From antiquity to the present, physiologists have associated and still associate the emotional states of a person with various changes in the body, with various bodily manifestations.

At the end of the 19th century, a theory of emotions was put forward, according to which emotion arises only as a result of internal, physiological processes occurring in the body. Perception causes bodily processes - changes in the activity of breathing, the cardiovascular system, muscles of the body, etc., and only after these changes do emotional experiences appear in the body. They are a consequence of these changes and their awareness. This theory was proposed by an American psychologist. W. James in "Principles of Psychology" (1890). V. James noted that, in contrast to the generally accepted opinion, one should say: "we grieve that we cry; we are angry that we shout and knock, and not vice versa" V. James associated emotions only with internal subjective experience and did not note the reflex nature of their occurrence and the nature of their experience.

In 1910-1915, a number of studies on the biochemical analysis of changes occurring in the body under the influence of emotions were made. W. Cannon. Research. W. Cannon, as well. M. Sherrington gave valuable facts and personal material, made it possible to treat the issue of emotions from the point of view of the body's adaptive reactions to activity. However, these studies did not sufficiently reveal the physiological nature of emotions and the patterns of their occurrence.

Interesting attempts to study the neural mechanisms of emotional reactions have been made in the laboratory. VM. Bekhterev (1929), who considered emotions as complex reflexes that arise on the basis of natural instincts, rich emotional reactions are reproduced according to the type of conditioned reflexes, in which the irritating process spreads from the cerebral cortex to the subcortical vegetative centers and is transmitted to different organs of the body by reflex mechanics. emotions with their characteristic motor manifestations as well. THEM. Sechenov. Simple emotional reactions have the same mechanism as complex ones. First, the excitation of the sensory nerve, then the dilation of the center, the pleasure; The result is muscle contraction. Emotional reaction, for. THEM. Sechenov, is a reflex with a "reinforced end", which covers the entire sphere of passions. The emotional elements complicate. A reflex is plowing movements, connected in their elementary forms with instinctive forms and instincts.

He gave a deep experimental substantiation of the conditioned reflex mechanism of emotions. IP. Pavlov. He proved that emotional reactions are based on the joint activity of the cortex and subcortex with their complex reflex connections, and the cortex plays a regulatory role in emotional reactions.

103 The physiological basis of emotions

All emotions - joy, love, anxiety, fear, sadness, shame, etc. - always arise under the influence of external and internal stimuli on the human nervous system. When emotions arise, nervous excitation spreads to the vegetative centers and causes changes in the vital activity of the organism. Emotions with their reactions in the form of changes in the activity of internal organs, various expressive movements, etc. arising under the mechanism of both unconditional and conditioned reflexes.

Emotional reactions arising from the mechanism of unconditioned reflexes are permanent. Emotions such as suffering from hunger, thirst, pain, emotions of pleasure, fear with typical defensive reflexes themselves, as well as emotions of anger with its offensive defensive reflexes, etc., arise constantly and necessarily with the corresponding states of the body and under appropriate external conditions. These responses are biologically necessary, vital, and are inherited forms of reflex responses. They are gaining typical species forms of manifestation in various higher - animals and humans. Emotional reactions of laughter, climbing, the reaction of fear, anger are common to all people that have a species character. However, the mechanism of reactions even with simple emotions in a person is much more complex, more diverse than in an animal. These reactions are not so stereotyped, they have many different shades of intensity and quality. In humans, the nature of these unconditioned reflex emotional reactions is inseparable from the conditioned reflex reactions of reactions.

The conditioned reflex occurrence of emotional reactions is associated with numerous unconditioned stimuli that an animal or person encounters in its individual experience. In conditioned reflexes that arise on the basis of unconditioned ones, the movement of nervous excitation is possible both from the subcortex to the cortex, and in the opposite direction - from the cortex to the subcortical center.

The subcortex functions under the control of the cerebral cortex. Control from the cortex is manifested, in particular, in the fact that a person can regulate the strength of emotions, not succumb to them, delay, to a certain extent, the external manifestations of their experiences (for example, restrain their laughter, anger, etc.) while the subcortex has a positive effect on the cerebral cortex, acting as the source of their silli.

The destruction of subcortical formations, especially the thalamus and hypothalamus, leads to a violation of the external manifestation of emotional states. With pathological lesions of the subcortex in sick people, disorders and emotional reactions are observed.

complex human experiences are associated with the formation of systems of temporary neural connections, with the development, support and change of dynamic stereotypes. The dynamic stereotype is formed under the influence of the real interrelations of the organism with the environment, not only the establishment, but also the more or less long-term maintenance of the dynamic stereotype - nervous work, depends on the complexity of the stereotype itself and the individual characteristics of the human nervous system. Education, support and violation of the dynamic stereotype do not go unnoticed by a person, they are experienced. NO.

Dynamic stereotypes change throughout life due to changes in its conditions. New life circumstances, new tasks require from a person new ways of acting, changing the old system of connections with the environment and developing a new one. This change of one stereotype by another is often accompanied by a conflict between the old and new stereotypes, and is expressed in the struggle of various human experiences. Changes in the systems of connections produced are experienced by children at different moments of their lives (for example, when moving from a family to kindergarten, entering school, moving from elementary to middle school, graduating from school, etc.) connections are changing. Much is preserved, and well-established feelings are preserved.

A variety of external manifestations of feelings can be divided into expressive, or expressive movements and changes in the activity of internal organs, or visceral (from lat viscera - insides). Both those and others are by origin congenital, unconditional and acquired, conditional

Unconditional reflex manifestations of feelings are provided by the activity of the subcortex. The physiological mechanism of conditioned reflex manifestations of feelings is interoceptive temporary nerve connections formed in the cerebral cortex of the brain and play an important role in regulating the work of internal organs.

Emotions have their own biochemical basis. Experiments with psychoactive pharmacological drugs (phenamine, adrenaline, etc.) have shown that these drugs affect the hypothalamus in different ways and, in terms of its dynamic balance with the autonomic nervous system, cause various emotional states in a person (rise, anxiety, depression, longing, etc.).

Different emotional states of a person, his complex moral, intellectual and aesthetic feelings can be caused not only by the direct influence of the phenomena of reality on the nervous system. They also arise in the process of human communication through conditioned stimuli, words. The process of transformation of temporary nervous connections into verbal signals occurs according to the basic laws of higher nervous activity, according to the laws of irradiation, concentration and mutual induction of nervous processes, excitation and inhibition. Caused by second-signal stimuli, nervous processes in the cerebral cortex when they irradiate to the lower ones. Branches of whether the brain cause various reactions in the life of the body, characteristic of emotions. We often observe cases in everyday life when, for example, the received verbal information about which events evokes a certain emotional reaction in a person - she rejoices, expresses satisfaction, or, conversely, worries.

Emotions are mental reactions that reflect the subjective attitude of the individual to objective phenomena.. Emotions arise as part of motivations and play an important role in shaping behavior. There are 3 types of emotional states (AN Leontiev): 1. Affects - strong, short-term emotions that arise on an already existing situation, for example, fear, horror with an immediate threat to life. 2. Actually emotions - long-term states that reflect the attitude of the individual to the existing or expected situation (sadness, anxiety, joy). 3. Objective feelings - constant emotions associated with any object (feeling of love for a particular person, for the Motherland, etc.). Functions of emotions: 1. Estimated. They allow you to quickly assess the need and the possibility of its satisfaction. For example, when feeling hungry, a person does not count the calorie content of the food available, the content of proteins, fats, carbohydrates in it, but simply eats in accordance with the intensity of the feeling of hunger, i.e. the intensity of the corresponding emotion. 2. Encouraging function. Emotions stimulate goal-directed behavior. For example, negative emotions during hunger stimulate food-procuring behavior. 3. Reinforcing function. Emotions stimulate memory and learning. For example, positive emotions with material reinforcement of training. 4. Communicative function. It consists in transferring one's experiences to other individuals. Facial expressions convey emotions, not thoughts.

Emotions are expressed by certain motor and vegetative reactions. For example, with certain emotions, corresponding facial expressions and gestures arise. The tone of skeletal muscles increases, the voice changes, the heartbeat quickens, blood pressure rises. This is due to the excitation of motor centers, centers of the sympathetic nervous system and the release of adrenaline from the adrenal glands (printing). The main role in the formation of emotions belongs to the hypothalamus and the limbic system, especially the amygdala. When it is removed from animals, the mechanisms of emotions are violated. When the amygdala is irritated, a person develops fear, rage, and anger. In humans, the frontal and temporal areas of the cortex play an important role in the formation of emotions. For example, if the frontal areas are damaged, emotional dullness occurs. The significance of the hemispheres is also not the same. With a temporary shutdown of the left hemisphere, negative emotions arise - the mood becomes pessimistic. When the right one is turned off, the opposite mood occurs. It has been established that the initial feeling of complacency, carelessness, lightness when drinking alcohol is explained by its effect on the right hemisphere. The subsequent worsening of mood, aggressiveness, irritability is due to the effect of alcohol on the left hemisphere. Therefore, in people with an underdeveloped left hemisphere, alcohol almost immediately causes aggressive behavior. In healthy people, the emotional predominance of the right hemisphere is manifested by suspiciousness, increased anxiety. With the dominance of the left, these phenomena are absent (test of emotional asymmetry of the brain - humor). An important role in the emergence of emotions belongs to the balance of neurotransmitters. For example, if the content of serotonin in the brain increases, mood improves; its deficiency leads to depression. The same picture is observed with a lack or excess of norepinephrine. Suicides have been found to have significantly reduced brain levels of these neurotransmitters.

From a physiological point of view, an emotion is an active state of a system of specialized brain structures that prompts a change in behavior in the direction of maximizing or minimizing this state (the regulatory function of emotions; from which the presentation of the physiological mechanisms of willpower as control of one's emotions follows).

Emotions manifest themselves as external behavior and as a restructuring of the internal environment of the body, with the goal of adapting the body to its environment. For example, the emotion of fear prepares the body for “avoidance behavior”: the orienting reflex is activated, activating the brain system, the work of the sense organs is enhanced, adrenaline is released into the blood, the work of the heart muscle, the respiratory system is enhanced, the muscles tense up, the work of the digestive organs slows down, and the like. The fact that many physiological changes associated with emotions are manifested in the activation of the autonomic nervous system is of great practical importance: in clinical and research practice, such parameters as blood pressure, pulse, respiration, pupillary response, skin condition are widely used ( including skin hair elevation), activity of external secretion glands, blood glucose level. Before emotions appear in consciousness (at the level of the cerebral cortex), information from external receptors is processed at the level of the subcortex, hypothalamus, hippocampus, reaching the cingulate gyrus. The system of the hypothalamus and amygdala provide the reaction of the body at the level of the simplest, basic forms of behavior.

Even Charles Darwin, characterizing emotions in evolutionary terms, drew attention to their connection with instinctive forms of behavior. As he showed, facial reactions are characteristic even of children blind from birth. Such basic manifestations of emotions are innate in nature and are characteristic not only of humans, but also of higher animals - primates, dogs and others

9. Theories of emotions (James-Lange, Freud, Cannon-Bard, Papeize)

The James-Lange Theory of Emotions The theory according to which the emergence of emotions is due to the state of internal organs and behavioral reactions. According to James, "We are sad because we cry, we are afraid because we tremble, we are happy because we laugh." At the same time, Lange attached particular importance to the state of innervation of the vessels. The theory was proposed independently of each other in the 80s. 19th century American psychologist W. James (1842–1910) and Danish psychologist C. Lange (1834–1900).

a philosophical and psychological theory that considers the emergence of emotional states as a consequence of certain movements, gestures, physiological changes, and not vice versa. According to W. James, we are sad because we cry; we are afraid because we tremble; we rejoice because we laugh. Peripheral organic changes, which are usually considered as a consequence of emotions, are declared to be their causes. According to this theory, in order to achieve positive emotions, you must first artificially force yourself to smile - and then positive emotions will gradually appear.

Freud's psychoanalytic concept of emotions.

Psychoanalysis draws attention to the energy component of mental processes, considering the emotional sphere in this regard. Despite the fact that the proposed abstract version of the interpretation of emotions had little to do with the organization of the brain, it later attracted the attention of many researchers who dealt with this problem. According to Sigmund Freud, the unconscious is a source of excess energy, which he defines as libido. The structural content of the libido is due to the conflict situation that took place in the past and is encrypted at the instinctive level. It should be noted that the facts that testify to the pronounced plasticity of the nervous system do not agree well with the idea of ​​a “preserved” conflict, not to mention the fact that biological meaning is poorly visible in this hypothesis. Over time, psychoanalysis came to the conclusion that the energy of the “unconscious” is not stored in the structures of the brain as a “developmental defect”, but is a consequence of the appearance of an excess of energy in the nervous system, as a result of an imperfect adaptation of the individual in society. For example, A. Adler believed that most children initially have a sense of their own imperfection, in comparison with "omnipotent adults", which leads to the formation of an inferiority complex. Personal development, according to Adler's views, depends on how this complex will be compensated. In pathological cases, a person may try to compensate for his inferiority complex by striving for power over others.

PEIPES, THE THEORY OF EMOTIONS One of the first theoretical attempts to identify specific cortical mechanisms underlying emotion. This theory was developed by J. W. Peipez in the 1930s and proposed three interconnected systems (sensory, hypothalamic, and thalamic) that were supposed to be combined in the cortex, where the "psychological product" of emotions arose. This theory has not been subjected to rigorous anatomical scrutiny, but it has been influential in recognizing the involvement of the hypothalamus and drawing attention to the integrative role of the cortex.

10. Post-traumatic stress reactions, primary and secondary symptoms.

11. Post-traumatic stress reactions, developmental phases, types of mental disadaptation. (+ see 7, 10)

12. Psycho-emotional stress (PES). Classification. Syndromes. Signs of PES.

Syndromes:

Inertness, neuro-psychic disorders, BA, coronary artery disease, Sax. diabetes.

Genesis is unclear. Possibly due to nerves.

13. Stress of life, professional stress

14-16. Correction of functional states. Rationale. Schemes and indications for use.

15. Means and methods of correction (physiological, vitamin therapy, pharmacological). (cm14)

16. Means and methods of correction (psychological, psychophysiological) (see 14).

17-20. Methods for assessing the functional state. Parameters of sensory activity.

18. Methods for assessing the functional state. Parameters of activity of physiological systems.

19. Psychological methods for assessing the functional state and performance.

20. Mathematical methods for assessing physical and mental work.

21. Specific functional states. Monotony, fatigue, mechanisms, diagnostics.

22. Specific functional states. Hypokinesia. Neuro-emotional stress, mechanisms, diagnostics. (See 21)

23. Characteristics of the human respiratory system from the standpoint of its participation in stress reactions.

Autoregulation of breathing.

Under normal conditions, no one thinks or remembers about breathing. But when for some reason there are deviations from the norm, it suddenly becomes difficult to breathe. Breathing becomes difficult and heavy with physical exertion or in a stressful situation. And vice versa, with a strong fright, tense expectation of something, people involuntarily hold their breath (hold their breath). A person has the opportunity, by consciously controlling breathing, to use it to calm down, to relieve tension - both muscular and mental, thus, autoregulation of breathing can become an effective means of dealing with stress, along with relaxation and concentration. Anti-stress breathing exercises can be performed in any position. Only one condition is obligatory: the spine must be in a strictly vertical or horizontal position. This makes it possible to breathe naturally, freely, without tension, to fully stretch the muscles of the chest and abdomen. The correct position of the head is also very important: it should sit straight and loose on the neck. A relaxed, upright sitting head stretches the chest and other parts of the body upwards to a certain extent. If everything is in order and the muscles are relaxed, then you can practice free breathing, constantly controlling it.

We will not go into detail here about what breathing exercises exist (they are easy to find in the literature), but we will draw the following conclusions:

1. With the help of deep and calm self-regulated breathing, mood swings can be prevented.

2. When laughing, sighing, coughing, talking, singing or reciting, certain changes in the rhythm of breathing occur in comparison with the so-called normal automatic breathing. It follows from this that the way and rhythm of breathing can be purposefully regulated by consciously slowing down and deepening.

3. Increasing the duration of the exhalation promotes calm and complete relaxation.

4. The breathing of a calm and balanced person differs significantly from the breathing of a person under stress. Thus, the rhythm of breathing can determine the mental state of a person.

5. Rhythmic breathing calms the nerves and psyche; the duration of the individual phases of breathing does not matter - the rhythm is important.

6. Human health, and hence life expectancy, largely depends on proper breathing. And if breathing is an innate unconditioned reflex, then, therefore, it can be consciously regulated.

7. The slower and deeper, calmer and more rhythmic we breathe, the sooner we get used to this way of breathing, the sooner it will become an integral part of our life.

24. The value of energy consumption in extreme conditions. Basic concepts. (but xs, I hope that I don’t get caught on copies)

25. Thermal damage to the body and their prevention. Heat stress index.

26. Adaptive responses of migrants at high latitudes.

27. Socio-psychological adaptation and performance in the Far North.

28. Adaptive reactions of migrants in low latitudes.

29. Biological significance of pain. Classification. Assessment methods.

30. Chemical theory of pain. Portal system of pain.

31. Pain system of pain. Anesthesia approaches.

4. Functional systems (academician PK Anokhin), scheme, classification.

The central architectonics of functional systems that determine purposeful behavioral acts of varying degrees of complexity consists of the following successive stages: -> afferent synthesis, -> decision making, -> acceptor of action results, -> efferent synthesis, -> action formation, and, finally, -> assessment of the achieved result

1. AFFERENT (from lat. afferens - bringing), carrying to or into an organ (eg, afferent artery); transmitting impulses from the working organs (glands, muscles) to the nerve center (afferent, or centripetal, nerve fibers). EFFERENT (from lat. efferens - taking out), taking out, removing, transmitting impulses from the nerve centers to the working organs, for example. efferent, or centrifugal, nerve fibers. ACCEPTOR (from lat. acceptor - accepting).

A behavioral act of any degree of complexity begins with the stage afferent synthesis. Excitation caused by an external stimulus does not act in isolation. It certainly interacts with other afferent excitations that have a different functional meaning. The brain continuously processes all the signals coming through numerous sensory channels. And only as a result of the synthesis of these afferent excitations, conditions are created for the implementation of a certain purposeful behavior. The content of afferent synthesis is determined by the influence of several factors: motivational excitation, memory, situational and triggering afferentation.

The processes of afferent synthesis, covering motivational excitation, triggering and situational afferentation, the memory apparatus, are implemented using a special modulation mechanism that provides the necessary tone of the cerebral cortex and other brain structures. This mechanism regulates and distributes activating and inactivating influences coming from the limbic and reticular systems of the brain. The behavioral expression of the increase in the level of activation in the central nervous system, created by this mechanism, is the appearance of orienting-exploratory reactions and search activity of the animal.

2 Completion of the stage of afferent synthesis is accompanied by a transition to the stage decision making, which determines the type and direction of behavior. The decision-making stage is realized through a special and very important stage of a behavioral act - formation of the apparatus of the acceptor of the results of action. This is an apparatus that programs the results of future events. It actualizes the innate and individual memory of an animal and a person in relation to the properties of external objects that can satisfy the need that has arisen, as well as methods of action aimed at achieving or avoiding the target object. Often this apparatus is programmed with the entire path of searching in the external environment for appropriate stimuli..

The action result acceptor is assumed to be represented by a network of intercalary neurons covered by ring interaction. Excitation Once in this network, it continues to circulate in it for a long time. Thanks to this mechanism, long-term retention of the goal as the main regulator of behavior is achieved.

Before purposeful behavior begins to be carried out, another stage of the behavioral act develops - the stage of the action program or efferent synthesis. At this stage, the integration of somatic and vegetative excitations into a holistic behavioral act is carried out. This stage is characterized by the fact that the action has already been formed, but outwardly it is not yet realized.

3. The next stage is the actual implementation of the behavior program. Efferent excitation reaches the executive mechanisms, and the action is carried out.

Thanks to the apparatus of the acceptor of the results of an action, in which the goal and methods of behavior are programmed, the body has the ability to compare them with incoming afferent information about the results and parameters of the action being performed, i.e. With reverse afferentation. It is the results of the comparison that determine the subsequent construction of behavior, either it is corrected, or it stops as if the final result is achieved.
Therefore, if the signaling of the completed action fully corresponds to the prepared information contained in the action acceptor, then the search behavior ends. The corresponding need is satisfied. And the animal calms down. In the case when the results of the action do not coincide with the acceptor of the action and their mismatch occurs, orienting-research activity appears. As a result of this, the afferent synthesis is rebuilt, a new decision is made, a new acceptor of the results of the action is created, and a new action program is built. This happens until the results of the behavior match the properties of the new action acceptor. And then the behavioral act ends with the last sanctioning stage - the satisfaction of the need.

Classification of emotional phenomena.

1. The first group is leading emotions. Their occurrence is associated with the emergence or intensification of needs. Thus, the emergence of one or another biological need is primarily reflected in the appearance of negative emotional experiences that express the biological significance of those changes that develop in the internal environment of the body. The quality and specificity of the leading emotional experience are closely linked to the type and characteristics of the need that gave rise to it.

The second group of emotional experiences - situational emotions. They arise in the process of actions taken in relation to the goal, and are the result of comparing actual results with expected ones. In the structure of a behavioral act, according to P.K. Anokhin, these experiences arise as a result of comparing the reverse afferentation with the acceptor of the results of the action. In cases of disagreement, emotional experiences with a negative sign arise. If the parameters of the results of the action coincide with the expected emotional experiences, they are positive.

Leading emotions are most directly related to the formation of the goal of behavior. This applies to both negative and positive emotional experiences. Leading emotions with a negative sign signal to the subject about the biological significance of those deviations that occur in his internal environment. They determine the zone of search for target objects, since emotional experiences generated by a need are directed to those objects that are able to satisfy it. For example, in a situation of prolonged fasting, the experience of hunger is projected onto food. As a result, the attitude of the animal to food objects changes. It emotionally, greedily pounces on food, while a well-fed animal can show complete indifference to food.

Purposeful Behavior- the search for a target object that satisfies the need - is motivated not only by negative emotional experiences. Ideas about those positive emotions that, as a result of individual past experience, are associated in the memory of an animal and a person with receiving a future positive reinforcement or reward that satisfies a given specific need, also have a motivating force. Positive emotions are fixed in memory and subsequently arise every time as a kind of idea of ​​the future result when a corresponding need arises.

Thus, in the structure of a behavioral act, the formation of an acceptor of the results of an action is mediated by the content of emotional experiences. Leading emotions highlight the goal of behavior and thereby initiate behavior, determining its vector. Situational emotions that arise as a result of assessments of individual stages or behavior as a whole prompt the subject to either act in the same direction or change behavior, its tactics, and ways to achieve the goal.

According to the theory of the functional system, although behavior is based on the reflex principle, it cannot be defined as a sequence or chain of reflexes. Behavior differs from the totality of reflexes by the presence a special structure that includes programming as a mandatory element, which performs the function of anticipatory reflection of reality. Constant comparison of the results of behavior with these programming mechanisms, updating the content of the programming itself and determine the purposefulness of behavior.

Thus, in the considered structure of a behavioral act, the main characteristics of behavior are clearly presented: its purposefulness and the active role of the subject in the process of constructing behavior.

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Emotions, if any pronounced, usually include widespread organic changes, covering the entire body - the work of the heart and blood vessels, respiratory organs, digestion, endocrine glands, skeletal muscles, etc.

Changes in cardiac activity and the state of blood vessels in any acute emotional states are accessible to observation even with the naked eye. With a strong fright, a person turns pale - the color comes off his face; when embarrassed, people often blush, “flash” with shame: the color of shame floods the face. In the first case, compression occurs, in the second - expansion of the superficial blood vessels of the face. With strong emotional arousal, an increase in blood pressure is generally observed; in various emotional states, various changes occur in the strength and speed of cardiac activity.

To register these changes in cardiac activity and the circulatory system, appropriate equipment is used: the pulse curve is recorded using a sphygmograph, the heartbeat curve is recorded using a cardiograph; the determination of the blood filling of the vessels of individual organs, or the volumetric pulse, is carried out by means of a plethysmograph.

The figure shows the pulse curve according to A. Binet and Courtier: a sharp drop in the curve and a decrease in the height of the pulsation were caused in a very shy subject by the exclamation: “Snake!”.

More or less significant changes occur during emotional processes and in the respiratory system: breathing accelerates or slows down, becomes more superficial or becomes deeper, sometimes turning into a sigh: sometimes - for example, with an unexpected fright - it is interrupted, during laughter or sobs it becomes spasmodic .

Respiratory curves are recorded using a pneumograph. Samples of breathing curves for various emotions are given in the figure below. The figure depicts (according to J. Dumas) breathing curves in the state of: a) joy (17 breaths per minute); b) passive sadness (9 breaths per minute); c) active sadness (20 breaths per minute); d) fear associated with great excitement (64 breaths per minute - in a patient suffering from a mental disorder); e) anger (40 breaths per minute for a maniac).

Breathing curves for different emotions(according to J. Dumas)

With strong emotional arousal, changes are observed in the process of digestion. With disturbing unpleasant emotional states, a person often has heaviness in the stomach. Unpleasant emotions inhibit the activity of the intestine, its peristalsis.

In experiments on animals, this was shown by the experiments of Bergman and Katz, as well as by Cannon. Cannon, using X-rays, observed the cessation of intestinal motility in a cat when it was tied to the wall. Bergman and Katz, using a celluloid "window" inserted into the abdominal cavity of a rabbit, observed how, with irritations unpleasant for the animal (a pinch, etc.), very intense peristaltic movements of the intestine immediately stopped.

In addition, during emotional states, changes occur in the separation of digestive juices. Pavlov's experiments on dogs with a cut esophagus, in which chewed food did not enter the stomach, showed that chewing pleasant food caused an abundant secretion of gastric juice, unpleasant food did not cause it. With negative emotions (fear, rage, etc.), there is a reduction in the separation of not only gastric juice, but also saliva (dry mouth with fear, with strong excitement). Emotional states also affect the decrease in bile secretion and the secretory activity of the pancreas. Changes in the glands in general are usually widely included in the course of emotional processes; this applies both to glands with external secretion (increased activity of the sweat glands in certain states of emotional arousal, lacrimal glands - crying in grief, the above-mentioned changes in the activity of the salivary glands), and to the endocrine system, to glands with internal secretion. Of particular importance in emotions is the release of adrenaline by the adrenal glands.

The human body is a complex system of connections and reactions. Everything works according to certain schemes, which amaze with their methodicalness and complexity. At such moments, you begin to be proud of what a complex chain of interactions leads to a feeling of joy or grief. I don’t want to deny any emotions anymore, because they all come for a reason, everything has its own reasons. Let's take a closer look at the physiological foundations of feelings and emotions and begin to better understand the process of our own existence.

Concepts of feelings and emotions

Emotions cover a person under the influence of a situation or any external stimuli. They come quickly and go just as quickly. They reflect our subjective evaluative thinking in relation to the situation. In addition, emotions are not always recognized; a person experiences the effect of them, but does not always understand their effect and nature.

For example, someone said a lot of nasty things to you. Your logical reaction to this is anger. About how it is perceived and what is caused, we will learn a little later. Now let's focus directly on emotions. You experience anger, you want to respond somehow, to defend yourself with something - this is As soon as the irritant disappears, the anger will end transiently.

Another thing is feelings. They are generated, as a rule, by a complex of emotions. They develop gradually, expanding their influence. Feelings, unlike emotions, are well understood and perceived. They are not a product of the situation, but demonstrate an attitude towards an object or phenomenon as a whole. To the outside world, they are expressed directly through emotions.

For example, love is a feeling. It is expressed through emotions such as joy, emotional attraction, etc. Or, for example, a feeling of hostility is characterized by hatred, disgust and anger. All these emotions, being expressions of feelings, are directed to the external world, to the object of feelings.

Important point! If a person has this or that feeling, then this does not mean at all that the object of this feeling will not be subjected to third-party emotions. You can, for example, experience irritation or anger towards a loved one. This does not mean at all that the feeling of love has been replaced by hostility. This is simply a reaction to some external stimulus, which does not necessarily come from the object to which love is directed.

Types of feelings and emotions

Initially, feelings and emotions are divided into positive and negative. This quality is determined by the subjective assessment of a person.

Further, according to their essence and principle of influence, they are divided into sthenic and asthenic. Sthenic emotions encourage a person to take action, enhance practical mobilization. These are, for example, various kinds of motivation, inspiration and joy. Asthenic, on the contrary, "paralyze" a person, weaken the work of the nervous system and relax the body. This is, for example, panic or frustration.

By the way, some feelings, such as, for example, fear, can be both sthenic and asthenic. That is, fear can both make a person mobilize, act, and paralyze and demobilize.

The concept of the foundations of emotions from the point of view of physiology

In short: the physiological foundations of emotions completely determine the process of sensory perception. In more detail, we will consider each aspect separately and draw up a complete picture.

Emotions have a reflex essence, that is, they always imply the presence of a stimulus. A whole mechanism accompanies emotion from perception to manifestation. These mechanisms are called in psychology the physiological foundations of emotions and feelings. They involve various body systems, each of which is responsible for a specific result. In fact, all this forms a whole well-functioning system for receiving and processing information. Everything is almost like in computers.

Subcortical mechanisms

The lowest level of the physiological foundations of emotions and feelings are subcortical mechanisms. They are responsible for the physiological processes and instincts themselves. As soon as a certain excitation enters the subcortex, the corresponding reaction immediately begins. To be specific: various kinds of reflexes, muscle contractions, a certain emotional state are provoked.

autonomic nervous system

The autonomic nervous system, on the basis of certain emotions, sends excitatory signals to the organs of internal secretion. For example, the adrenal glands release adrenaline in stressful and dangerous situations. The release of adrenaline is always accompanied by such phenomena as blood flow to the lungs, heart and limbs, acceleration of blood clotting, changes in cardiac activity, and increased release of sugar into the blood.

First and second signal systems

In order to move on to cortical mechanisms, a rough understanding of the first and second signaling systems and the dynamic stereotype is necessary. Let's start with systems.

The first signaling system is characterized by perceptions and sensations. It is developed not only in humans, but also in all animals. These are, for example, visual images, taste reminders and tactile sensations. For example, the appearance of a friend, the taste of an orange, and touching hot coals. All this is perceived through the first signal system.

The second signaling system is speech. It is only in a person and therefore only a person is perceived. In fact, this is any reaction to the spoken words. At the same time, it is inextricably linked with the first signaling system and does not function by itself.

Example, we hear the word "pepper". By itself, it does not carry anything, but in conjunction with the second signal system, meaning is formed. We imagine the taste, features and appearance of pepper. All this information, as already mentioned, is perceived through the first signaling system and remembered.

Or another example: we hear about a friend. We perceive speech and before our eyes his appearance appears, we remember his voice, gait, etc. This is the interaction of two signal systems. Later, on the basis of this information, we will experience certain feelings or emotions.

dynamic stereotype

Dynamic stereotypes are some behavioral sets. Conditioned and unconditioned reflexes form a certain complex. They are formed by the constant repetition of any action. Such stereotypes are quite stable and determine the behavior of an individual in a given situation. In other words, it is something like a habit.

If a person performs certain actions at the same time over a long period, for example, doing gymnastics in the morning for two years, then a stereotype is formed in him. The nervous system facilitates the work of the brain by remembering these actions. Thus, there is less consumption of brain resources, and it is freed up for other activities.

Cortical mechanisms

Cortical mechanisms control the autonomic nervous system and subcortical mechanisms. They are decisive in the concept of emotions and their physiological basis. These mechanisms are considered to be the main ones in relation to the last two. They form the concept of the physiological foundations of emotions and feelings. It is through the cortex of the cerebral hemispheres that the basis of the higher nervous activity of a person passes.

Cortical mechanisms perceive information from signaling systems, converting them into Emotions, in the context of cortical mechanisms, are the result of the transition and functioning of dynamic stereotypes. Therefore, it is precisely in the principle of the work of dynamic stereotypes that the basis of various emotional experiences lies.

General patterns and principle of operation

The system described above functions according to special laws and has its own principle of operation. Let's consider in more detail.

First, external or internal stimuli are perceived by the first and second signal systems. That is, any speech or sensation is perceived. This information is transmitted to the cerebral cortex. After all, we remember that it is the cortical part that connects with the signaling systems, perceiving pathogens from them.

Further, the signal from the cortical mechanisms is transmitted to the subcortex and the autonomic nervous system. Subcortical mechanisms form instinctive behavior in response to a stimulus. That is, complicated unconditioned reflexes begin to work. For example, you want to run away when you're scared.

The vegetative system causes corresponding changes in the processes in the body. For example, the outflow of blood from the internal organs, the release of adrenaline into the blood, etc. As a result, changes in the physiology of the body appear, leading to various reactions: muscle tension, heightened perception, etc. All this serves to help instinctive behavior. In case of fear, for example, it mobilizes the body for a forced march.

These changes are then again transmitted to the cerebral cortex. There they come into contact with the existing reactions and act as the basis for the manifestation of one or another emotional state.

Patterns of feelings and emotions

For feelings and emotions, there are some patterns that determine the way of functioning. Let's consider a few of them.

We all know that if you do something constantly, it quickly gets boring. This is one of the main ones. When an irritant constantly and for a long time affects a person, the feeling is dulled. For example, after a week of work, a person experiences a blissful feeling from rest, he likes everything, and he is happy. But if such a rest continues for the second week, then the feelings begin to dull. And the longer the stimulus continues its impact, the less clearly the feeling is felt.

Feelings caused by one stimulus are automatically transferred to the whole class of similar objects. Now all the things that are homogeneous with the stimulus that evoked the emotion are attributed to the experienced feeling. For example, a man was cruelly deceived by one dishonorable woman and now has hostile feelings towards her. And then bam! Now for him all women are dishonorable, and he feels a hostile attitude towards all. That is, the feeling was transferred to all objects homogeneous with the stimulus.

One of the most famous patterns is sensory contrast. Everyone knows that the most pleasant rest is after hard work. This, in fact, is the whole principle. Opposite feelings, which alternately arise under the influence of different stimuli, are felt much more acutely.

Physiological basis of memory

The physiological basis of memory is the nervous processes that left traces of reaction in the cerebral cortex. This primarily means that any processes caused by external or internal stimuli do not pass without a trace. They leave their imprint, forming a blank for future reactions.

The physiological foundations and psychological theories of emotions make it clear that the processes in the cerebral cortex during memory are identical to the processes during perception. That is, the brain does not see the difference between a direct action and a memory or idea of ​​it. When we remember a learned equation, the brain perceives it as another memorization. That is why they say: "Repetition is the mother of learning."

Such a thing, of course, will not work with exercise. For example, if every day you imagine how you lift a barbell, muscle mass will not increase. After all, the identity between perception and memory occurs precisely in the cerebral cortex, and not in muscle tissues. So this physiological basis of memory only works for the contents of the skull.

And now about how, after all, the reactions of the nervous system affect memory. As already mentioned, all reactions to stimuli are remembered. This leads to the fact that when confronted with the same stimulus, the corresponding dynamic stereotype will be activated. If you touch a hot kettle once, the brain will remember it and will not want to do it a second time.

Physiological basis of attention

The nerve centers of the cerebral cortex always function with different intensity. Observations show that the most optimal method for a particular activity is always chosen. It is formed, of course, from experience, memory and stereotypes.

Physiology understands by attention the high intensity of the work of one or another part of the cerebral cortex. Thus, once the optimal level of functioning of a certain nerve center is selected on the basis of experience, then attention, as the intensity of a cortical area, increases. Thus, the most optimal, from the point of view of subjective perception, conditions are created for a person.

Physiological basis of motivation

Earlier we already mentioned about sthenic and Motivation just represents sthenic feeling. It encourages action, mobilizes the body.

From a scientific point of view, the physiological foundations of motivation and emotions are formed from needs. Such a desire is processed by subcortical mechanisms, put on a par with complicated instincts and enters the cortex of the cerebral hemispheres. There it is processed as an instinctive desire, and the brain, using the influence of the autonomic system, begins to look for ways to satisfy the need. It is due to this functioning of the body that resources are mobilized, and things are much easier.

They often have an emotional connotation. However, despite the close connection, motivations and emotions belong to different states of the body, since their occurrence is determined by different neural formations of the brain.
Emotion refers to a specific physiological state. This is one of the most important aspects of the activity of the central nervous system, which characterizes a person's personal attitude to the environment, and is one of the forms of reflection of reality. Emotions reflect certain human needs and realize their satisfaction, achievement of the goal.
Classification of emotions. Emotions are usually divided into negative and positive. There are sthenic negative emotions that cause vigorous activity (anger, rage, affective state, aggression, etc.), and asthenic ones that reduce activity (fear, grief, sadness, depression). Positive emotions include joy, pleasure, enjoyment, a state of comfort, a feeling of love and happiness. Distinguish between lower and higher emotions. The lower emotions are elementary, connected with the organic needs of man and animal (hunger, thirst, sexual instinct, self-preservation, etc.). In a person, even elementary emotions are a product of socio-historical development, in the process of which a culture of emotions is formed. Higher emotions arise only in a person in connection with the satisfaction of social needs (intellectual, moral, aesthetic, etc.). These complex emotions have evolved from consciousness and control and inhibit lower emotions.
Emergence of emotions in ontogeny. A newborn child clearly manifests emotions of fear, anger, pleasure. Hunger, pain, cooling, a wet bed cause discontent in the baby with characteristic external signs: a grimace of suffering and crying. An unexpectedly strong sound or loss of balance predetermines a state of fear, and a violent restriction of motor activity (swaddling) - anger. Typical signs of satisfaction appear in the child during his swaying and with tactile stimulation of those receptor zones, which subsequently acquire the value of erogenous. There is also evidence that emotions (both positive and negative) appear even in the fetus at the 5-6th month of embryonic development. However, the final emotional sphere is formed gradually, on the basis of a combination of acquired stereotypes with innate mechanisms. Thus, lower emotions, like unconditioned reflexes and instincts, are innate forms of reflection of reality.
The biological significance of emotions. The emergence of emotions should be viewed as an important emotional legacy that facilitates the formation of a complex of neural interactions for the development of complex behaviors. They are important not only for the organization of instinctive behavior, but also for the emergence of conditioned reflexes, the formation of the thinking process. The role of negative emotions in the organization of behavior is that they allow you to quickly assess the situation that has arisen (beneficial or harmful). They mobilize the efforts of a person or animal aimed at satisfying a certain need, compensating complement knowledge where they are not enough to achieve the goal (compensating, protective function of emotions).
The adaptive value of positive emotions lies in their tonic effect. Success inspires, gives rise to a sense of self-confidence, authorizes further searches. Emotional arousal contributes to the mobilization of life experience stored in memory for a long time.
External manifestation of emotions. Emotions are manifested in behavior and various reactions from the motor, autonomic and endocrine systems. These include live facial expressions and gestures, changes in voice and speech, posture and gait / various autonomic reactions (disturbance of the cardiovascular, respiratory, digestive systems, internal secretion, sweating, tears, dry mouth, etc.). Vegetative changes that occur with negative emotions are realized with the participation of a predominantly sympathetic-adrenal system (dilated pupils, increased heart rate, respiration, increased blood pressure, levels of catecholamines, 17-corticosteroids in the blood, etc.) .. Positive emotions are sometimes accompanied by activation of the parasympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system. However, the relationship between sympathetic and parasympathetic activity during emotions cannot be reduced to direct reciprocity. The excitation of the sympathetic department is always accompanied by the excitation of the parasympathetic, but the participation of each of them is different in the emergence of a particular group of emotions. Conscious suppression of emotions with a sharp excitation of the autonomic nervous system, an increase in the content of physiologically active substances in the blood can lead to pathological changes in the body. This is due to the fact that the activation of the neurohumoral system does not affect the external manifestations of emotions, but is reflected in various organs and systems, causing paradoxical reactions. Such consequences are the activation of the nervous apparatus of emotions. What is this device?
Nervous apparatus of emotions. The central nervous apparatus of emotions is represented by a set of brain formations, which are commonly called the visceral brain, or the limbic system. It includes the hippocampus, amygdala, cingulate twist, etc. These brain structures are morphofunctional
are closely interconnected and form an “emotional circle” (“Peypetz circle”), in which emotional arousal can circulate for a long time. Perhaps this closed pathway serves as an important neural apparatus that is responsible for the formation of emotions. The limbic system is closely associated with the neocortex, especially with its frontal, temporal and parietal lobes, as well as the reticular formation of the brain stem. The temporal region is responsible for transmitting information from the visual, auditory, and somatosensory cortex to the amygdala and hippocampus. The frontal region regulates the activity of the limbic cortex. The reticular formation increases the activity of ascending influences on the limbic system. It is through these connections that one can consciously control the appearance and manifestation of emotions.
Especially a lot of information about these structures was given by experiments with self-mocking of the brain of animals. The rats were
implanted in different parts of the brain electrodes. Moreover, the animals had the opportunity to independently turn on the irritating current using a special lever. It turned out that with a certain localization of the edges of the electrodes, the rat presses the lever up to 8 thousand times within 1 hour, until it is completely exhausted. In other cases, the rat, pressing several times on the lever, no longer touches it.
Areas whose irritation causes reinforcement or avoidance of the stimulus were called "centers of pleasure" ("reward") and discontent ("punishment"). Especially a lot of them in the hypothalamic region, the amygdala. Often these centers are localized in structures associated with sexual and food activity, but there are many areas that are difficult to associate with some kind of need.
Experiments on self-mocking were also carried out on other animals, including monkeys. The results of these experiments can be extrapolated to humans. Recently, for the diagnosis and treatment of certain diseases, a technique has been developed for introducing electrodes into the deep structures of the human brain. When a patient undergoing neurosurgery is given the opportunity to stimulate their own brain (i.e., to conduct self-teasing), then when certain areas of the brain are stimulated, people often report the occurrence of pleasant or unpleasant sensations in them. Pleasant sensations often have a sexual connotation, are accompanied by cheerfulness and mood lift, unmotivated joy (euphoria). During the stimulation of negative points (the so-called centers of displeasure), a person has a feeling of anxiety, anxiety, fear and horror.
According to the literature, the leading role in the formation of emotions is played by the right hemisphere of the brain, where negative affects originate. The left hemisphere is responsible for the positive coloring of emotions.
Theories of emotions. The greatest success in the theoretical development of the problem of emotions has been achieved within the framework of the theory of functional systems and from the standpoint of the informational approach.
Biological theory of emotions(PK Anokhin, 1949) has two aspects - evolutionary and neurophysiological. The essence of the evolutionary approach is that the life process is a combination of two states of the body: the stage of formation of needs and basic drives (motivations) and the stage of their satisfaction. The first stage is accompanied by negative emotions, the second - by positive ones, which reinforce (sanction) the behavioral act. According to the position of the theory of functional systems, negative emotions also arise when the result of the action of real consequences does not agree with the expected ones (their afferent model), and positive emotions arise when the results completely coincide.
According to the information theory (P. V. Simonov, 1966, etc.), Emotions are a reflection of the strength of the need and the possibility (probability) of its satisfaction at the moment. If there is no need, then emotions do not arise. they do not happen even when a person has information that is sufficient to organize actions to achieve the goal. In conditions of information deficiency, conditions are created for the formation of negative emotions. If there is an excess of information about achieving the goal, then a positive emotion arises. In addition, other factors also matter, including the time needed to satisfy needs (in case of its deficiency, negative emotions often arise), a person’s energy capabilities, etc.
There are four degrees of emotional stress. The first stage - the state of attention, mobilization - is characterized by increased activity of organs and systems, intellectual and physical resources, increased efficiency. The second step occurs when the mobilization of the body's forces is insufficient. It is accompanied by the occurrence of a negative stenic reaction (anger, rage, etc.). The third stage is characterized by the appearance of asthenic negative emotions (fear, horror, depression). It occurs even with the maximum mobilization of vital forces. This is the stage of tension, or emotional stress. With prolonged exposure, it has a very harmful effect on the human body. The fourth stage is manifested by the development of a neurotic state, which indicates a person's disease.
The neurochemistry of emotions. All neurotransmitter systems (noradrena-, choline-, serotonin-, dopaminergic), as well as a number of neuropeptides, including endogenous opiates, are involved in the implementation of any emotion. At the same time, the share of each of them in the emotional reaction of a different sign is the same. For example, it has been proven that positive emotions ("rewards") excite catecholamines, and negative ones ("punishment") excite acetylcholine. The role of the cholinergic system is clearly manifested in the aggressive behavior of animals. Serotonin plays the role of an inhibitory mediator for both systems. The weakening of the inhibitory effect of serotonin tends to explain the increased aggressiveness. Suppression of the serotonergic system stimulates sexual behavior, while inhibition of the noradrenergic and dopaminergic systems has the opposite effect.
The data obtained in the experiment on animals coincide with the results of biochemical studies in humans. Thus, a decrease in the level of serotonin in human blood is accompanied by inexplicable anxiety, and a deficiency of norepinephrine is accompanied by depression and longing.