A set of stable and generally valid norms, theories, methods, schemes of scientific activity, which implies unity in the interpretation of the theory, in the organization of empirical research and the interpretation of scientific research. The concept of P. introduced into the modern philosophy of science by T. Kuhn to explain the functioning of "normal science". According to Kuhn, the development of science goes through several stages. The pre-paradigm stage in the development of science is characterized by the presence of many theoretical directions, a variety of methodological approaches. At this stage, there is no single theoretical concept that guides the activities of the scientific community. Stage so-called. "normal science" is characterized by the adoption of a stable and recognized by the entire scientific community of P. The main conceptual load of P. is that, on the one hand, it excludes all concepts, theories, methods that are not related to P. and are not consistent with it, on the other On the other hand, it orients the scientific community and research activities towards the use of theory to predict new phenomenal areas, as well as the improvement of P. itself through the reinterpretation of available theories. The guarantee of the stability of "normal science" is its conservatism: all research activity is carried out within the framework of the adopted P. But "normal science" begins to experience a crisis over time. The latter is associated with the emergence of scientific anomalies leading to scientific discoveries. Most scientific anomalies arise in strict accordance with paradigm rules and requirements. With the discovery of anomalous phenomena, the search for solutions begins, and the search is mainly carried out within the framework of a given P. in order to preserve it. "Any crisis begins with paradigm doubt and subsequent loosening of the rules of normal research" (Kuhn). The end of the crisis is marked by a scientific revolution, the essence of which lies in the emergence of new paradigms. New paradigms are qualitatively incommensurable with the old ones and are not cumulative. "Scientific revolutions are considered here as such non-cumulative episodes in the development of science, during which the old paradigm is replaced in whole or in part by a new paradigm that is incompatible with the old one" (Kuhn). As a result of the adoption of the new paradigm, the totality of norms, values, and attitudes accepted by the scientific community changes significantly. Due to the uncertainty of the concept of P., associated, first of all, with the contradiction of the logical and psycho-historical connotations of the term, Kuhn further explicated the initial characteristics of P. through the disciplinary matrix The disciplinary matrix includes several elements: first, a symbolic generalization of laws. Symbolic generalization helps the scientific community to formalize the main theoretical provisions. Secondly, Kuhn singles out the "metaphysical" component of P. - a system of methodological principles used to interpret these laws. Third, a set of standardized tools and methods for solving common problems. Examples of P. are Aristotelian dynamics, Ptolemaic astronomy, Newtonian mechanics, and Einstein's theory of relativity. The concept of P. is used in modern socio-philosophical theories to diagnose its current state and predict prospects, although one can hardly speak unequivocally about the applicability of P. as a unified system of norms, attitudes, and values ​​to socio-philosophical theories. T. Kh. Kerimov

Definitions, meanings of the word in other dictionaries:

Dictionary of Logic

Paradigm (from the Greek paradeigma - example, sample) - a set of theoretical and methodological provisions adopted by the scientific community at a certain stage in the development of science and used as a model, model, standard for scientific research, interpretation, evaluation and ...

Philosophical Dictionary

(from the Greek paradeigma - example, sample) - a set of theoretical and methodological provisions adopted by the scientific community at a certain stage in the development of science and used as a sample, model, standard for scientific research, interpretation, evaluation and ...

Philosophical Dictionary

(Greek paradeigma - example, sample) - 1) the concept of ancient and medieval philosophy, characterizing the sphere of eternal ideas as a prototype, a model, according to which the demiurge god creates the world of existence; 2) in modern philosophy of science - a system of theoretical, methodological and ...

Philosophical Dictionary

1. The totality of theoretical, methodological, value and other guidelines adopted at each stage of the development of science (the concept was introduced by the American scientist T. Kuhn); 2. In a broad sense, the original conceptual idea, the value as a scheme or. A kind of map of the area that helps ...

Philosophical Dictionary

One of the key concepts of modern philosophy of science. Introduced by Kuhn. Denotes a set of beliefs, values, methods and technical means adopted by the scientific community and ensuring the existence of a scientific tradition. The concept of P. is correlative to the concept of the scientific community: ...

The latest philosophical dictionary

PARADIGMA (Greek paradeigma - example, sample) - 1) the concept of ancient and medieval philosophy, characterizing the sphere of eternal ideas as a prototype, a model, in accordance with which the demiurge god creates the world of existence; 2) in modern philosophy of science - a system of theoretical, ...

Paradigm- generally accepted scientific achievements, on the basis of which philosophical, religious or scientific theories unfold. For scientists, this is a world of truths that are not subject to any doubt. In other words, the paradigm represents certain boundaries within which everything is known, proven and accepted by everyone.

Where does it appear from?

All paradigms are created by people. A paradigm is formed when the majority of people who understand at the same level in one topic have come to a general agreement, i.e. they begin to consider this theory the best in explaining the subject of study (any area of ​​the following).

Since the late sixties of the twentieth century, this word has been used to denote the original worldview schemes, models for defining problems and solving them, methods of research that prevailed among scientists during some historical periods of time.

What defines a paradigm:

• Objects and phenomena worth exploring.
• Questions that need to be studied in a particular area.
• How should these questions be structured?
• What assumptions can be made within the boundaries of a generally accepted theory?
• What should be changed in the results of scientific research?
• Plan and equipment for the experiment.

Types of paradigms

Paradigms can be in:

• Philosophies . In it, paradigms are thought patterns in the form of theories, research methods, postulates and standards. Due to which further constructions, generalizations and experiments in this area are created.
• Religions . Different faiths in different gods.
• Science . Scientific paradigms are fixed in school and other textbooks, records of scientists. They determine for a long time the scientific fields in which there are problems and how they should be properly solved. As a rule, scientists choose and follow one paradigm. After some time, after the crisis of normal science, scientists can change the paradigm, move from one to another.
• political science . It sets the direction of the study of politics, in accordance with which a person, relying on rules, political theories and ideas, is engaged in solving certain problems.
• Rhetoric . As an example for comparison, you can use a fable and a parabola.
• education . Compatibility of various theories, concepts, rules and ideas, in certain periods recognized by the pedagogical community and being the basis of scientific research.
• Programming . The complexity of ideas and concepts that determines the style of writing computer programs and the organization of calculations and structure performed by a computer.
• Linguistics . Used to designate a class of elements that have similar properties and have their own grammatical categories, such as: declension and conjugation.

Paradigms are:

• Absolute . They are proven by scientists and other researchers who conducted various experiments to prove their theories.
• generally accepted . These include the prevailing methods of decision-making, which are accepted and not challenged by a huge number of people.
• personal . Certain subjective patterns of behavior of different people, formed from personal experience, from influence in childhood, on an example from someone. The approved subjective point of view of a particular person.

Examples

An individual (personal) paradigm can be formed in childhood, even if a person does not remember it at all - memories are erased in the mind, but preserved in the subconscious.

For example, two friends receive an offer for a very profitable business. The first friend in childhood lived with his father, a businessman, and constantly saw only pluses in his dad's business: money, success, career, meeting and communicating with new people, traveling, etc.

And the paradigm "business - success" was firmly entrenched in his memory.

And in childhood, the father regularly told the second friend about his father, who lost everything because of the business and was left in his old age with a bunch of debts. The second one developed the paradigm “business is the loss of everything”. Which of these two friends, already in adulthood, will accept an offer for a profitable business? Probably only the first friend. Even if the second one agrees to start his own business, then most likely, due to the paradigms laid down at the subconscious level, he will lose everything, having the wrong attitude in advance. This is the personal paradigm.

Generally accepted paradigms are created from the opinion of the majority of people. If a theory is widely accepted among a large number of proponents, then it is the accepted paradigm. For example, the beneficial paradigm of Russia's constitutional course in 1993 and the general programming paradigm.

Absolute paradigms include such truths as: gravity, the planet Earth has the shape of a ball, human evolution, any undeniable truths and natural phenomena.

PARADIGM- in the methodology of science - a set of values, methods, technical skills and means adopted in the scientific community within the framework of an established scientific tradition in a certain period of time. Finds its expression in scientific works, scientific schools and circles, textbooks, etc. a certain group of researchers with specialized and similar scientific training, who are united in their understanding of the values ​​of science and united by a scientific ethos with certain normative and value attitudes.

In linguistics, the term "paradigm" is used to designate a construction that serves as a model for the declension or conjugation of a changing word or a system of forms for a changing word.

The use of the term "paradigm" in the methodology of science was fixed by T.S. Kuhn. Kuhn drew attention to the fact that the history of science was not a linear process, but was a change in scientific paradigms that rather rigidly regulate both the choice of problems and the methods for solving them over quite long periods of time. Thus, Aristotelian physics functioned as a paradigm from classical antiquity to the late Middle Ages; throughout this period, it set the conceptual tools and the main direction of scientific research. The physical and mathematical discoveries of the 16th and 17th centuries, associated with the names of Galileo, Descartes and Newton, created the situation of a scientific revolution, during which the supporters of the old paradigm clashed with the adherents of the "new science". In the 18th century Newtonian physics acted as a paradigm of scientific research, which at the beginning of the 20th century. replaced relativistic physics with the theory of relativity, etc.

But when the question arose of what the structure of the paradigm was, then great difficulties appeared here. Kuhn was reproached for the fact that the term is indefinite and ambiguous (there were up to 60 different meanings of its understanding). Kuhn in 1969 in a postscript to the second edition Structures of scientific revolutions(The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, 1962), attempted to explain the structure of the paradigm.

He singled out the metaphysical parts of the paradigm, understanding by this some fundamental visions of the subject of science and some philosophical, worldview ideas; paradigm values; symbolic generalizations and "paradigms as examples of problem solving". And here paradoxes arose. For him, normal science is when the paradigm is stable, which allows solving specific problems. Breaking the paradigm is a revolution. But if symbolic generalizations and patterns of problem solving are included in the paradigm, then their changes will be a scientific revolution. As an example of a symbolic generalization, he cited the law of pendulum oscillation. And an example of a solution to a problem, for example, oscillations, is an oscillator. And here Kuhn had paradoxes, since this type of new symbolic generalization can be considered a scientific revolution - but then the certainty of normal science is lost.

In the further development of the concept of paradigm, Kuhn used the term "disciplinary matrix".

Accepted and shared by the scientific community and uniting the majority of its members. Ensures the continuity of the development of science and scientific creativity. Other values:

• A paradigm in rhetoric is an example taken from history or mythology and given for the purpose of comparison; parabola, fable.
• A paradigm in the methodology of science is a set of values, methods, approaches, technical skills and means adopted in the scientific community within the framework of an established scientific tradition in a certain period of time.
• A paradigm in political science is a set of cognitive principles and methods for displaying political reality that define the logic of knowledge organization, a model for the theoretical interpretation of a given group of social phenomena.

Besides, paradigm can be absolute, scientific, state, personal (individual, subjective) and generally accepted:

• The generally accepted paradigms include an exemplary decision-making method, models of the world or its parts (industries, areas of knowledge, spheres of life and activity) accepted by a large number of people. Examples: the paradigm of the constitutional course of Russia in 1993, the general paradigm of programming.
• A personal paradigm is an essential decision-making method, a mental model of a particular person, his point of view. The current statement is incorrect that "in a natural way, it will necessarily differ from the generally accepted one, since it takes into account the personal experience of the subject, and is also not complete - no one can know everything about everything." The fact is that the generally accepted paradigm does not define “knowledge of everything”, but only the essential knowledge necessary to ensure the evolutionary activity of the individual in social reality and the acquisition of reason.

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An excerpt characterizing the Paradigm

“The enemy has put out the fires, and there is a continuous noise in his camp,” he said. - What does it mean? “Either he moves away, which is the only thing we should be afraid of, or he changes position (he chuckled). But even if he did take a position in Tyuras, he only saves us a lot of trouble, and the orders, down to the smallest detail, remain the same.
“In what way? ..” said Prince Andrei, who had long been waiting for an opportunity to express his doubts.
Kutuzov woke up, cleared his throat heavily and looked around at the generals.
“Gentlemen, the disposition for tomorrow, even today (because it is already the first hour), cannot be changed,” he said. “You have heard her, and we will all do our duty. And before the battle, there is nothing more important ... (he paused) how to get a good night's sleep.
He pretended to get up. The generals bowed and retired. It was past midnight. Prince Andrew left.

The military council, at which Prince Andrei failed to express his opinion, as he hoped, left an unclear and disturbing impression on him. Who was right: Dolgorukov with Weyrother or Kutuzov with Langeron and others who did not approve of the plan of attack, he did not know. “But was it really impossible for Kutuzov to directly express his thoughts to the sovereign? Can't it be done differently? Is it really necessary to risk tens of thousands and my, my life because of court and personal considerations? he thought.
"Yes, it's very possible they'll kill you tomorrow," he thought. And suddenly, at this thought of death, a whole series of recollections, the most distant and most sincere, rose in his imagination; he remembered the last farewell to his father and wife; he remembered the first days of his love for her! He remembered her pregnancy, and he felt sorry for both her and himself, and in a nervously softened and agitated state he left the hut in which he stood with Nesvitsky, and began to walk in front of the house.
The night was misty, and moonlight shone mysteriously through the mist. “Yes, tomorrow, tomorrow! he thought. “Tomorrow, perhaps, everything will be over for me, all these memories will no longer exist, all these memories will no longer have any meaning for me. Tomorrow, maybe, even probably tomorrow, I foresee it, for the first time I will finally have to show everything that I can do. And he imagined the battle, the loss of it, the concentration of the battle on one point and the confusion of all commanding persons. And now that happy moment, that Toulon, which he had been waiting for so long, finally appears to him. He firmly and clearly speaks his opinion to both Kutuzov, and Weyrother, and the emperors. Everyone is amazed at the correctness of his ideas, but no one undertakes to fulfill it, and so he takes a regiment, a division, pronounces a condition that no one should interfere with his orders, and leads his division to a decisive point and alone wins. What about death and suffering? says another voice. But Prince Andrei does not answer this voice and continues his successes. The disposition of the next battle is made by him alone. He bears the rank of army duty officer under Kutuzov, but he does everything alone. The next battle is won by him alone. Kutuzov is replaced, he is appointed ... Well, and then? another voice says again, and then, if you are not wounded, killed or deceived ten times before; well, then what? “Well, then,” Prince Andrei answers himself, “I don’t know what will happen next, I don’t want and I can’t know: but if I want this, I want fame, I want to be known to people, I want to be loved by them, then after all it's not my fault that I want this, that I want this alone, for this alone I live. Yes, for this one! I will never tell anyone this, but, my God! what am I to do if I love nothing but glory, human love. Death, wounds, loss of family, nothing scares me. And no matter how dear and dear to me many people are - my father, sister, wife - the people dearest to me - but, no matter how terrible and unnatural it seems, I will give them all now for a moment of glory, triumph over people, for love for to myself people whom I do not know and will not know, for the love of these people, ”he thought, listening to the conversation in Kutuzov’s yard. In the yard of Kutuzov, the voices of orderlies packing up were heard; one voice, probably the coachman, teasing the old Kutuzovsky cook, whom Prince Andrei knew, and whose name was Tit, said: “Tit, and Tit?”

paradigms) P. called. rules or regulations that set boundaries and direct actions towards the successful achievement of a goal. The historian of science Thomas Kuhn drew attention to the role of P. for the scientific world, believing that they fully correspond only to the physical world. Sciences. P. in action are equivalent to a set of basic ideas or concepts that guide the behavior of an individual, and therefore, set the parameters of a standard way of functioning in relation to the purpose or nature of the work, and become a way for this individual to perform c.l. cases or a way to solve k.-l. Problems. Items are found in any culture. Each culture has its own norms that define the boundaries of acceptable behavior and become the proper ways to perform certain functions. A change in the pattern and - as a consequence of this change - a deviation from the established norms in c.-l. Barker called the situation "a paradigm shift, ... a transition to a new game, to a new set of rules." In each generation, nonconformists became the initiators of such changes, who took great risks in doing so, since P. means consistency, and their shifts cause confusion. A simple example of a paradigm shift is the desire of a birthday person to put on the table not a traditional cake, but a sweet pie: the rejection of the traditional cake is nothing but a P shift. there were very few women in the labor market, with most of them in clerical work. Before the Second World War, P. dominated, according to which a woman should take care of the house and children, and earning a living is the duty of a man. By 1950, there was a shift in P. Women began to acquire various specialties and began to work so that families would have some "free" money, but later, during a period of economic recession, a second salary became a necessary condition for survival. Religion Great changes have taken place in religious customs, for example. in the activities of the Catholic Church after the Second Vatican Council. Other changes include holding liturgy in the native language, the concept of ecumenism, communion after meals, reducing the number of statues, personal penance, and expanding the training of local clergy. Such innovations aroused active resistance. Ritzer, in his commentary on Kuhn's original work, wrote: "The paradigm that wins is the one that manages to win over the largest number of neophytes to its side." As new concepts gain more and more followers, P. goes down, and it is accepted. Among the theories of cognitive growth and development generally recognized today, which were once paradigmatic, are the theories of E. Erickson, Z. Freud, J. Piaget and L. S. Vygotsky. Dr. P. in education, concerning intelligence, osn. on the theories of C. Spearman, J. P. Gilford, L. L. Thurstone, R. J. Sternberg, G. Gardner and many others. other theories. Each of them is characterized by certain methodological rules and restrictions, as well as standards, models and procedures, and each of them has a place under such a large "umbrella" as education. Barker argued that "the linking of all these P. is of decisive importance for the successful and long life of any culture and org-tion." Some paradigms take root with great difficulty, while others are accepted surprisingly quickly. If the need for change is great, P.'s shift usually does not take long. The entire centuries-old history of mankind is marked by shifts in P. As long as new ideas and concepts are born, there will also be shifts in P., aimed at meeting the needs of people. See also Automation, Causal thinking, Coding, Cultural determinism, Human factors, Information processing theory, Intuition, Philosophy of science, Systems theory, Theoretical psychology P. Karich