Thus, we can say that teaching methods reflect the interconnected activities of the teacher and children, subordinated to the solution of the didactic task.
35. Methods and techniques for teaching preschoolers.
METHOD (gr. - the path to something) means a way to achieve a goal, a certain way of ordering activity.
TEACHING METHOD is a method of orderly interconnected activities of the teacher and students, activities aimed at solving the problems of education, upbringing and development in the learning process.
RECEPTION is part of the method, its specific element.
CLASSIFICATION OF TEACHING METHODS is a system of them ordered according to a certain criterion.
In modern didactics, there are various classifications of teaching methods (see table).
The age characteristics and capabilities of preschoolers correspond to a classification according to which methods are divided according to sources of transmission and: the nature of information perception (E.Ya. Go-lant, S.I. Petrovsky).
Visual – observation, demonstration, use of TSO;
Verbal – explanation, story, reading, conversation
Practical and game - exercise, game methods, elementary experiments, modeling
Visual methods and techniques - their use meets the didactic principle of clarity and is associated with the characteristics of children's thinking.
Observations e is a child’s purposeful, systematic perception of objects and phenomena of the surrounding world, in which perception, thinking and speech actively interact. Using this method, the teacher directs the child’s perception to highlight the main, essential features in objects and phenomena, to establish cause-and-effect relationships and dependencies between objects and phenomena.
Different types of observations are used in teaching children:
I) recognizing nature, with the help of which knowledge is formed about the properties and qualities of objects and phenomena (shape, color, size, etc.);
2) for the change and transformation of objects (growth and development of plants and animals, etc.) - provides knowledge about processes and objects of the surrounding world;
3) reproductive nature, when, based on individual characteristics, the state of the object is established, and in part - the picture of the entire phenomenon.
Demonstration Method , includes various techniques:
A) display of objects- one of the most common teaching methods: children examine doll furniture and clothes, dishes, household items, tools, equipment for drawing, modeling, appliqué, etc.;
b) sample showing- one of the techniques used when teaching visual arts and design. The sample can be a drawing, applique, or craft;
V) showing a method of action- used in classes on the development of movements, music, artistic activities, etc., it must be accurate, expressive, divided into parts; may be complete or partial;
G) demonstration of paintings, illustrations helps children imagine those aspects and properties of the objects and phenomena being studied that they cannot directly perceive.
Using TSO - in teaching preschoolers, demonstrations of transparencies, filmstrips, and films are used. Recently, computers have been used. This method allows you to show children those phenomena of life with which direct acquaintance is impossible; makes the learning process more attractive.
Verbal methods and techniques - their effectiveness largely depends on the teacher’s own speech culture, on its imagery, emotional expressiveness, and accessibility for children’s understanding.
Explanation used in the process of observing phenomena and examining objects, paintings, during exercises, etc.; with its help, children’s immediate perceptions are clarified; should be expressive, emotional, accessible to children. Story- this is a lively, imaginative, emotional presentation of events containing factual material. One of the most emotional learning methods. The narrator has the opportunity to freely communicate with children, notice and take into account their reactions.
Bring up the story la: must be an example of literary correct, figurative and expressive language chi.
Children's story - this can be a retelling of fairy tales, literary works, stories based on paintings, objects, from childhood experience, creative stories.
Reading expands and enriches children's knowledge about the environment, forms children's abilities to perceive and understand fiction.
Introduction
Teaching methods in the field of preschool education
1 Features of teaching preschool children
2 Methods of teaching preschool children
Pedagogical means and organization of education for preschoolers
1 Pedagogical tools for teaching preschoolers
2 Organization of individual-oriented education for preschoolers
Conclusion
Introduction
Preschool education is an integral part and the first link in a unified system of lifelong education, where the formation of the foundations of personality occurs. In accordance with the generally accepted age periodization of human development, preschool childhood covers the period from birth to 6 years, when the active formation of the motor, sensory and intellectual spheres of the child, the development of his speech and basic mental processes, abilities and socially significant qualities occur. The high intensity of the process of personality formation during preschool childhood makes it possible to especially effectively carry out pedagogical interaction with the child and solve the problems of his development, education and training. It is this position that gives reason to consider the problems of targeted education of preschoolers in accordance with their specific age characteristics as the most relevant for the current stage of development of both general and preschool didactics.
The current state of domestic preschool education is focused precisely on these provisions, which is reflected in normative documents that determine the attitude towards the younger generation, the priority of children’s rights in society and the features of social and educational policy: “Declaration of the Rights of the Child” (1959), “Convention on the Rights child" (1989), "Concept of preschool education" (1989), "Temporary regulations on a preschool institution" (1991), "Model regulations on a preschool educational institution" (1995), "Recommendations for the examination of educational programs for preschool educational institutions of the Russian Federation "(1995). There has been an obvious trend toward the emergence of new types of educational institutions for preschool children, both state and non-state (aesthetic and health centers, additional education groups, kindergarten-school complexes, etc.). Their activities are related to providing the population with a variety of educational services that meet the growing demands of parents and are focused on raising the general level of children, developing their individual abilities, and revealing the creative potential of each individual. This process necessitates the identification of new approaches, including to the education of preschool children.
The formation of preschool didactics as a science and practice of primary education of children was inextricably linked with the problem of mental education and development, which was considered as the most important area starting from the 20s and 30s. XX century, in the works of famous teachers and psychologists, such as P.P. Blonsky, P.F. Kapterev, N.K. Krupskaya, JI.I. Krasnogorskaya, A.M. Leushina, S.S. Molozhavyi, E.I. Tikheyeva, A.P. Usova and others. These studies were based on the pedagogical ideas of Western European thinkers - Ya.A. Komensky, I.G. Pestalozzi, F. Froebel, A. Disterweg, D. Dewey, M. Montessori and many others, developing and supplementing them in the traditions of national pedagogical culture.
1. Teaching methods in the field of preschool education
1 Features of teaching preschool children
The basis of a child’s intellectual development before school was considered to be the improvement of sensory culture, the development of speech, the expansion of his horizons and the accumulation of knowledge about natural phenomena and social life. At the same time, it has been repeatedly emphasized that equipping preschool children with knowledge is one of the conditions for the development of mental processes and various types of activities. Thus, it was intended to place emphasis on the priority of the knowledge component in the overall development of the child and the process of his targeted learning.
In modern preschool pedagogy, the problem of organizing educational work in preschool institutions occupies a special place. This is due to the fact that today the question of the need to design educational work focused on the principles of humanity, non-violence, subjectivity, integrity and integrativeness arises with all urgency. It is the humane attitude towards the child as a subject of the educational process and the need to develop his internal potential in order to more successfully and less painfully undergo active socialization that are considered as leading trends at the present stage of development of preschool upbringing and education. Preschool didactics is based on the position that the full development of a child should be carried out in interesting, meaningful activities for him. Therefore, the teacher constructing the educational process needs to present to the child all the variety of activities inherent in him, pedagogically competently coordinating and integrating them with each other.
Modern educational strategy orients preschool workers towards the purposeful design and construction of education based on the unity of the processes of socialization and individualization of the developing personality. The main requirement for organizing educational work is the affirmation of the child’s subjective position in the system of his life. In this regard, in the theory of preschool education, as well as in the practice of modern preschool institutions, it is a priori recognized that the process of teaching preschoolers is one of the most undeveloped and labor-intensive in educational work.
This is explained, firstly, by the fact that in the history of the formation and development of preschool pedagogy at various historical stages, diverse and often directly opposite methodological approaches prevailed and the most controversial author's concepts and theories of teaching preschoolers were proposed; secondly, the idea of practical workers that the education of preschoolers should be built on the basis of school didactics and approach the class-lesson, subject-informative model of teaching.
Therefore, there is an urgent need to determine the main provisions of a conceptually new approach to the organization of the educational process, consistent with modern concepts of the full, comprehensive development of a preschool child and didactics itself.
This need is due, in turn, to a number of reasons associated with significant changes in the field of domestic preschool pedagogy, namely:
changes in the structure of public preschool education - the creation of various types of preschool educational institutions (public and private kindergartens, children's centers with a specific focus of educational work, recreation groups and targeted preparation for school, specialized kindergartens, etc.) based on the implementation existing social order;
the emergence of variable general and partial programs for the upbringing and education of preschool children, focused on different approaches to the process of the child’s purposeful development and mastery of the surrounding world (“Childhood”, “Origins”, “Golden Key”, “We”, “Rainbow”, “ Development”, “Rostock”, etc.);
development of pedagogical technologies for the implementation of these programs, focused on various types of children's activities and forms of organizing educational work with preschoolers, depending on general and specific pedagogical goals, the focus of the program, the material and technical equipment of kindergartens and the established traditions of children's exploration of the “field of human culture” .
Traditionally, in the history of preschool didactics, the theoretical foundations of learning were determined based on the general didactic characteristics of the learning process, namely: learning is based on taking into account the psychological patterns of development of preschool children; relies on the leading role of the teacher; is organized in nature, pursuing the goal of imparting knowledge to children, mastering their skills and abilities. At the same time, attempts to practically implement this idea led to the widespread use in kindergartens of school forms and working methods, which focused on the widespread involvement of children in active activities. This moment had a positive significance for the development of preschool didactics, as it contributed to the formation of the idea of the need for the purposeful development of children's activity and independence as the main conditions for understanding cause-and-effect relationships and the essential features of natural and social phenomena. This has led to a tendency to slightly exaggerate the cognitive abilities of preschoolers and the developmental characteristics of their mental functions and, accordingly, to an overestimation of children’s capabilities in mastering the complex laws of the surrounding reality and the predominance in domestic didactics of the knowledge concept of children acquiring information about the environment.
The psychological irrationality and pedagogical fallacy of such a teaching model are explained, as noted by the classic of preschool didactics A.P. Usov (1898-1965), in that a child receives a significant part of information without a specially organized educational process - in everyday communication with parents, adults and peers. It is in this way that the child accumulates personal experience, through the prism of which he perceives systematized knowledge in the learning process in specially organized classes, and also creates a “maximum favored regime” for the development of his personality. In general, targeted education is considered as an essential means of the general education and development of a preschool child, and the success of his education before school depends on the acquisition of full-fledged knowledge, skills and abilities both in the classroom and outside of them, in order to ensure the integrity of the child’s cognitive activity.
In this regard, it is necessary to consider both the features of a specific, purposefully organized mechanism for mastering and understanding the surrounding existence through the organization of collective forms of education for preschoolers - classes, and new approaches to creating conditions for children’s independent comprehension of social and natural laws. This process can be built on the basis of a combination of different types of learning - direct, indirect, indirect, problem-based, each of which has its own specific characteristics and has a certain cognitive value.
The formation of the theory of preschool education occurred in parallel with the development of child psychology, which contributed to the determination of the following characteristic features of the organization of education for preschoolers:
“oral” (V.F. Odoevsky), “pre-book” (K.D. Ushinsky) nature of the teacher’s transfer of knowledge to children;
personal example of adults in various activities (drawing, singing, rhythmic movements, creative stories, etc.) as a way to enhance the mental education of children;
the presence in the classroom of didactic aids, didactic games, “surprise moments”, game tasks, dynamic and colorful visuals as a means of concentrating attention, increasing the receptivity and interest of children;
familiarizing preschoolers in the classroom with the surrounding reality and mastering elementary cause-and-effect relationships, which are programmatic in nature.
In general, the essence of purposeful education and training of preschool children lies in the concentrated reflection of the socio-cultural needs of society and their satisfaction through the coordination of a specially organized and spontaneous life educational process. In pedagogy, the category of “learning” is traditionally considered as independent and specific, different from the category of “upbringing”, but this provision does not apply to preschool didactics, the distinctive feature of which is precisely the integration of these concepts and pedagogical phenomena themselves.
The Soviet period of development of preschool didactics was generally characterized by dominant intellectualism. Since the 20s. XX century in domestic preschool pedagogy, the question arises about the principles of selection and construction of a program of knowledge, skills and abilities of children. In domestic preschool pedagogy E.I. Tikheyeva (1867-1943) was one of the first to put forward the idea of the need for systematic work with preschool children on their mental education. She wrote that in the broad plan that anyone who starts classes in kindergarten has before him, there must inevitably be a program, understood as a certain, pre-determined cycle of knowledge and ideas adapted to the interests of children and environmental conditions. When distributing activities in kindergarten, care should be taken not to fragment the attention of children, not to present to them the material with which they need to be introduced in a scattered, incoherent, unsystematized form. In terms of classes, according to E.I. Tikhaeva, a possible sequence must be laid down: each new idea, a new object entering the child’s consciousness must be connected by some associative link with previous ideas.
Soviet didactic teachers had two opposing conceptual positions in considering this issue. Supporters of the first argued that a preschool child can only learn ideas about individual objects of the surrounding reality, but not their interrelation. The so-called “objective” or “subject-based” principle was the basis for the construction of the “Program for the Education and Training of Children in Kindergarten” in 1938, but this approach was subsequently overcome.
The development of the second conceptual position was associated with the research of L.S. Vygotsky (1896-1934), who identified the ability of preschool children to establish cause-and-effect relationships and acquire systemic knowledge. The logical development of scientific research was the birth of a modern research direction - the study and formation of systematic knowledge among preschool children (V.I. Loginova, St. Petersburg). Based on this approach, in the textbook “Preschool Pedagogy” (1988), published under the editorship of P.G. Samorukova and V.I. Loginova, proposes the principle of systematization of knowledge, which is interpreted by modern teachers in two directions: firstly, as the systematization of knowledge, and secondly, as the construction of systemic knowledge.
Modern preschool didactics develops variable approaches to teaching children, focusing on the use of innovative methods and technologies (elements of creative solution of research problems, problem-based learning, as well as modeling, technical teaching aids, etc.). To do this, it is necessary to involve the existing personal experience of children in the process of collective or individual search activities under the guidance of a teacher. The success of this activity depends on children's communication skills and ability to interact.
Indirect, indirect teaching orients the preschooler to perform a research task in his own way, which is chosen by each pupil in accordance with his capabilities and needs and is associated with the use of various options for expanding the actual “field”, “space” of the child’s learning, his independent research activities. The organization of “space” can be built: firstly, as a really existing one - through the creation of material conditions for the self-development of a child’s personality, its self-education and self-development in a specific, specially designed developmental environment that corresponds to the age characteristics of preschoolers; secondly, indirectly - through the development of new technologies for active interaction and cooperation between teachers and students and the organization of various variable types of children's activities.
The first direction of organizing “real space” has been widely developed in modern research, including the introduction of the “M. Montessori method” and Waldorf pedagogy (the anthroposophical concept of R. Steiner) into the work of domestic kindergartens. It is these theoretical concepts that are built on the creation of an environment that develops and educates the child, serving as the background and mediator of active interaction between children and adults, based on the implementation of a person-oriented learning model. An enriched or developmental environment today is understood as a natural, comfortable, cozy, rationally organized environment, rich in a variety of sensory stimuli and play materials, in which active cognitive and creative activity of children is possible. Such a space has a significant impact on the child’s learning process. T.I. Babaeva, L.M. Clarina, V.A. Petrovsky, L.A. Smyvina, L.P. Strelkov identified the principles on which this space is built: distance, ensuring a subject-subject position during interaction; activity; independence; stability-dynamism; emotionality; individual comfort; saturation; structure; a combination of conventional and extraordinary elements in the aesthetic organization of the environment; openness - closedness; taking into account gender and age differences in children.
A developmental environment built on these principles allows the child to show his own activity and most fully realize his inherent potential. At the same time, multivariate play becomes the type of activity that is built on the free cooperation of children with each other and with adults as the main form of children's life in the designed space. The developing environment, in turn, becomes a real condition for the manifestation of children's individuality, independence and activity, leveling out excessive guardianship and unjustified regulation of actions on the part of teachers. It is the subject environment, its content and zoning that determine the realization by children of their vital (organic), emotional and cognitive needs, which become the most important factor in the successful socialization of preschool children and familiarization with the accessible cultural heritage.
The second direction of organizing “real space” is realized by emphasizing the activity aspect when organizing the educational process. The design of interesting, meaningful activities filled with positive emotional experiences for the child, the joy of creation and self-expression is considered as the main condition for the active development of cultural achievements of society by preschool children. Modern preschool psychology and pedagogy, while recognizing the importance of the theory of leading activity for understanding the mechanisms of development of a child’s personality, nevertheless especially emphasizes the position that in real life a child participates not in one, but in a whole system of various types of activities. Therefore, for preschool didactics, the main question becomes not about the type of activity in which the child’s personality primarily develops, because this leads to opposition and ignoring of individual types of activity, but about the use of each type of children’s activity for the full, dynamic development of the child.
This idea is confirmed by the works of A.V. Petrovsky, who especially notes that the integrity of personality development at each age stage cannot be determined by just one leading type of activity: “As a personality-forming leading activity at each age stage, it is necessary to form a complex, multifaceted activity, or, more precisely, a dynamic system of activities, each of which solves its social problem that meets social expectations, and in this system there is no reason to single out “leading” or “slave” components.”
In this regard, as a central component of educational work with children, one should consider a complex of those types of activities that are characteristic of a given age stage, and one of the most promising areas in preschool didactics is currently recognized as establishing the relationship between various types of children's activities - cognitive, educational , gaming, visual, constructive, labor. At the same time, there is an urgent need to organize the process of development, education and training of preschool children based on the integrity of their cognitive activity.
In general, the strategy for building the educational process in modern preschool educational institutions can be based on determining the possibilities of content and technological integration of various types of children's activities. The desire for the practical implementation of this provision should be based on the study of the holistic structure of children's thinking, the establishment of its specific system-forming connections, the study of the patterns of development of the foundations of children's self-awareness and the deep mental formations of the individual, which determine almost all the intellectual manifestations of the child.
Approaches to the classification of the main types of activities of preschool children existing in psychological science (B.G. Ananyev, S.L. Rubinshtein, etc.) focus on their possible integration. For example, S.L. Rubinstein points out the importance of the triad of work, learning and play, and B.G. Ananyev identifies specific “primary” types of activity - work, communication, cognition, orientation in which in preschool childhood occurs through play. The latter, upon closer examination, turns out to be only a means of developing other activities.
An analysis of the modern educational process in kindergartens shows that it still remains too regulated and “overorganized,” which significantly reduces the interest of preschoolers in learning and their cognitive activity. In this regard, according to D.B. Elkonin, one of the most interesting and significant for preschool education is the question of the integration of play and child labor as the leading activities of preschoolers and as the basis for their “social practice.” The theoretical substantiation of this problem and the creation of appropriate pedagogical technology make it possible to realize the idea of organizing a personality-oriented, holistic educational process in a modern kindergarten.
The feasibility of combining play and work activities in the educational process of a kindergarten acquires particular importance for the development of a preschooler due to the special significance of play in the spiritual development of preschool children and the uniqueness of the work activities of preschoolers, the separation of which from play occurs gradually and represents the result of the natural development of children’s play activities . At the same time, the main attention, according to the research of L.S. Vygotsky, A.V. Zaporozhets, A.N. Leontyeva, N.N. Poddyakova et al., is devoted to play, which is the leading activity for preschool children, satisfying the most significant social needs of the child. It is the game that provides children with a state of emotional comfort, a sense of freedom in the implementation of their activities, and the manifestation of individuality. In the context of play as a leading activity, mental new formations specific to a given age stage arise, which are of paramount importance for the entire subsequent development of the child.
1.2 Methods of teaching preschool children
Thus, in ancient times, teaching methods based on imitation prevailed. By observing and repeating certain actions with adults, for example, labor, students mastered them through direct participation in the life of the social group of which they were members.
Since the organization of schools, verbal teaching methods have appeared. The main method of teaching was the teacher’s transmission of ready-made information using the written, oral, and later printed word, followed by its subsequent assimilation by students. The word becomes the main carrier of information, and learning from books becomes one of the main tasks of education.
In the era of great discoveries and inventions, verbal methods are gradually losing their importance as the only way to transfer knowledge to students.
Methods of visual teaching and methods that help to apply knowledge in practice are being developed.
At the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, the concept of “learning through activity” using practical teaching methods aroused interest. Great hopes were also pinned on another version of the verbal method, based on the independence of movement towards knowledge. However, this method requires too much work and time to produce results.
All of the above allows us to say:
· Regardless of the role assigned to one or another teaching method at different periods in the development of education, none of them, when used on its own, provides the desired results. · Since no method is universal, good results can only be achieved by using many methods. But in order for a teacher to take advantage of the variety of teaching methods, it is necessary to streamline them and bring them into a certain system. Let's start by defining what a teaching method is? Teaching method is the methods of joint activity between teacher and students aimed at solving learning problems. We can also add that this is also the core of the educational process, the connecting link between the designed goal and the final result; from Greek - - literally: the path to something. Each method consists of separate elements, which are called techniques (for example, the techniques of the method of working with a book are drawing up a plan for what you read, retelling, making notes, etc.) The set of techniques that make up the method serves to solve didactic problems (didactics from the Greek - teaching, related to teaching): Familiarization with new material, acquisition of skills, consolidation, and application. In the two-way nature of the teaching method, one must be able to distinguish between teaching methods that perform informative and control functions (the teacher explains, shows, instructs), and teaching methods (the student listens, observes, reads). Thus, while consolidating the material, the student performs a series of exercises proposed by the teacher, at the same time the teacher analyzes the student’s actions, sorts out mistakes, organizes new exercises to consolidate successes, and monitors the results. Oral presentation as a teaching method contains not only the teacher’s information, it is also the student’s activity aimed at perceiving and comprehending the material. The teaching method always includes the activities of a leader and a follower. This is where its originality lies. The uniqueness lies in the fact that the teacher, while managing the student’s activities, must see the external and internal aspects of the teaching method. The process of cognition carried out by a student is often hidden from the teacher; the external side of his activity (the student observes, reads, listens) does not yet reveal the process of cognition itself, its qualitative side. The student’s activity, which is equally expressed externally, may be completely different internally in terms of its qualitative characteristics. Thus, when reading, a student can pursue only the goal of ready-made assimilation of ready-made information, but it can also be a search activity aimed at solving a cognitive problem. Knowledge acquired in search activities is more conscious, durable, and flexible. It is easier for the student to apply them in practice. The uniqueness of teaching methods also lies in the fact that they are not static, they develop. The development of the method is associated with a change in the student’s position in the educational process. Training gradually strengthens the student’s independence in cognition, thereby increasing the possibility of including self-education. This problem is solved by the teacher in the process of managing the student’s learning. Modern didactics does not yet have a single generally accepted classification of methods. Most often, they resort to a classification of methods according to sources of knowledge, according to which all teaching methods are divided into visual (demonstration, illustration, excursions), verbal (the living word of the teacher, conversation, working with a book) and practical (exercises, creative work, laboratory, graphic) . This classification does not reveal those internal processes that constitute the essence of the method. In the group of methods for organizing and implementing educational actions and operations, subgroups can be distinguished: perceptual methods, which includes methods of verbal transmission and auditory perception of educational information (abbreviated as verbal methods: story, lecture, conversation, etc.); methods of visual transmission and visual perception of educational information (abbreviated name - visual methods: illustrations, demonstrations, etc.); methods of transmitting educational information through practical, labor actions and tactile, kinesthetic perception (abbreviated - practical methods: exercises, laboratory experiments, labor actions, etc.). A subgroup of logical methods, which includes methods identified on the basis of the leading logical operations used in the thinking process: inductive, deductive and other methods. A subgroup of Gnostic methods, identified on the basis of assessing the degree of the search nature of thinking: reproductive, problem-search, research and other methods of the first and second subgroups can be implemented both under the guidance of a teacher and independently. Therefore, all of them can be divided into two subgroups of management methods and self-management, or more specifically: methods of work under the guidance of a teacher and methods of independent educational work (working with a book, homework), as well as methods of control and self-control (methods of oral, written laboratory, machine control, independent testing of one’s knowledge.) For the first time, when considering the method, the center of gravity was transferred to its internal essence by I.Ya. Lerner and M.N. Skatkin. Their classification of methods is more modern. It distinguishes: explanatory and illustrative method, reproductive method, problem presentation, partially search and research methods. However, when considering the system of general didactic methods, these authors are distracted from the external side of their expression, whereas only through it can the teacher control the student’s activities. The mutually dependent activity of the teacher and students is largely determined by the chosen form of expression (conversation, work with a book). Therefore, by defining a group of methods only by their internal essence, it is impossible to characterize the various ways of managing the process of student cognition. This can be accomplished only through the external form of its expression (which is the meaning of the method). In classification, it is important to consider the following: · The method must solve a didactic problem (which determines its content); · the inner essence of the method must be revealed; · the form of interconnected activity between teacher and student is determined as a single means of managing students’ cognition. In the first group of methods, one can distinguish between information-developing methods - those that provide all the information necessary for assimilation (oral presentation by the teacher, working with a book, conversation), and search, or heuristic, methods - those that do not provide the student with ready-made information, but includes him into search activities (heuristic conversation, debate, search laboratory work, research method). The second group includes methods that ensure consolidation and improvement of acquired knowledge, skills and abilities - these are reproductive methods (retelling, exercises based on a model, laboratory work according to instructions) and reproductive methods - creative, requiring the application of knowledge in changed conditions, in practice, in creative activity (variable exercises, practical and creative work). To increase the intensity of each teaching method, there is a whole system of means. By teaching aids we mean the whole complex of means that help equip the educational process and improve it. In this broad interpretation, the teaching aid includes educational books (textbooks, reference books, dictionaries, collections of problems in various subjects, programmed teaching aids), visual aids (tables, drawings, diagrams, geographical and historical maps, dummies, collapsible models, educational pictures), special equipment (physics and chemistry classrooms with appropriate devices for laboratory work and experiments), technical means (cinema cameras, televisions, tape recorders, microscopes, programmed devices, radio installations, video recorders, etc.) As we have already noted, the method depends both on the didactic task that the teacher solves and on the specifics of the content of the program material. The content side of the educational subject determines the general focus of the methods: subjects of the natural-mathematical cycle require observations, practical work, and laboratory experiments; In humanities subjects, the teacher’s word, work with primary sources, and creative written works are more often used. The choice of teaching methods and means is also determined by the age and individual characteristics of students. In the lower grades, more space is given to conversation and explanatory reading; natural visual aids and pictures are more often used. In high school, a lecture is not only possible, but also necessary, students are included in long-term independent research, and visual aids are of a public nature. The choice of method also depends on specific conditions: its environment, equipment. A story is a monologue presentation of educational material used for a consistent, systematized, intelligible and emotional presentation of knowledge. This method is used primarily in the lower grades; in schools of the second and third levels it is used less frequently. According to the goals, there are several types of stories: story-introduction, story-narration, story-conclusion. The purpose of the first is to prepare students for learning new material, the second serves to present the intended content, and the third concludes the training segment. The effectiveness of this method depends mainly on the teacher's storytelling ability, as well as on the extent to which the words and expressions used by the teacher are understandable to the students and appropriate to their developmental level. Therefore, the content of the story should be based on the students’ existing experience, while simultaneously expanding it and enriching it with new elements. The story serves as a model for students to construct a coherent, logical, persuasive speech, and teaches them to correctly express their thoughts. During the story, the main thing is highlighted and emphasized. It should be short (up to 10 minutes), flexible, and take place against a positive emotional background. The effectiveness of the story depends on its combination with other teaching methods - illustration (in elementary grades), discussion (middle and high school), as well as on the conditions - place and time chosen by the teacher to talk about certain facts, events, people. Let's move on to the next category of teaching method - conversation. Conversation is one of the oldest methods of didactic work. The leading function of this method is stimulating. The essence of the conversation is to, with the help of targeted and skillfully posed questions, encourage students to recall knowledge they already know and achieve the assimilation of new knowledge through independent reflection, conclusions and generalizations. Conversation forces the student's thought to follow the teacher's thought, as a result of which students move step by step in mastering new knowledge. It activates thinking as much as possible, serves as a means of diagnosing acquired knowledge and skills, promotes the development of students’ cognitive powers, and creates conditions for the operational management of the cognition process. In some didactic systems, conversation was raised to the level of the leading teaching method, but it turned out that with its help it was impossible to achieve all didactic goals. Therefore, it cannot be a universal method, but must necessarily be combined with presentation, lecture, and other methods that form a system of knowledge. The conversation does not give students practical skills and abilities, and does not allow them to carry out the exercises necessary for their formation. Modern science has concluded that conversation is most effective for: · preparing students for work in class · introducing them to new material · systematization and consolidation of knowledge · current monitoring and diagnostics of knowledge acquisition The teacher is obliged to clearly define the topic of the conversation, its purpose, draw up an outline, select visual aids, formulate basic and auxiliary questions that may arise during the conversation, think over the methodology for its organization and behavior - the order of inclusion of questions, on what key points it is necessary to make a generalization and conclusions. They must have a logical connection with each other, collectively reveal the essence of the issue being studied, and contribute to the assimilation of knowledge in the system. The content and form must correspond to the level of development of students. You should not ask “prompting” questions that contain ready-made answers. The technique of question-and-answer teaching is very important. Each question is asked to the whole class, and only after a short pause for reflection is a student called in to answer. You should not achieve imaginary independence for students by suggesting leading words, syllables or initial letters that can be used to give an answer without the difficulty of thinking. The success of the conversation depends on contact with the class. The teacher should know that conversation is an uneconomical and difficult method of teaching. It requires time, effort, appropriate conditions, as well as a high level of pedagogical skill. It differs from other methods of verbal presentation: · more strict structure · logic of presentation of educational material · abundance of information provided · systematic nature of knowledge coverage The subject of a school lecture is primarily a description of complex systems, phenomena, objects, processes, the connections and dependencies between them, mainly of a cause-and-effect nature. Applicable only in high school, when students have already reached the level of preparation required to perceive and comprehend the lecture material. The lecture method is introduced gradually, growing out of explanations and conversations. The conditions for the effectiveness of a school lecture are: · drawing up a detailed lecture plan by the teacher · informing students of the plan, familiarizing them with the topic, purpose and objectives of the lecture · logically coherent and consistent presentation of all points of the plan · brief summary conclusions after highlighting each point of the plan · logical connections when moving from one part of the lecture to another · problematic and emotional presentation · timely inclusion of examples, comparisons, striking facts · contact with the audience, flexible control of students’ mental activity · multilateral disclosure of the most important provisions of the lecture · optimal pace of presentation, allowing students to write down the main points of the lecture · highlighting (dictating) what should be written down · the use of clarity (demonstrations, illustrations, videos) to facilitate the perception and understanding of the provisions being studied · a combination of lectures and seminar practical classes, in which individual provisions are discussed in detail. A lecture is one of the most effective methods in terms of perception of information content, which, depending on a number of conditions, can range from 20 to 50%. Verbal teaching methods also include educational discussion. The point of this method is to exchange views on a specific issue. Through discussions, students acquire new knowledge, strengthen their own opinions, and learn to defend them. The main function of educational discussion is to stimulate cognitive interest; auxiliary functions are training, development, education and control and correction. One of the most important conditions for the effectiveness of educational discussion is preliminary and thorough preparation of students for it. The teacher must take care of developing students’ ability to clearly and accurately express their thoughts, clearly and unambiguously formulate questions, and provide specific evidence. Discussions enrich the content of material already known to students, help organize and consolidate it. With their help, it is not only easy to diagnose character traits, temperament, memory, and thinking, but also corrects shortcomings in the behavior and communication of schoolchildren (hot temper, lack of restraint, disrespect for the interlocutor). A well-prepared and creative teacher consciously includes a system of developmental factors in his lessons; the result is developmental education, a specially concentrated educational process in which each element is optimized in terms of its maximum impact on the psychological development of students. Developmental education is a specific type in which “learning leads to development” (L.S. Vygotsky). For learning to lead to development, it is necessary to determine the initial (scientific) level of development. Also, when we talk about mental development and its level, we pay attention to the totality of knowledge, skills and mastered mental actions, which were formed in the process of acquiring this knowledge and skills. This available wealth creates the basis for the acquisition of new knowledge and skills, the emergence and functioning of new mental actions. The level of mental development is a dynamic quantity. Since mental development as a dynamic system under favorable conditions can gradually approach the requirements that a person faces, and even exceed them, as if following its own internally put forward standards. However, the process may stop, and mental development will begin to regress if the activity carried out by a person does not stimulate it. In the primary grades of school, the volume of knowledge acquired and its inclusion in practice is relatively small, and only in rare cases are children identified with an emerging qualitatively unique direction of thinking. In the future, teachers note children who are dominated by either mathematical, natural science, or linguistic thinking. Thus, in the pre-revolutionary school, the limit of mathematical development was Newton’s binary; modern school places much higher demands on mathematical training. School standards are historical formations, and thinking is formed under their influence. A schoolchild, whose mental development is mathematically oriented, identifies in objects, in concepts, mathematical relations, logical connections of features covered by these relations. Accordingly, in other types of thinking, other signs are distinguished. The level of mental development is characterized by the extent to which thinking is prepared to function at least within the norm. The marking system should not be identified with criteria for mental development. Even an experienced teacher’s grade does not always correspond to the level of development of the student’s thinking. For the most part, it reflects only the level of knowledge at the moments of questioning knowledge - an essential part of development, but the latter is not exhausted by them. It remains undiscovered how fluent the student is not only in concepts as such, but also in their connections and relationships between them. It is possible that the confirmed amount of information will mask the low level of development of the student in general or in a specific area. If we look without prejudice at the methods that are being developed in different countries to study intellectual status, one of their features will be striking: what is missed is that from the test results it is impossible to establish what features of the psyche led him in some cases to success, in others to failure in the activities he performed. The tests really state something (presumably a measure of intelligence), but based on the results of their use, it is impossible to propose some kind of plan for psychological influence on the subject in order to increase his success in activities. The most that these methods provide is classification of people and selection, but they are not suitable for correction. Due to the lack of clarity of the psychological addressee of the methods (that is, what features of the psyche they reveal), their diagnostic capabilities are limited to one statement, and even this is of a formal nature, expressed only in a numerical indicator. Of course, diagnostic psychologists do not deny the psyche development with age. However, the rank (ordinal) place of the child as he gradually grows up is considered constant. This approach supposedly makes it possible to predict future academic performance. Teaching methods are ways of joint activity between a teacher and a child, aimed at solving designated problems. Reception is part of the method. In modern preschool pedagogy, the classification of teaching methods according to the nature of cognitive activity, proposed by Lerner and Skatkin, has become widespread, including: Explanatory-illustrative, or information-receptive Reproductive Problematic presentation of the material Partially search engines Research. In preschool pedagogy, for many years, methods based on the source of knowledge acquisition have been widely used, which are divided into visual, verbal, practical, and playful. Visual methods include: According to Rubenstein, observation is the result of conscious perception during which the child’s mental activity develops. To implement observation as a method, the following conditions are necessary: the presence of objects for observation; determining the content of observation; proper organization of observation. Nowadays, cyclic observations have come into practice. Cyclic observations are observations consisting of individual cycles, each of which has its own purpose, its own content, but they are logically interconnected. viewing paintings, illustrations, toys and objects; viewing videos, movies, slides, multimedia, etc. Verbal methods. These include: conversation, story, reading. works. Practical methods: exercise, modeling, experiments, experiments. Exercise - repeated repetition by a child of mental or practical actions of a given content. They are distinguished: imitative, constructive, creative. Modeling. A model is a subject or graphic image of something. The process of creating a model is called modeling activity. In preschool pedagogy, special Zhurova models have been developed for the sound analysis of words (chips of different colors - vowels, stressed, unstressed, etc.). Paramonova’s material has been developed to teach children how to design. Models by Nikolaeva, Ryzhova and others have been developed for environmental education. On introducing children to the work of adults - Krulecht. Experiences and experiments are practical methods. Game methods: Game learning situations. As a result of the research by Komarova and Nikolaeva, the following types of IOS were proposed. IOS with analogue toys; IOS with literary characters iOS type of travel games. In preschool pedagogy, a classification of teaching methods has been adopted, which is based on the basic forms of thinking (visual-effective and visual-figurative). Table 1 Visual methods and techniques of teaching MethodsTechniques 1- Observation - the ability to peer into the phenomena of the surrounding world, notice the changes that occur, and establish their causes. Types of observations: short-term and long-term; repeated and comparative; recognizing character; for changing and transforming objects; reproductive nature. Didactic requirements for observation (E.A. Flerina, E.I. Radina, P.G. Samorukova): 1-object of observation should be interesting for children; The 2-object is observed under conditions that make it possible to identify its characteristic features; 3-the teacher outlines the purpose of observation, determines the range of new knowledge, thinks through its connection with the experience of children; 4-children are given a target setting for observation; 5-stimulating mental activity and independence of children; 6-the knowledge acquired in the process of observation, the feelings that have arisen and the attitude towards what is observed should be developed in the activities of children; 7-consistency and systematicity of observation; 8-accompanying observation with precise and specific words. 2- Demonstration of visual aids (objects, reproductions, filmstrips, slides, videos, computer programs). Visual aids used to familiarize yourself with the environment: didactic pictures combined in a series; reproductions of paintings by famous artists; book graphics; subject pictures; educational films. - showing methods of action; - - sample display. Practical teaching methods An exercise is a child’s repeated repetition of mental or practical actions of a given content (imitative-performing nature, constructive, creative). Didactic rules for conducting exercises: Set a learning task for children; Show how to perform actions with a simultaneous verbal explanation; Multiple repetitions of exercises with a gradually more complex task, with the introduction of new work methods and equipment; Control by the teacher; transition from direct to indirect control, development of elements of self-control in children. Elementary experiments, experimentation. Elementary experience is the transformation of a life situation, object or phenomenon in order to identify hidden, not directly presented properties of objects, establish connections between them, reasons for their change, etc. Modeling is the process of creating models and using them to generate knowledge about the properties, structure, relationships, connections of objects (D. B. Elkonin, L. A. Venger, N. N. Poddyakov). It is based on the principle of substitution (a real object is replaced by another object, a conventional sign). Subject models, subject-schematic models, graphic models are used. Table 2 Verbal methods and teaching techniques MethodsTechniques 1 - Teacher's story. The story achieves its goal if: the teacher sets an educational and cognitive task for the children; the main idea or thought is clearly visible in the story; the story is not overloaded with details; its content is dynamic, consonant with the personal experience of preschoolers, evokes a response and empathy in them; An adult's speech is expressive. 2- Children's stories (retelling fairy tales, stories based on paintings, about objects, from childhood experience, creative stories). 3- Conversation. According to the content, they distinguish cognitive (from the middle group) and ethical conversations (in older preschool age). According to didactic tasks, there are: introductory (preliminary) and final (summarizing) conversations. 4- Reading fiction. · questions (requiring statements; stimulating mental activity); · indication (integer and fractional); · explanation; · explanation; · pedagogical assessment; · conversation (after a tour, walk, watching filmstrips, etc.). Table 3 Game methods and teaching techniques MethodsTechniques1. Didactic game 2. An imaginary situation in expanded form: with roles, game actions, appropriate gaming equipment. sudden appearance of objects; performance of play actions by the teacher; making and guessing riddles; introduction of competition elements; creating a game situation. The choice and combination of teaching methods and techniques depends on: age characteristics of children (in early preschool age, the leading role belongs to visual and playful methods; in middle preschool age, the role of practical and verbal methods increases; in older preschool age, the role of verbal teaching methods increases); forms of organizing teaching (the teacher chooses the leading method and provides a variety of techniques for it); equipment of the pedagogical process; teacher's personality. 2. Pedagogical means and organization of education for preschoolers 1 Pedagogical tools for teaching preschoolers A teaching tool is a material or ideal object that is used by the teacher and students to acquire new knowledge (P.I. Pidkasisty). . Materials for training Items of material culture: · natural objects: objects of flora and fauna, real objects (objects); · visual clarity (three-dimensional images): stuffed birds, animals, dummies of vegetables, fruits, etc. · toys: plot (figurative) toys: dolls, figurines depicting people and animals, vehicles, dishes, furniture, etc.; didactic toys: folk toys (matryoshka dolls, pyramids, barrels, spillikins, etc.), mosaics, board and printed games; fun toys: funny figures of people, animals, fun toys with mechanical, electrical and electronic devices; sets of tricks; sports toys: aimed at strengthening the muscles of the hand, forearm, developing coordination of movements (tops, serso, balls, bilbocks, hoops); promoting the development of running, jumping skills, strengthening the muscles of the legs and torso (gurneys, bicycles, scooters, skates, rollers, jump ropes); intended for group games (table basketball, hockey, ping-pong); musical toys: imitating musical instruments in shape and sound (children's balalaikas, metallophones, xylophones, accordions, drums, pipes, music boxes, etc.); story toys with a musical device (piano, grand piano); sets of bells, bells, gaming devices for listening to music recordings; theatrical toys: dolls - theatrical characters, bibabo dolls, marionette dolls; sets of plot figures, costumes and costume elements, attributes, scenery elements, masks, props, large inflatable toys (fairy-tale characters, animals), etc.; technical toys: cameras, binoculars, telescopes, flying models, kaleidoscopes, children's sewing machines, etc.; building and construction materials: sets of building materials, construction sets, incl. new generation construction sets: “Lego”, “Kvadro”, “Aquaplay”, etc., lightweight modular material; homemade toys from different materials: unshaped (paper, cardboard, thread, fabric, wool, foil, foam), semi-shaped (boxes, corks, reels, plastic bottles, buttons), natural (cones, acorns, branches, straw, clay) ; · equipment for experiments, play equipment, etc.; · educational and game aids: “Logical Baby”, etc.; · didactic material (handouts). Technical teaching aids are a set of technical devices with didactic support used in the educational process for presenting and processing information in order to optimize it. Technical devices (hardware): technical devices for screen static projection (projection devices): frame projectors, slide projectors, epiprojectors, epidiascopes, filmoscopes, film projectors, special video cameras, overhead projectors (graphic projectors, overheads), multimedia projector; sound equipment (audio equipment): electrophones (players), tape recorder, voice recorder, streamer, computer, stereo systems (audio systems), player, radio receiver; screen and sound equipment: film projection equipment (cinema camera, film projector), television, video equipment (video recorder, video camera, video disc player), multimedia computers; auxiliary technical means: screens, plasma panels, electronic boards, peripheral devices (monitor, keyboard, manipulators, printer, plotter, scanner, sound speakers, etc.), digital camera, laser pointer, etc. Didactic teaching aids (information media): · screen: static (slides, filmstrips, banners (code aids), epic objects); dynamic (silent films, undubbed animated films); · sound: gramophone recording, tape recording, radio broadcasts, digital recording; · screen-sound (combined): sound films, sound filmstrips and slides, video recordings, television programs, educational films (film manuals). Educational and methodological support: packages of applied programs in various educational fields; textbooks and other texts (primary sources, reference publications, periodicals, pedagogical publications, etc.); test material; methodological developments (recommendations). . Ideal learning tools Artistic media (works of art and other cultural achievements): works of painting, music, architecture, sculpture, objects of decorative and applied art, children's fiction (including reference, educational, general and thematic encyclopedias for preschoolers), works of national culture (folk songs, dances, folklore, costumes, etc.). Visual aids (planar visualization): · paintings: didactic paintings (series of paintings), reproductions of paintings by famous artists, book graphics, object pictures; · subject-schematic models (nature calendar, etc.); · graphic models (graphs, diagrams, etc.) Means of communication: · verbal means (speech). Requirements for speech: correctness, richness, conciseness, clarity and accuracy, logic, simplicity, purity, emotionality, use of lexical means of representation. Main characteristics of the voice: clear articulation of sound, intonation expressiveness, melody, mastery of the upper and lower registers, strength, flight, richness timbre coloring, the presence of semantic accents. · non-verbal means: visual interaction; tactile interaction; facial expressions, plasticity; movement in space. Means of stimulating cognitive activity: · assistance in teaching: assistance-substitution (the teacher gives a ready answer to the question, suggests the process of solving the problem); help-imitation (demonstration of models of actions); assistance-cooperation (joint discussion of a difficult situation and ways out of it); assistance-initiation (creating conditions for free choice of path and methods for solving educational problems); assistance-preemption (ahead of events, the teacher insures the child, helps to choose adequate solutions); · resistance to learning: a certain difficulty of a task that the child must overcome, i.e. “resistance” of cognitive material. The choice of teaching tools depends on: patterns and principles of learning; general goals of training, education and development; specific educational objectives; level of learning motivation; time allocated for studying this or that material; volume and complexity of the material; the level of preparedness of students, the development of their educational skills; age and individual characteristics of students; type and structure of the lesson; number of children; interest of children; relationships between the teacher and children (cooperation or authoritarianism); logistics, availability of equipment, visual aids, technical means; characteristics of the teacher’s personality, his qualifications. 2.2 Organization of individual-oriented education for preschoolers The goal of individually-oriented education: the development of the child as a special, individual being, a bearer of unique individual traits that distinguish him from others. The main indicator of the effectiveness of individual-oriented learning is the level of intellectual development of children: the development of visual-figurative, intuitive thinking, the prerequisites for logical thinking. Principles of developmental individual-oriented learning: The principle of conformity to nature is the orientation during training to the inner world of the child, creating conditions for self-expression and self-development of each participant. The realization of the inner potential of each child is facilitated by attention, respect, sincere expression of feelings to adults, and trust in the relationship between an adult and children. The principle of freedom of choice: giving the child the right to choose the content of an activity, determine its tasks, choose ways to solve them, and a partner for joint activities; selection of material and creation of conditions for independent activity of children. The principle of openness of the didactic process: adjustment of the content of training depending on the actual conditions of the course, age and individual capabilities and characteristics of children; individualization of tasks and conditions for their implementation; organization of interaction with peers, when the educational influence of an adult is complemented by the process of mutual learning. Forms of organizing individual-oriented training. Didactic games, as well as related activities (construction, visual and musical activities, etc.) are the most effective forms of developmental education (they allow you to transform a cognitive task into a game or practical one that has personal meaning for children). The specificity of game forms of educational organization lies in the indirect influence of an adult on the development of children through the content and rules of the game. However, if we limit ourselves to the development of cognitive activity only through play, this can lead to significant differences in the levels of intellectual development and an increase in the number of children in need of correction. A game-activity (in a group form - 8-10 children), in which conditions are created for a more or less uniform development of all children. The group form of training allows you to really influence the development of each child. Options for organizing games and activities: option: one subgroup studies with a teacher, the other plays under the supervision of an assistant (preferably in another room), then the first subgroup gets together and goes outside with an assistant, and the second plays with a teacher; option: training with both subgroups at the same time, when one group is engaged in an independent didactic game, and the other is engaged under the direct supervision of a teacher; then the groups change places. Learning in everyday life (during meaningful communication with an adult, situational communication between a child and an adult, during independent activity). Studying the dynamics of children's development. The main method of studying the dynamics of children's development is to compile an individual characteristics of the child based on the results of an individual examination using special techniques in all main areas: social, cognitive, aesthetic and physical to form an accurate idea of the child's development. Such a study of the child should be carried out by a preschool psychologist at the end and at the beginning of the school year. General assessment of the development dynamics of each child at the end of the month, i.e. recording the achievements of each child using symbols: stable results - green circle, unstable achievements - yellow circle, need for additional work - red circle. Having received such a color picture, the teacher sees which tasks can be considered solved and which cannot. The main way to accumulate information about a child’s individual characteristics is through daily observation of the process of interaction and communication between children and with adults, as well as their activities. Studying the results of children’s individual activities: visual arts, design, didactic games, etc. The form of recording this information should be chosen by the teacher himself. The most convenient way is to record data in a personal notebook. It is very important that teachers share their impressions of how the day went when handing over the shift. This ensures the unity of pedagogical impact. A comparative analysis of the results obtained allows us to see the overall picture of the effectiveness of educational work with children of a particular group, the quality of pedagogical influence on the development of each child. One should not expect all children to develop at a high level in all areas. The main focus should be on ensuring that each child progresses according to his or her abilities. The main indicator of the quality of educational work is progress in development. In this regard, a child’s low level of task completion can be regarded as positive if it is higher than the previous one. Conclusion Thus, having analyzed the approaches to organizing the educational process within the framework of traditional and innovative systems that have developed in domestic preschool didactics, we can conclude that the education of preschool children is guided by general didactic provisions, and also has its own specifics associated with the psychological characteristics of children of a given age groups. The teacher plans his activities by drawing up calendar-thematic and lesson plans. Approximate calendar-thematic plans are published in the corresponding methodological journals, and the teacher only has to make some adjustments to them, arising from the characteristics of a given school and class. Special manuals on teaching methods for the relevant subject can help develop lesson plans. These manuals provide advice on the nature of the problems to be solved during the lesson, highlight particularly important and difficult elements of the content, and recommend the most valuable demonstrations, experiments, exercises for consolidation, repetition and homework. The teacher’s constant use of such teaching aids significantly saves his time when planning lessons and allows him to choose from a number of possible options the most suitable one for a given class. Modern educational psychology believes that for each age period there is its own, most characteristic type of method of development and learning: in preschool - play, in primary school - learning, in middle school - an expanded socially useful methodology in all its variants (educational, labor, social and organizational, artistic, sports, etc.). During this period, students actively master various forms of learning. At high school age, a special form of educational activity becomes dominant, which is already more career-oriented and colored by independent moral judgments and assessments. Conclusion: From all of the above it follows that regardless of the age of the child (he goes to kindergarten, school, higher education institution), the construction of a plan for the educational process (with a teacher, a teacher, a lecturer) is based on the chosen teaching method. The only difference in methods for preschool children, school children, etc. institutions is that as the child grows older, the degree of emotional and mental stress increases. preschool pedagogical oriented learning List of used literature 1. Babaeva T.I. Improving the preparation of children for school in kindergarten. - L., 1990. 2. Pedagogy. Fundamentals of general pedagogy. Didactics/textbook N.I. Prokovev, N.V. Mikhalkovich. Mn.: TetraSystems, 2002 Breslav G.M. Emotional features of personality formation in childhood. - M., 1990. Pedagogy, ed. 4th, I.F. Kharlamov, Moscow, 2003 Pedagogy, ed. Yu.K. Babansky, Moscow, 1983 Teaching methods in modern secondary schools, Moscow, Yu.K. Babansky, 1985 Mental development of schoolchildren: criteria and standards. Moscow, ed. “Knowledge”, 1992 K.M. Gurevich, E.I. Gorbachev. Methods of teaching and upbringing in the field of preschool education: a course of lectures: educational and methodological manual / comp. I. O. Karelina. - Rybinsk: branch of YaGPU, 2012. - 68 p. Bure R.S. When learning educates. - St. Petersburg, 2002. Gubanova N.F. Play activities in kindergarten. Program and methodological recommendations. - M., 2008. 11. Kozlova S.A., Kulikova T.A. Preschool pedagogy. - M., 2011. Mikhailenko N.Ya., Korotkova N.A. Organization of a story game in kindergarten. - M., 2004. Khabarova T.V. Pedagogical technologies in preschool education. - St. Petersburg, 2011. Aleshina N.V. We introduce preschoolers to their hometown and country (patriotic education). Lesson notes. - M., 2011. Bure R.S. Preschooler and work. Theory and methodology of labor education. - St. Petersburg, 2004. Vetlugina N.A. Aesthetic education in kindergarten: Collection of articles. - M., 1978. Gavryuchina L.V. Health-saving technologies in preschool educational institutions. - M., 2010. Horowitz Yu.M. and others. New information technologies in preschool education. - M., 1998. The main goal of teaching children is the acquisition of knowledge by the new generation, which occurs in different types of activities. Since learning is a joint activity between the teacher and the child, it is necessary to organize this process so that the child most fully acquires knowledge, skills and abilities. Teaching techniques and methods will help with this. A teaching method is a way of interaction between an adult and a child that helps to effectively solve educational problems. Pedagogical teaching techniques are one of the components of the method, the action of which realizes it fully. It is important to be able to separate the methods of mental activity from the methods of educational work. The mental techniques of child development are the same in different modes of interaction. Only their correct combination has a development effect, and, based on this, it is very important to apply them in a certain sequence. Identical techniques can be used in any teaching method, but in interaction with other techniques they create a completely different method. For example, a technique such as memorization is used in both reproductive and problem-search methods. But in the first case it is the main one, and in the second case it is secondary. Teaching techniques and methods can be subjective or objective. Objective ones are guided by preschool didactics. But the subjective part of the method depends on the skill of the teacher. The name speaks for itself - the main way to acquire information is vision. Teaching techniques and methods involve the use of illustrations and specific images. These include: Verbal techniques and teaching methods consist of the word, the teacher’s oral story. These methods include: Practical methods and techniques for teaching preschoolers are characterized by the interaction of the teacher and children, but are aimed at the independent work of children. This includes: The main principle of children's thinking is the principle of clarity. Therefore, in kindergarten classes it is necessary to use visual methods and techniques that will ensure the high efficiency of the educational process. Observation is a systematic and purposeful perception by children of objects or environmental phenomena. For this process to be effective, the teacher must set a goal for contemplation for the children. Several options are possible. 1. Recognize, determine characteristics. For example: 2. Determine the nature of the changes or transformation of the object. For example: 3. Establish the state of the object based on individual characteristics. For example: Depending on the amount of time spent, observations can be long-term or short-term. A demonstration is a visual display of an object. No verbal explanation in kindergarten classes will be effective unless it is accompanied by the demonstration of various visual aids. These include: The demonstration method covers the following teaching techniques: Observation and demonstration methods are most fully used during excursions and daily walks in the fresh air. They ensure the development of such a cognitive process as perception, the formation of visual-figurative and visual-effective thinking. Great importance in the application of visual methods is given to the use of technical teaching aids (TSO) or a computer. This is becoming increasingly popular in the educational field and is used when there is a need to demonstrate a dynamic object or some process. Using TCO and a computer, they represent: For example, during a safety lesson, you could show a video about the rules for crossing the road. There are also now a large number of educational video games and programs, various cartoons with educational content, which are recommended for use in kindergarten classes. Practical methodological techniques in kindergarten classes help preschoolers to more deeply understand the surrounding reality. Their use allows the child to independently, through practical actions with objects, determine their basic properties and characteristics, establish the relationship between them, and understand the principle of their actions. Practical methods provide a higher degree of knowledge acquisition than any other didactic techniques. A child will remember much better that lemon is sour if he tastes it himself, etc. There are four main methods. Exercises are the repeated repetition of various actions (practical or mental) of a certain content. As a result of performing the exercises, stable skills or abilities are formed. There are several types of exercises. The system of using the exercise method should be built on the principle of gradually complicating the conditions for their implementation. In kindergarten, only the simplest experiments are practiced, which help children gain new knowledge about the environment. During the experiment, preschoolers interact with objects to learn their properties and relationships with other objects. The most effective technique is to organize the child’s search activities. You can offer the following tasks: Thanks to this method, the teacher forms visual and effective thinking in children. The modeling method is based on the principle of replacing a real object with a symbol, image, sign. In kindergarten, subject models (toys or substitute objects) or subject-schematic models are used (for example, when working with a nature calendar). The use of this method contributes to the development of skills to compare, abstract, and generalize essential features. During didactic games, children are asked to recreate a specific situation, “live” it and gain some experience of acting in certain conditions. The use of this method presupposes the presence of gaming equipment, the distribution of roles and the implementation of gaming actions. The use of didactic games in kindergarten includes the following methodological techniques: The gaming method forms creative thinking, develops imagination, helps the child learn to behave at ease, and relieve psychological stress. Verbal methods provide live communication between the teacher and children. With the help of speech influence, the teacher can evoke an emotional response in preschoolers and encourage them to form their attitude towards the content of the knowledge being transmitted. A story is an effective verbal method that allows you to present information in an accessible way for children. With the help of a story, you can put educational material into figurative form. The teacher is encouraged to use literary works or write stories from personal life experience. The teacher, voicing a story for children, conveys his attitude to the story he is telling. The story can be used during any lesson. After listening to the story, the teacher must check the degree to which the preschoolers have mastered its content. A more complex version of this method is for the child to retell the text he heard or compose his own statement based on a model or on a given topic. Conversation is a dialogical method of carrying out cognitive activity. A prerequisite for conducting a conversation is that children have a certain amount of knowledge on the topic under discussion. You can use the following types of conversations: Verbal methodological techniques are widely used in kindergarten in speech development classes. These include: Verbal techniques also include: When verbal methods are used in isolation when working with preschoolers, they have low effectiveness. It is necessary to supplement them with visual or practical methods. This will contribute to the development of children's speech, creative imagination, and cognitive activity. In classes with preschool children, it is recommended to use a variety of methods and techniques, alternating and combining them. At the same time, it is necessary to conduct a “live” dialogue with the kids, encourage them to take direct action, and rely on children’s life experience. Such conditions for the educational process in kindergarten will ensure its high efficiency.What is the method and technique of teaching?
Visual methods
Verbal teaching methods
Practical methods
Observation
Demonstration
Practical methods and techniques
Exercises
Experiment
Modeling
Games
Verbal methods and techniques
Story or reading
Conversation
