PHENOMENA OF THE MORPHEM SEAM

A morpheme suture (or junction of morphemes) is the boundary between two adjacent morphs.

When a derivative word is formed, the connecting morphs are mutually adapted. According to the laws of the Russian language, not all combinations of sounds are allowed on the border of morphemes. On the border of morphemes (on the morphemic seam), four types of phenomena can occur:

1. alternation of phonemes (the end of one morph changes, adapting to the beginning of another);

2. interfixation (an insignificant (asemantic) element is inserted between two morphs - interfix);

3. superposition (or interference) of morphs - the end of one morph is combined with the beginning of another;

4. truncation of the generating stem (the end of the generating stem is cut off and is not included in the derived word).

Outstanding achievements in the development of phonology belong to I.A. Baudouin de Courtenay, N.S. Trubetskoy, R.O. Yakobson, L.V. Shcherbe, N.S. Krushevsky, S.I. Kartsevsky, N.F. Yakovlev, N.K. Uslar.

The study of the plan of language expression (sound structure) has a long history. For example, in India, in I millennium BC there was a classification of sounds into vowels and consonants, stress and intonation, alternations of sounds were studied. In Europe, this happened later. In 1873, from the German language through French, the concept of the sound of a language appeared in Europe and Russia. With the introduction of the concept of phoneme, the question of the relationship between the sound side of the language and the plan of content began to be resolved.

Baudouin de Courtenay in the 70s 19th century came to the idea of ​​a discrepancy between the physical and functional properties of sound. He proposed to distinguish between sound as a physiological-acoustic phenomenon and phoneme as an established idea of ​​sound, as a mental equivalent of sound. Thus, the first idea of ​​the phoneme had a pronounced psychological character. Phonemes were presented as certain nodes around which the sound diversity of speech was grouped. Baudouin was the first to distinguish between phonetic variants determined by positional and combinatorial conditions and historically determined alternations of phonemes in a morpheme. The psychological concept of the phoneme played an important role in the development of phonology, but it failed to answer many fundamental questions, including not revealing clear ways to identify phonemes.

Baudouin's student L.V. Shcherba developed and enriched the theory of the phoneme. He tried to combine a psychological foundation with a functional one. Phonemes were defined as those sounds in our minds that allow us to discern the meaning of words. This means that sound units that are similar in acoustic and articulatory terms and associated with the same meaning are combined into one phoneme. On the other hand, sounds in which the physical difference is associated with differences in meaning are different phonemes. The direct connection of the phoneme with meaning, according to Shcherba, is also manifested in its ability to function as a separate word (the book Phonetics of the French Language, 1937). A red thread runs through the idea that the main criterion for identifying a phoneme is its meaningful function. Language is the general, and speech is the particular. Speech has a wide variety of sounds. In the language, they are combined into a relatively small number of sound types capable of differentiating words and forms, i.e. serve the purposes of human communication. These sound types are phonemes, and the real set of sounds that form a sound type are the shades of phonemes. The most typical hue for a given phoneme is a hue that is pronounced in an isolated form and is perceived by a native speaker as a speech embodiment of the phoneme. All other shades are not perceived by us, we need special phonetic training of the ear.

The contribution to the formation of phonology of the teachings of Jones is highly appreciated.

The concept of speech sound. Three sides of the sound of speech.

As a purely acoustic phenomenon, sound is the result of vibrations of a sounding physical body in a medium that transmits these vibrations to the organs of hearing. In this case, the sound has the following physical characteristics:
a) height - oscillation frequency
b) force - the amplitude of oscillations
c) timbre - additional frequencies, overtones
d) duration - the total time of sounding.

In this capacity, various objects and people are capable of producing sound. To become the sound of speech, sound as an acoustic phenomenon must be produced by the organs of speech (articulation) of a person and be part of the phonological system of a particular language.

The fact that our speech can be divided into separate sounds that we distinguish from each other seems to be taken for granted. It seems quite obvious that everyone hears the difference between vowels in words at home - thought, or consonants in words weight - all, cancer - varnish and distinguish plaque from pour simply by sound. However, in fact, the selection of individual sounds in a speech stream is not at all determined by sound alone. The same sound by speakers of different languages ​​is evaluated differently in terms of sound composition: Koreans will not notice the difference R from l, Arabs O from y, for French in words weight And the whole how different sounds will be judged by vowels rather than final consonants; and speakers of so many languages ​​will not be able to hear the difference between plaque And pour. Consequently, the selection of individual sounds and their assessment as the same or different depends on the characteristics of the language structure. To determine how many different sound units are used in a language, two tasks must be solved: 1) divide the speech stream into separate sounds - minimal sound segments; 2) determine which sounds should be considered the same, and which ones should be distinguished.

Therefore, the sound of speech has the following aspects:
A) acoustic = physical
B) articulation = physiological (biological)
C) functional = social
The science that studies the first two sides is phonetics, and the functional side is studied by phonology. Phonology is the science of compatibility, combinatoriality of sounds, their mutual influence and modification, and their distribution. Phonology studies the social, functional side of speech sounds. Sounds are considered as a means of communication and as an element of the language system.

Based on Saussure's division of "longue" and "parole", Trubetskoy N.S. creates his own phonological theory, based on the division of the science of sounds into phonology and phonetics: as a field of study of sounds from a physiological-acoustic point of view. Phonology, the subject of which is not sounds, but units of sound structure - phonemes. Phonetics refers to language as a system. Thus, phonetics and phonology, from Trubetskoy's point of view, are two independent disciplines: phonetics is the study of speech sounds, and phonology is the study of language sounds.

The only task of phonetics, according to Trubetskoy, is to answer the question: How is this or that sound pronounced?

Phonetics is the science of the material side (sounds) of human speech. And since, according to the author, these two sciences of sounds have different objects of study: specific speech acts in phonetics and the system of language in phonology, then different research methods should be applied to them. For the study of phonetics, it was proposed to use purely physical methods of the natural sciences, and for the study of phonology, proper linguistic methods.

Phonetics precedes phonology. Phonology is always built on top of phonetics. This is also true historically: as a science, phonetics is first formed, then phonology. This is also true for each individual phonologist: first students learn phonetics and only then phonology.

Phonetics is perceived as an objective reality given to us in auditory sensations and independent of who perceives this reality, i.e. listener.

When establishing the concept of a phoneme - the main phonological unit - N.S. Trubetskoy highlights its semantic function. Thus, the sounds that are the subject of the study of phonetics have a large number of acoustic and articulatory features. But for the phonologist, most of the features are completely unimportant, since they do not function as distinguishing features of words. The phonologist must take into account only what, in the composition of sound, performs a certain function in the system of language. In his opinion, since sounds have a function of distinction and have significance, they should be considered as an organized system, which, in terms of the order of structure, can be compared with a grammatical system.

From the point of view of the Prague School, phonemes are really unpronounceable. Being a scientific abstraction, phonemes are realized in various shades or variants that are pronounceable. But the phoneme itself, as an abstract unity of all shades, is really unpronounceable. Trubetskoy writes: the specific sounds heard in speech are rather only material symbols of phonemes ... Sounds are never phonemes themselves, since a phoneme cannot contain a single phonologically insignificant feature, which is actually not inevitable for a speech sound (Amirova T.A. , 2006).

The most comprehensive and systematic views of the representatives of the Prague School in the field of phonology are presented in the work of N.S. Trubetskoy "Fundamentals of Phonology", which is only the first part of the comprehensive work conceived by the author.

In 1921, Trubetskoy was the first in the history of Slavic studies to propose a periodization of the common Slavic proto-linguistic history, dividing it into four periods. To the first period, he attributed the era of the disintegration of the Indo-European proto-language and the separation of a certain group of “Proto-Slavic” dialects from among its dialects, explaining that “in this era, Proto-Slavic phenomena mostly spread to several other Indo-European dialects, especially often to Proto-Baltic, to which Proto-Slavic is closer Total. The second period can be characterized as an era of complete unity of the “common Slavic proto-language”, which was completely isolated from other descendants of Indo-European dialects, which did not have any common changes with these dialects and at the same time was devoid of dialectal differentiation. The era of the beginning of dialect stratification should be attributed to the third period, when, along with general phenomena, covering the entire Proto-Slavic language, local phenomena also arose, spreading only to separate groups of dialects, but they did not numerically prevail over general phenomena. In addition, during this period, the dialect groups themselves “have not yet had time to establish final strong ties with each other (for example, the West Slavic group as a whole does not yet exist, but instead of it there are two groups - the Proto-Lussian-Lechitic, pulling to the east, and the Proto-Czechoslovak, pulling south). The fourth period is the era of the end of dialect fragmentation, when general phenomena occur much less frequently than dialectical (dialect) phenomena, and groups of dialects turn out to be more durable and differentiated.

N.S. Trubetskoy was one of the first to substantiate the need for a tripartite approach to the comparative study of languages: the first - historical and genetic, the second - areal-historical (language unions, language zones), the third typological - and showed their application in a number of his works, among which stands out the final work on general phonological typology. In this area, in addition to many universals (they were later studied by J. Greenberg and other scientists), N.S. Trubetskoy revealed a number of more particular, local patterns. Thus, in the same article on the Mordovian and Russian systems of phonemes, he demonstrated an important phonological principle, according to which the similarity of the inventory of phonemes does not determine the similarity of their phonological functions and combinatorial possibilities. The latter in the Mordovian language are completely different than in Russian.

Although the interests of the young Trubetskoy lay in the plane of ethnography, folklore and comparison of the languages ​​of the Ural, "Arctic" and especially the North Caucasian. He, according to his autobiographical notes, nevertheless decided to choose Indo-European studies as the subject of university studies, since this is the only well-developed area of ​​linguistics. After classes at the philosophical department and at the department of Western European literatures, where he stayed for a year (from the 1909/10 academic year), N. S. Trubetskoy studies at the then newly created department of comparative linguistics (primarily Sanskrit and Avestan).

At the same time, understanding phonology as “the doctrine of the sounds of a language, common and constant in the minds of its speakers”, and phonetics as the doctrine of the particular manifestation of the sounds of a language in speech, which has a one-act character.

Trubetskoy speaks of the relationship between both of these components of the doctrine, since without concrete speech acts there would be no language. He considers the speech act itself as establishing a link between Saussure's signifier and signifier.

Phonology is considered as a science that studies a signifier in a language, consisting of a certain number of elements, the essence of which is that they, differing from each other in sound manifestations, have a meaningful function. And also the question of what are the ratios of distinctive elements and by what rules they are combined into words, phrases, etc. Most of the features of the sound itself are not essential for the phonologist, since they do not function as semantic features. Those. it is the science of the language system underlying all speech acts.

Phonetics, on the other hand, considers physical, articulatory one-act phenomena. The methods of the natural sciences are more suitable for her. For her, the main questions are: How to pronounce the sound, what organs are involved in this. Those. it is the science of the material side of the sounds of human speech.

It should be noted that not all representatives of the Prague School of Linguistics shared exactly this opinion about the relationship between these two disciplines. N.B. Trnka believed that "the phonetician presupposes a language system and strives to study its individual actualization, while the phonologist investigates what is functional in individual speech and establishes elements that are determined by their relation to the whole language system." That is, thus, the main difference between phonology and phonetics for Trnka was the different direction of their research.

Returning to the solution of this problem in the Fundamentals of Phonology, it must be said that Trubetskoy defines three aspects in sound: “expression”, “address”, “message”. And only the third, representative, belongs to the sphere of phonology. It is divided into three parts, the subject matter of which is respectively: culminating language function (indicating how many units, i.e. words, phrases are contained in the sentence), delimitative function (indicating the boundary between two units: phrases, words, morphemes) and distinctive or meaningful, found in the explicative aspect of the language. Trubetskoy recognizes the semantic-distinctive function as the most important and necessary for phonology, assigning a special section to it.

Trubetskoy's main concept for semantic differentiation is the concept of opposition - opposition according to a semantic feature. Through the phonological opposition, the concept of a phonological unit (“a member of the phonological opposition”) is defined, which in turn is the basis for the definition of a phoneme (“the shortest phonological unit, the decomposition of which into shorter units is impossible from the point of view of a given language”).

As the main internal function of the phoneme, its semantic function is recognized. The word is understood as a structure identifiable by the listener and the speaker. The phoneme is a semantic feature of this structure. The meaning is revealed through the totality of these features corresponding to a given sound formation.

Trubetskoy introduces the concept of phoneme invariance. Those. the pronounced sound can be considered as one of the variants of the phoneme realization, because it, in addition to semantic differences, also contains signs that are not such. Thus, a phoneme can be realized in a number of different sound manifestations.

1) If in a language two sounds in the same position can replace each other, and the semantic function of the word remains unchanged, then these two sounds are variants of the same phoneme.

2) And, accordingly, vice versa, if the meaning of the word changes when the sounds are replaced in one position, then they are not variants of the same phoneme.

3) If two acoustically related sounds never occur in the same position, then they are combinatorial variants of the same phoneme.

4) If two acoustically related sounds never meet in the same position, but can follow each other as members of a sound combination. In a position where one of these sounds can occur without the other, they are not variants of the same phoneme.

Rules 3 and 4 regarding cases where sounds do not occur in the same position are related to the problem of identifying phonemes, i.e. to the question of reducing a number of mutually exclusive sounds into one invariant. Thus, a purely phonetic criterion is decisive here for assigning different sounds to one phoneme. Those. the interconnection of these sciences is manifested.

In order to establish the complete composition of the phonemes of a given language, it is necessary to distinguish not only a phoneme from phonetic variants, but also a phoneme from a combination of phonemes, i.e. whether a given segment of the sound stream is the realization of one or two phonemes (syntagmatic identification). Trubetskoy formulated the rules of monophonemic and polyphonemic. The first three are phonetic prerequisites for a monophonemic interpretation of the sound segment. A sound combination is monophonic if:

1) its main parts are not distributed over two syllables;

2) it is formed by means of one articulatory movement;

3) its duration does not exceed the duration of other phonemes of the given language.

The following describe the phonological conditions for the one-phoneme significance of sound combinations (potentially one-phoneme sound complexes are considered actually one-phoneme if they behave like simple phonemes, that is, they occur in positions that otherwise allow only single phonemes) and the multi-phoneme significance of a simple sound.

A very significant place in Trubetskoy's phonological system is occupied by his classification of oppositions. It was generally the first experience of this kind of classifications. The classification criteria for phonological compositions were:

1) their relation to the whole system of oppositions;

2) the relationship between members of the opposition;

3) the volume of their distinguishing ability.

According to the first criterion, the oppositions are divided, in turn, according to their "dimensionality" (qualitative criterion) and according to their occurrence (quantitative criterion).

According to the qualitative relation to the entire system of oppositions, phonological oppositions are divided into one-dimensional (if the set of features inherent in both members of the opposition is no longer inherent in any other member of the system) and multidimensional (if the “grounds for comparing” the two members of the opposition extend to other members of the same system) . Oppositions are quantitatively divided into isolated ones (the members of the opposition are in relation to those that are no longer found in any other opposition) and proportional (the relationship between members is identical to the relationship between members of another or other oppositions).

Most experts consider phonology (the study of the functional side of speech sounds) as a section (part) of phonetics (the study of speech sounds); some see the two disciplines as non-overlapping branches of linguistics.

The difference between phonology and phonetics is that the subject of phonetics is not limited to the functional aspect of speech sounds, but also covers its substantial aspect, namely: physical and biological (physiological) aspects: articulation, acoustic properties of sounds, their perception by the listener ( perceptual phonetics).

Phonetics- a section of linguistics in which the sound structure of the language is studied, that is, the sounds of speech, syllables, stress, intonation. There are three aspects of speech sounds, and they correspond to three sections of phonetics:

• 1. Acoustics of speech. She studies the physical signs of speech.
• 2. Anthropophonics or physiology of speech. It studies the biological signs of speech, that is, the work performed by a person during pronunciation (articulation) or perception of speech sounds.

The subject of phonetics is the close relationship between oral, internal and written speech. Unlike other linguistic disciplines, phonetics explores not only the language function, but also the material side of its object: the work of the pronunciation apparatus, as well as the acoustic characteristics of sound phenomena and their perception by native speakers. Unlike non-linguistic disciplines, phonetics considers sound phenomena as elements of a language system that serve to translate words and sentences into a material sound form, without which communication is impossible. In accordance with the fact that the sound side of the language can be considered in the acoustic-articulatory and functional-linguistic aspects, in phonetics, phonetics proper and phonology are distinguished. phonetics sound speech morphemic

Among the linguistic sciences phonetics occupies a special place. Phonetics deals with the material side of language, with sound means devoid of independent meaning.

Distinguish between general and private phonetics, or the phonetics of individual languages. General phonetics studies the general conditions of sound formation, based on the capabilities of the human pronunciation apparatus (for example, labial, anterior lingual, posterior lingual consonants are distinguished, if we mean the pronunciation organ that determines the main features of the consonant, or stop, fricative, if we mean the method of forming an obstacle to passing from the lungs of a jet of air necessary for the formation of a consonant), and also analyzes the acoustic characteristics of sound units, for example, the presence or absence of a voice when pronouncing different types of consonants. Universal classifications of sounds (vowels and consonants) are built, which are based partly on articulatory, partly on acoustic features. General Phonetics also studies the patterns of combinations of sounds, the influence of the characteristics of one of the neighboring sounds on others (various types of accommodation or assimilation), coarticulation; the nature of the syllable, the laws of combining sounds into syllables and the factors that determine syllable division; phonetic organization of the word, in particular stress. She studies the means that are used for intonation; the pitch of the main tone of the voice, the strength (intensity), the duration of the individual parts of the sentence, pauses.

Phonology- a branch of linguistics that studies the structure of the sound structure of a language and the functioning of sounds in a language system. The basic unit of phonology is the phoneme, the main object of study is oppositions ( opposition) phonemes, which together form the phonological system of the language.

Phonemme is the smallest unit of the sound structure of a language. The phoneme does not have an independent lexical or grammatical meaning, but serves to distinguish and identify significant units of the language (morphemes and words).

Phonology studies the social, functional side of speech sounds. Sounds are considered not as a physical (acoustics), not as a biological (articulation) phenomenon, but as a means of communication and as an element of the language system.

Phonology is often singled out as a discipline separate from phonetics. In such cases, the first two sections of phonetics (in the broad sense) - the acoustics of speech and the physiology of speech are combined into phonetics (in the narrow sense), which is opposed to phonology.

The sounds of a language are also studied by phonology, but from a functional and systemic point of view, as discrete elements that distinguish between signs and texts of a language.

Phonology- a section of the language that studies the structural and functional patterns (the role of sounds in the language system) of the sound structure of the language.

The basic concept and the basic unit of phonology is a phoneme, or a phonological distinction. (differential) feature. Phoneme- this is the smallest unit of the sound structure of the language, capable of distinguishing larger units (morphemes and words).

When a segmental phoneme is chosen as the main unit of the phonological level, the description of this level (over which the suprasegmental or prosodic one is built, including stress, tone, intonation, etc.) is largely reduced to identifying different positional combinatorial variants (allophones) of each phoneme. Many phonological schools and directions, when deciding on the allocation of phonemes and their variants, turn to the grammatical (morphological) role of the corresponding sound units. A special morphonological level is introduced and the linguistic discipline that studies it is morphonology, the subject of which is the study of the phonological composition of the morphological units of the language - morphs (parts of word forms) - and various kinds of grammatically determined alternations of phonemes.

Phoneme functions:

distinctive

Constitutive (for construction).

Baudouin de Courtenay, Shcherba, Trubetskoy, Yakobson dealt with the problems of phonemes.

If sounds are related to speech, then phonemes are related to language. Sound is a variant, phoneme is an invariant.

For example: Danish, phonemes |t|, |s| form the sound [ts].

1. The concept of phonological opposition.

Phonological opposition- this is the opposition of phonemes in the language system.

The classification of phonological oppositions was developed by Trubetskoy (PLK) in the 30s of the 20th century.

Criteria:

1. by the number of participants:

- binary opposition– 2 participants |b|vs|s|.

- ternary opposition(3 members)

|b| (labial), |d| (front-lingual), |r|, (back-lingual).

Group opposition (more than 3 participants)

2. by occurrence in a given language:

- proportional oppositions(can be proportioned)

voiced - deaf

soft - hard

nasal - non-nasal

- isolated(no proportion, no other similar opposition)

For example: |p| and |l|.

3. in relation to members of the opposition:

- privative. The difference is in the 1st differentiated feature. Whoever has a certain sign is called mark And roved, who do not have a sign - non-marked And roved.

For example: a sign is sonority. |p| and |b|. |b| will be marked, since it is voiced.

- gradual(different degree of manifestation of the trait).

For example, |a| |o| |y| - a different degree of openness, i.e. a different degree of manifestation of this feature.

- equivalent(when units are opposed on several grounds and as a result they are equal (on grounds).

For example: |b| vs|c'| signs:

Softness / sonority

Labial/anterolingual

Hinged / slotted

4. by volume of distinctive power:

|t| and |n|, there and us - always differ in speech.

|t| and |d|, rod and pond - do not differ in speech.

- permanent opposition- when phonemes have different strengths regardless of their opposition. For example, |y|.

- neutral opposition- when in a certain position any sign is neutralized, i.e. the phoneme does not perform a distinctive function.

[pr u t], |d| - phoneme, [t] - sound, because in a weak position, in a strong phoneme will give the sound [d].

Phonology- part of the science of phonetics. Appeared 30 years last century. One of the first to point out the need for a separate study of the semantic properties of sounds was the representative Kazan linguistic schools(neo-grammatical direction) Baudouin de Courtenay. He used the term phoneme”, although he invested in it a slightly different meaning from the modern one. Genuine creator of phonology considered a representative Prague linguistic schools(structuralism) - N.S. Trubetskoy. Like all structuralists, Trubetskoy was based on the ideas of Saussure, and he based his reasoning on the dichotomy of language and speech. In Fundamentals of Phonology (1939) he points out that if there is the science of speech sounds (phonetics), then there must be the science of the sounds of language. He suggested calling it phonology.

Linguists are faced with the need to distinguish in the variety of audible sounds of a given language a limited number of basic sound units - phonemes. . I.A. Baudouin de Courtune distinguished between such concepts as sound (phonation) and phoneme as the mental equivalent of sound.

Sounds are combined into phonemes not acoustically. principle, and by commonality of functional, i.e. if sounds are pronounced differently, but perform the same function (form the same root, prefix), then these are varieties of the phoneme. The concepts of "phoneme" and "speech sound" do not coincide, because A phoneme can consist of more than just one sound. Two phonemes can sound as one sound (stitch). At the heart of different variants of pronouncing the same sound is something common, this common will be a phoneme.

Phoneme definitions:

Phoneme - set of distinguishing features, a set of features that distinguish one phoneme from another.

Phoneme - minimum expression plan unit, which represents text division result into smaller parts.

Phoneme - abstract unit, which is implemented in speech as a class of allophones.

Phoneme- This the smallest unit of the sound system of a language, which is element of the sound shell of words and morphemes that serves them discrimination.

In speech, we do not pronounce phonemes, but sounds (allophones). Some linguists believe that the phoneme is a one-sided unit, that is, it has only a signifier. Others believe that the phoneme is a two-sided unit, they believe that signifier phoneme is meaningful function.

1. The semantic function is the main one. 2. signal - the appearance of a phoneme in any position can signal something.

Phonemes can enter into - paradigmatic and syntagmatic relations - distributive and into relations of identity and difference (opposition)

The main concept, from which Trubetskoy repelled, was the concept of PHONOLOGICAL OPPOSITION.

PhD is a sound opposition that differentiates the meaning of two words of a given language. Members of FO are called phonological units.

Opposition types:

privative (two members of the opposition, elements are considered according to one sign. The element that has a sign is called marked, the element that does not have it is unmarked)

gradual (several members of the opposition, each of the components has the desired attribute, but to varying degrees)

equipotent (all elements are logically equal and each member of the opposition has his own feature set, some of these signs will be common to all members of the opposition, and some of the signs will be differential)

Trubetskoy - 3 principles of classification.

In relation to the opposition system as a whole

one-dimensional (common features are not characteristic of any other opposition of a given language: “d”, “t” are consonants, noisy, stop, solid, front-lingual, etc.) and multidimensional FD (common features are found in other oppositions of a given language: "b", "k" will be repeated in opposition to "p", "g")

proportional and isolated

II In relation to members of the opposition.

private

stepped (gradual)

equivalent (equivalent)

IIIBy volume of sense-distinguishing power

Constants ("m", "l"),

Neutralizable ("d", "t")

Trubetskoy formulated the basic principle of identifying and analyzing a phoneme: If in a given language the differences between two given sounds make it possible to distinguish between different words or different grammatical forms, these sounds belong to different phonemes.

According to their phonological composition, the languages ​​of the world, more than 200 of which were analyzed by Trubetskoy in his work, are divided into three characteristics:

by the total number of phonemes in the language

by the presence of particular phonological systems or classes of phonemes and their ability to combine with each other

by DP systems, i.e. by the rules of neutralization.

Phonology is a linguistic discipline in which unity has not yet been achieved on fundamental theoretical issues. The divergence of opinions is especially great in the definition of the phoneme. There are various phonological schools:

Moscow

(they don’t consider the sound in isolation, they consider it in a morphophoneme, if for example we change the sound “and” to “s”, the meaning does not change, then these are variants of the same phoneme)

Leningrad

(they proceed from the acoustic characteristics of the phoneme, if specific characteristics of the sound can be distinguished, this will be an independent phoneme)

London

Copenhagen

Prague

Two extreme points of view on the phoneme: allophone - a variant of a phoneme and phoneme - a class of allophones.

Correlative oppositions are those whose members differ only in one feature, they coincide in all others. They, in turn, can be closed (two terms - d-t).; open (more than 2 terms p-t-k), enhance any feature, for example, pitch.

The organization of phonemes into a system of oppositions is different in each given language, determined by the originality of the language, the proportions of vowels and consonants, their distribution by position, etc. Thus, the description of the phonetics of k.-l. language should be represented not as a random enumeration of sounds, but as a consistent system covering the number and grouping of phonemes.

Perceptive function - the ability to perceive the sounds of speech and their combinations with the organ of hearing.

Sounds not like physical. phenomenon, but as a public one.

The phonemic composition of the language. Distribution model. Developed them Americans when they began to study the languages ​​of the Indians. At the time of colonization, there were several 1000, and now and at the time of study - several dozen. In the field, they began to study their languages. Listened to and recorded the spoken word. They did not have a written language. They had to divide this sounding stream into minimal, further indivisible units . To find out independent units or not, began to use substitution method (substitution), and developed the concept distribution (environment). For any distribution model, the environment is important.

1. Contrasting (only she gives us independent units). If in the same environment replacing one element with another changes the value, then we are dealing with independent units, which are in contrast distribution.

   Free variation. If the replacement of one element by another brings no new meaning, that is free variation.

   Additional. If two elements never meet in the same environment, then they are combinatorial variants of one and the same phonemes.Variants of one phoneme.

Y and I. And - impossible after a solid sign. And only after it can be.

Muscovites believe that these are combinatorial variants of one phoneme, while Petersburgers believe that these are different phonemes. Petersburgers believe that if we can pick up some specific characteristics of the sound, the sound will be a representative of an independent phoneme. Muscovites do not consider the phoneme in isolation, only in the environment, and if this environment coincides, then these sounds are different phonemes. And if they do not exist in the same environment, then this is one phoneme. All the confusion is due to the fact that there are two icons in Russian.

Each phoneme was described as features. There are two types of signs:

Integral features (a common feature for this phoneme and other phonemes)

For example, "a" is not nasal. There are others that are not nasal.

Differential, distinguishing features. The sum of differential features distinguishes one phoneme from another. There is even such a definition for a phoneme (A phoneme is a bundle of differential features (their role is emphasized).

Trubetskoy singled out the concept opposition. Its essence lies in the fact that any phoneme is set as common, as well as distinctive differential signs. If they were not there, the phoneme could not delimit the meanings of words- this is one of the main functions of the phoneme:

(1. Sense distinction. The phoneme has no meaning, but it is focused on distinguishing meaning values. 2. Signal function. The junction of two different phonemes means a syllable division.)

Opposition types:

Equip flight

• Several members of the opposition, absolutely equal, There is common features, but there are also own signs, That's why hierarchy cannot be built. Most members of the opposition that occur in speech are of this type.

Gradual

• Several members of the opposition, each of which has the characteristics of interest to us. But everything have symptoms to varying degrees. (For example, the openness of vowels. A E E I (by decreasing the sign).

Private

2 opposition members:

Has the required trait. Marched member of the opposition

Deprived of it. He labeled member of the opposition

Example: P - B, if we are interested in sonority, then marked b, not labeled P.