The human body as a single self-developing and self-regulating biological system is a system of automatic maintenance of any vital important factor organism at the proper level, deviation from which leads to the immediate mobilization of mechanisms that restore this level.

The manifestation of the vital activity of an organism is the physiological functions by which it adapts to the external environment or adapts the environment to its needs.

natural foundations physical education when organizing a process physical education Man in society is a complex biomedical sciences, such as anatomy, physiology, biology, biochemistry and hygiene.

Activities of all organs human body closely interconnected and is a single self-regulating and self-developing biological system, the functional activity of which is determined by the interaction of mental, motor and vegetative reactions to various influences environment. These effects can be both beneficial and detrimental to health.

The interaction of the human body with the environment

From the first moments of life to the very last minute The human body interacts with the external environment. This interaction is necessary condition for normal human development.

external environment as complete system includes a large number various elements or factors that differ from each other in quantitative and qualitative terms. These differences determine the mechanism of action and reactions of the body in response to the influence of a particular factor.

Main Factors external environment:

physical,

chemical,

biological,

mental and social.

Physical factors

To physical factors include all types electromagnetic oscillations natural or artificial origin. The most powerful natural source of electromagnetic oscillations in nature is the Sun. Excessive exposure to the sun can cause first or second degree burns.

natural natural springs electromagnetic radiation (EMR) are divided into two groups. The first includes the constant electric and magnetic field of the Earth, the second - created space sources radio waves, as well as electrical processes in the atmosphere (for example, lightning discharges). Different people react differently to electromagnetic radiation, as they have different sensitivities to them.

artificial sources electromagnetic radiation are radio stations, high voltage lines power lines and many other transmission facilities. electromagnetic radiation permeate the entire space of the biosphere and affect all living organisms. Long-term EMR at high density power flow can have serious Negative consequences for the state of health. The peculiarity of this impact is that we cannot feel them, since nature has not created the appropriate receptors (perceiving structures). Biological action EMR is manifested in the disruption of the nervous and endocrine systems, defensive reactions organism, impaired reproductive function.

Chemical Factors

Chemicals are widely used by man in production and at home (preservative, detergent, cleaner, disinfectant, paint, etc.). Chemicals should also include medications, since most of the well-known dosage forms created in the production environment.

All chemical substances used in everyday life in small quantities are safe for health. However, violation of the rules for their use can have an adverse effect on the body.

Biological factors

From the first days of human life, the world of biological beings, invisible to the naked eye, surrounds us. This is the world of microorganisms.

All known microorganisms can be divided into three groups:

1. Safe for humans (saprophytes) - we are constantly in contact with them, but this never causes diseases.

2. Harmful and dangerous to human health. Meeting with them is always fraught with the development of an infectious disease.

3. Conditionally - pathogenic. These are microorganisms that normal conditions do not cause any disease in humans. However, when the body is weakened due to a cold or chronic illness, malnutrition, beriberi, stress, fatigue, etc. they can cause disease.

Mental factors

Environmental factors that have a mental coloring are associated with specific aspect human life.

Health at the mental level is associated with personality and is expressed in a harmonious combination of conscious and subconscious. The unity of the subconscious and consciousness ensures the stability of the human body and the specific mechanisms of adaptation to the environment inherited by it and at the same time determines its susceptibility to changes - adaptability.

Social factors

Social factors are connected with the life of people, with their attitude to each other and to society.

Distinctive feature a person as a social being - the ability to consciously and actively influence both external natural and social conditions, which largely determine the state of people's health, their performance, life expectancy and fertility.

Man consists of two components: material and spiritual.

Material part . The human body consists mainly of oxygen, carbon, nitrogen and hydrogen. French chemist Gabriel Bertrand calculated that the body of a person weighing 100 kg consists of: oxygen - 63 kg .; carbon - 19 kg; hydrogen - 9 kg; nitrogen - 5 kg; calcium - 1 kg; phosphorus - 700g; sulfur - 640g; sodium - 260 g; potassium 220 g; chlorine - 180g; magnesium - 40g; iron 3g.; iodine - 0.03 g.

Spirituality is the substance that transforms the set chemical elements, that is, our body, into a being with proud name Man. As long as a person is spiritualized, his energy is inexhaustible. The potential power of the human personality is truly limitless. However, it can be used only when a person understands what he wants, what his purpose is.

The body cannot function properly without purpose. After all, man is a creature by nature, constantly directed towards some goal. overriding goal is health. Health is: the birth of a healthy generation, an optimistic lifestyle, a highly productive labor activity(study, work), the ability to endure inevitable stressful situations with the least loss.

The structure of the human body

Without knowledge of the structure human body, patterns of activity of individual organs and functional systems of the body, features of the course complex processes it is impossible to properly organize the process of forming a healthy lifestyle and physical exercises in his life.

Human anatomy is studied, as a rule, by considering various organs of the body. An organ is a separate unit consisting of various tissues with a specific structure and function. Many of these organs, together with their structures, can be grouped into various systems, which interact specific functions organism. Ultimately, all body systems, down to the smallest cells, are involved in maintaining health and maintaining the body in a state of internal balance.

There are three main cavities in the human body:

The cranial cavity, which contains the brain, and the face, which is the framework for the eyes, nose and mouth.

thoracic cavity. It contains the heart, large blood vessels, lungs, esophagus.

· Abdomen. In the abdominal - the largest cavity - the stomach, intestines, liver, pancreas, spleen, kidneys and other organs are located.

To better understand how different organs are related to each other, the human body is studied by systems - groups of organs that function together.

Organs are combined into a system not only because they are interconnected, but also because they are the same types of tissues.

The human body is made up of over 100 trillion cells. collection of cells and intercellular substance having common origin, the same structure and functions, are called tissue.

There are 4 types of fabric:

epithelial- performs integumentary, protective, absorption, excretory and secretory functions.

Connective- includes bones and tendons, connects, supports and expands the structures of the body.

muscular- has the property of contracting, as a result of which the whole body and its internal structures the ability to move appears. The heart is almost entirely composed of muscle tissue.

nervous(consists of nerve cells or neurons - the most important function, which is the generation and conduction of nerve impulses).

It is customary to distinguish the following functional systems of the body: bone, nervous, muscle, cardiovascular, respiratory, digestive, system of endocrine glands, analyzers.

Skeletal system

The main function of the skeletal system is to support and move the body and its links in space. The human skeleton consists of more than 200 bones, it includes the spine, skull, chest, limb girdle and skeleton of free limbs.

The spine, consisting of 33-34 vertebrae, has 5 sections: cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral, coccygeal. Average limit spine strength - 350 kg! An increase in strength to vertical loads is provided by the physiological curvature existing in a normal spine in the form of cervical lordosis, thoracic kyphosis and lumbar lordosis. The greatest load falls on the lumbar intervertebral discs in the sitting position. So, in a person with a body weight of 70 kg, the fourth lumbar disc experiences a load equal to 142 kg, in a standing position - 99 kg, in a prone position - 20 kg. The pressure forces acting on the spine increase significantly if the person's hands are used as a lever. It is calculated that if outstretched hand a person lifts a load of 45 kg, then his lumbar intervertebral disc experiences a load of more than 750 kg, and if the mass of the load is 90 kg, then the load on the fifth lumbar disc is about 1000 kg! These are the strength characteristics of the spine modern man.

Conclusion: the spine is a very rational and durable organ, but due to the upright posture of a person, it has whole line weak positions which it cannot resist. Undesirable changes in the spine are the source of severe diseases, but they can be reduced if you systematically engage in physical exercises.

Muscular system

The person has over 600 different muscles. Every movement of the body, from blinking to jumping, is made possible by muscles and tendons, extensions of muscles that play a critical role in transferring energy (power) from the muscles to the bone they move. These actions are based on complex mechanisms who make such simple moves like turning the head, a complex procedure involving the brain, nerves and sense organs.

There are three types (kinds) of different muscles in the human body.

The first type - skeletal, or voluntarily contracting, or striated muscles. Together with bones and tendons, they are responsible for all forms arbitrary movements a person, such as climbing stairs, and they are also involved in involuntary reactions known as reflexes.

The second type - smooth muscles that are involved in involuntary movements internal organs such as the intestines and bladder.

The third type cardiac muscle which makes up the bulk of the heart.

The striated muscles act by shortening in length. This process is called muscle contraction. They can produce sudden, explosive contractions that cause a person to jump upwards, and they can hold a constant contraction, for example, to give the body a certain posture. Distributed throughout the body most its weight is up to 25%, even in a newborn baby.

Smooth muscle is not under the control of human consciousness, but is responsible for the muscle contractions necessary for processes such as digestion, where the rhythmic contractions of the intestines move food.

Cardiac muscle has a similar structure to voluntary muscles, but its fibers are shorter and thicker and form a tight mesh.

Nervous system

The nervous system plays a critical role in sensory perception, in the sensation of pain and pleasure, in the control of movement, and in the regulation of bodily functions such as breathing. This most important and a complex system the human body also plays a vital role important role in the development of speech, thinking and memory.

The central nervous system consists of the brain and spinal cord who are in complete control of everything. nervous tissue in other parts of the body.

The peripheral nervous system has two main divisions: the somatic nervous system, which is under the constant control of a person, and the autonomic system, which is under his unconscious control.

The somatic system performs a dual task: firstly, it collects information about the surrounding world from the sense organs, and transfers these signals to the central nervous system through sensory fibers; secondly, it transmits signals along the motor fibers from the central nervous system, to the skeletal muscles, thus causing movement.

The autonomic nervous system regulates the activity of internal organs - respiration, blood circulation, excretion, reproduction, endocrine glands, etc.

All autonomic system controlled by a part of the brain called the hypothalamus. If, for example, the oxygen level drops due to physical activity, the hypothalamus instructs the autonomic nervous system to increase the heart rate to supply the body with more oxygenated blood.

The central nervous system coordinates activities various bodies and body systems and regulates this activity in a changing environment by the mechanism of reflexes. The brain and spinal cord form CPU nervous system. They receive impulses along sensory fibers from the sense organs and receptors of the body, select and analyze them, and then send commands along the motor fibers, causing a corresponding reaction in the muscles and glands.

The spinal cord has two main functions: serving as a two-way conduction system between the brain and the peripheral nervous system, and controlling simple reflex activity.

The human cerebral cortex is made up of 14 billion neurons whose function is to material basis the spiritual life of a person - his consciousness, ability to work and to live in society.

The intensity of the work of the brain can be characterized by the following data: having an average weight of 1400 g (about 2% of a person's body weight), the brain absorbs 18-25% of the oxygen consumed by the whole body. The brain tissue consumes 5 times more oxygen than the heart, and 20 times more than the muscles. They use 60-70% of the glucose formed by the liver, which is about 115 g per day, and this despite the fact that the brain is in one of the last places in terms of the amount of blood it contains.

With physical inactivity (a sedentary lifestyle), the most common complaints are headache, weakness, decreased mental performance, memory impairment, irritability.

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on the topic: THE HUMAN BODY AS A SINGLE BIOLOGICAL SYSTEM

1. The human body as a single biological system

1.1 Levels of organization of the human body

1.2 The main functions of ensuring the vital activity of the body

1.3 Ontogeny, its age periods

List of sources used

1 . THE HUMAN BODY AS A SINGLE BIOLOGICAL SYSTEM

The structure and functions of the body are studied in such sections of biology as anatomy, physiology and hygiene.

Human anatomy is a science that studies the structure of the human body, its organs and systems.

Human physiology is the science of life processes (functions) and the mechanisms of their regulation in cells, tissues, organs, organ systems and the whole organism. Bilich G.L., Nazarova L.V. Fundamentals of valeology. SPb., 1997.

Human hygiene is the science of the influence of physical, chemical, biological and social environmental factors on human health, its performance and life expectancy.

These sciences are closely interconnected and form the basis of modern medicine, pedagogy, psychology and valueology.

The structure and vital activity of various organs and the whole organism are inseparable from each other (unity of structure and function). Knowledge of the structure and functions of the human body allows everyone to consciously observe the scientifically based rules of personal and public hygiene, to avoid various diseases and be healthy and physically fit.

The body is on its own existing unit organic world, representing self-regulating system, which reacts as a whole to various changes external environment.

Each organism has a set of characteristics and properties that distinguish it from inanimate nature: metabolism and energy, self-reproduction, heredity, variability, growth and development, irritability, self-regulation.

Man with his complex anatomical structure, physiological and mental characteristics represents the highest stage evolution of the organic world.

1.1 Levels of organization of the human body

Each organism is characterized by a certain organization of its structures. There are six levels of organization of the human body: 1) molecular; 2) cellular; 3) tissue; 4) organ; 5) systemic; 6) organismic.

Molecular level of organization. Any living system, no matter how complex it is organized, it manifests itself at the level of functioning of biological macromolecules (biopolymers): nucleic acids, proteins, fats (lipids), polysaccharides, vitamins, enzymes and others organic matter. Protein molecules, in turn, are broken down in the body into monomer molecules - amino acids, fats - into glycerol molecules and fatty acids, carbohydrates - into glucose molecules, etc. With molecular level begin critical processes the vital activity of the organism. Petlenko V.P. Human valeology: Health - love - beauty. In 2 books, 5 volumes. 2nd ed. SPb., 1998.

Cellular level of organization. A cell is an elementary structural, functional and genetic unit of a multicellular organism. There are approximately 1014 cells in the human body. The cells of a complex organism are specialized.

Each cell has cell membrane, cytoplasm and nucleus. The membrane limits the internal environment of the cell, protects it from damage, regulates the metabolism between the cell and the environment, and provides interconnection with other cells. Cytoplasm - the internal semi-liquid environment of the cell, in which the organelles of the cell are located, including the nucleus, which performs the functions of storage and transmission hereditary information, regulation of protein synthesis; nuclear division is the basis of cell reproduction.

tissue level of organization. Tissues are groups of cells and intercellular substance, united general structure, function and origin. There are four main groups of tissues: epithelial, connective, muscle and nervous.

Epithelial (boundary) tissue is located on surfaces bordering the external environment, and lines the walls of hollow organs from the inside, blood vessels, is part of the glands of the body. The epithelium has high ability to restoration (regeneration), serves as a material for hair, nails, tooth enamel.

Connective tissues (tissues internal environment) perform nutritional, transport and protective (blood, lymph), as well as supporting (tendons, cartilage, bone tissue) functions. Variety connective tissue is fatty.

Muscle tissue is divided into three types:

Striated (skeletal muscles, muscles of the tongue, pharynx, larynx);

Smooth (forms the walls of internal organs);

Cardiac (like skeletal it has a striated structure, but like smooth muscles it contracts involuntarily).

Nervous tissue, consisting of nerve cells (neurons), is involved in the conduction of a nerve impulse from various organs and tissues to the central nervous system and vice versa. Bayer K., Sheinberg L. Healthy lifestyle. M., 1997.

Organ level of organization. Various tissues, connecting with each other, form organs: the heart, kidneys, lungs, brain, spinal cord, muscle, bladder, uterus, breast, stomach, eye, ear, etc. The organ occupies a permanent position, has a certain structure, shape and function. Organs that are similar in structure, function and development are combined into organ systems.

The system level of the organization. A set of organs involved in the performance of any complex act of activity, forming anatomical and functional associations - organ systems. There are nine major body systems.

1. The system of organs of movement or the musculoskeletal system combines all the bones (skeleton), their connections (joints, ligaments) and skeletal muscles. Thanks to this system, the body moves in the external environment; the bones of the skeleton protect the internal organs from mechanical damage (the skull protects the brain, the chest protects the heart and lungs). Brekhman I.I. Valeology is the science of health. M., 1990.

2. Digestive system unites organs that perform the functions of eating, its mechanical and chemical processing, absorption of nutrients into the blood and lymph and excretion of undigested parts of food. The digestive system is made up of oral cavity, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small and large intestines. The digestive system includes salivary glands, liver and pancreas.

3. Respiratory system carries out the consumption of oxygen by the body and the release of carbon dioxide, i.e. the function of gas exchange between the body and the environment. The respiratory system includes the nasal cavity, larynx, trachea, bronchi and lungs.

4. The urinary system performs the function of excreting the end products of metabolism from the body and the function of maintaining the constancy of the internal environment of the body (homeostasis), in particular the water-salt balance. The urinary system includes the kidneys, bladder, ureters, and urethra.

5. reproductive system unites the organs of reproduction and performs the function of prolonging the human race. There are male and female reproductive systems, which include external and internal genital organs (gonads).

The male genital organs include external (penis, scrotum) and internal (testicles with appendages, vas deferens and ejaculatory ducts, seminal vesicles, prostate and cooper glands). The testicles are paired male sex glands that produce male sex cells (spermatozoa) and secrete male sex hormones - androgens into the blood. The process of growth and development of male germ cells is called spermatogenesis.

The female genital organs include external (large and small labia, clitoris) and internal (ovaries, fallopian tubes, uterus, vagina). The uterus is a hollow muscular organ designed to bear a fetus. Her the inner layer(endometrium) is lined with mucous epithelium, which is updated in each menstrual cycle. The ovary is a steamy female gonad, in which the development and maturation of female germ cells (eggs), as well as the formation of female sex hormones - estrogen and progesterone. The process of release of a mature egg from the ovary is called ovulation. Dell R.A., Afanas'eva R.F., Chubarova Z.S. Clothing hygiene. M., 1991.

6. Endocrine system It consists of endocrine glands, which include the pituitary, pineal, thymus, thyroid, pancreas, parathyroid, gonads, adrenal glands. They produce special active substances (hormones) that are directly absorbed into the blood. Hormones are carried by the blood throughout the body and have a regulatory effect on various functions, primarily on metabolism, gene activity, processes of ontogenetic development, tissue differentiation, sex formation, reproduction, tone of the cerebral cortex, etc.

7. The cardiovascular system (CVS) provides continuous movement blood in the body (blood circulation), due to which the transport functions of blood are carried out: the delivery of oxygen, nutrients and hormones to tissues and the removal of substances from tissues resulting from metabolic processes. The cardiovascular system includes the heart, blood vessels (arteries, veins and capillaries) and lymphatic vessels. CCC plays an important role in the integration of the body into a single whole. Communication between organs is carried out through blood and lymph.

8. The sensory system combines the organs of sight, hearing, smell, taste and touch. They perceive information from the external environment, play an important role in the exchange of information between the organism and the environment.

9. The nervous system plays a leading role in uniting the body into a single whole, regulates the activity of all internal organs and organ systems. It connects the organism with the external environment on the basis of conditional and unconditioned reflexes, providing adaptation to changing conditions of life, and also carries out mental activity human, arising on the basis of the physiological processes of sensation, perception and thinking. Kavrigo N.M. Valeology: systems approach. Izhevsk, 1998.

The nervous system includes the brain and spinal cord, nerves extending from them and all their branches. The brain and spinal cord form the central nervous system (CNS). The highest division of the CNS is the cerebral cortex. All nerves from the brain and spinal cord make up the peripheral nervous system. The activity of the spinal cord and peripheral nervous system is regulated by the overlying parts of the central nervous system, i.e. brain.

The brain is located in the skull. It contains nerve centers that provide essential functions organism and mental activity of a person. The mass of the brain of men is on average 1400 g, and women - 1300 g. These differences do not reflect mental capacity, and the ratio of brain mass to body mass.

In the brain, the cerebral hemispheres and the brain stem are distinguished. In the brain stem there are centers of respiration, cardiac activity, digestion, vomiting, coordination of movements and regulation of muscle tone, regulation of sensations by the sense organs, etc. These are the centers of unconditioned reflexes - innate responses of the body that provide important vital functions of the body: breathing, heartbeat, digestion, thermoregulation, maintaining muscle tone.

The cerebral hemispheres (left and right) are composed of gray and white matter. Gray matter, consisting of the bodies of nerve cells, forms the cerebral cortex about 3-4 mm thick. White matter, formed by the processes of nerve cells, is located under the cortex. There is interhemispheric asymmetry between the right and left hemispheres of the brain. This means that the functions of both hemispheres are not exactly the same. For example, in right-handed people (people whose main acting hand is right), the center of speech is in the left hemisphere. Left hemisphere in right-handed people it is the main nerve substrate human consciousness and is called dominant. Samoilov N.N., Stratienko E.N. Features of the structure and functions of male and female genital organs. Bryansk, 1998.

frontal lobes hemispheres in humans - the largest areas of the cortex in area (in animals they are absent, except for chimpanzees). One of the functions of the frontal lobe is to control innate behavioral responses with the help of accumulated experience. For patients with affected frontal lobes of the cortex, impulsivity, incontinence, irritability and other manifestations of mental instability are characteristic. Such patients often become rude, tactless, although their intelligence is preserved, they often come into conflict with other people.

The cerebral cortex affects all the functions of the body and provides a connection between the body and the external environment, causing the higher nervous activity of the body (mental activity, thinking, memory, speech, etc.). The centers of conditioned reflexes are located in the cerebral cortex. Conditioned reflexes- this is knowledge acquired in the process of learning, during life - skills and abilities. If the cells of the cerebral cortex die under damaging influences, then a person is completely or partially deprived of the knowledge, skills and abilities acquired by him earlier. Such an effect is possible with clinical death when the cells of the cerebral cortex die from lack of oxygen. Memory has great value In human life. It is only possible to roughly estimate the information capacity human brain. The total information capacity of the human brain is approximately 3x108 bits (a bit is a unit of information). From all the information human environment, in long-term memory only 1% comes in.

Level whole organism. The human body functions as a whole and is a self-regulating system. Interconnected, coordinated work of all organs and physiological systems provided by humoral and nervous regulation. Semenov E.A. Anatomy and physiology of man. M., 1997.

1.2 The main functions of ensuring the vital activity of the body

Humoral (chemical) regulation of functions is carried out due to the transfer of hormones by the blood or lymph flow, inorganic substances, gases, metabolic products and others active substances. This type of regulation is evolutionary development is more ancient than nervous regulation. However, due to humoral regulation a quick restructuring of the body's activity is impossible, because this type of regulation is limited by the speed of blood movement through the vessels.

Nervous regulation provides a rapid restructuring of the functions of organs and the body as a whole in accordance with the conditions of existence. This is possible because the speed of propagation of nerve impulses along the nerve conductors significantly exceeds the speed of blood flow through the vessels, nerve impulses always have an exact focus on certain cells, tissues, organs. Various reflexes can serve as an example of nervous regulation: knee, pupillary, sneezing, swallowing, indicative and others.

In the whole organism there is a single neurohumoral regulation of functions. For example, breathing is regulated by the respiratory center located in the medulla oblongata. When the respiratory center is excited, inhalation occurs, while braking - exhalation. The excitation of the respiratory center occurs both in the nervous (reflex) and humoral ways. The specific chemical irritant of the respiratory center is CO2. An increase in the content of CO2 in the blood is accompanied by excitation of the respiratory center (inhalation occurs), a decrease in its inhibition (exhalation occurs).

permanence chemical composition and physical chemical properties internal environment is called homeostasis. It is supported by the continuous work of the systems of the organs of blood circulation, respiration, digestion, excretion, etc. Due to this, the body self-regulates physiological functions, which is activated whenever there is a deviation from a certain constant level of any vital factor of the external or internal environment. For example, thanks to the mechanisms of homeostasis in human blood, the constancy of the level of glucose, sodium chloride, acid-base balance etc.

The relationship of the organism with the environment is carried out through the metabolism and energy. Metabolism (metabolism) is the main function of living matter and is a combination of physical, chemical and physiological processes of the transformation of substances and energy in the human body. The main types of metabolism include: protein, lipid, carbohydrate, mineral and water. Tatarnikova L.G. Valeology of a teenager. SPb., 1996.

1.3 Ontogeny, its age periods

cell ontogeny tissue organism

Process individual development organism from the moment of birth (conception) to its death is called ontogeny. The following periods of human life are distinguished (according to N.P. Gundobin, 1982):

1. Newborn (1 - 30 days);

2. Breast age (30 days - 1 year);

3. Early childhood(1 - 3 years);

4. First childhood (4 - 7 years old);

5. Second childhood (8-12 years old boys, 8-11 years old girls);

6. Teenage years(13-16 years old boys, 12-15 years old girls);

7. adolescence(17-21 years old boys, 16-20 years old girls);

8. Mature age: I period (22-35 years old men, 21-35 years old women); II period (36-60 years old men, 36-55 years old women);

9. Elderly age(61-74 years old men, 56-74 years old women);

10. Senile age (75-90 years);

11. Long-livers (90 years and above). Chumakov B.N. Valeology. Selected lectures. M., 1997.

So, consideration of all sections and subsections of the chapter on the human body allows us to make sure that the human body is a universal, unified, integral biological system that adequately responds to various changes both in the body itself and in its natural, technogenic and social environment.

List of sources used

1. Bilich G.L., Nazarova L.V. Fundamentals of valeology. SPb., 1997.

2. Petlenko V.P. Human valeology: Health - love - beauty. In 2 books, 5 volumes. 2nd ed. SPb., 1998.

3. Bayer K., Sheinberg L. Healthy lifestyle. M., 1997.

4. Brekhman I.I. Valeology is the science of health. M., 1990.

5. Dell R.A., Afanas'eva R.F., Chubarova Z.S. Clothing hygiene. M., 1991.

6. Kavrigo N.M. Valeology: a systematic approach. Izhevsk, 1998.

7. Samoilov N.N., Stratienko E.N. Features of the structure and functions of male and female genital organs. Bryansk, 1998.

8. Semenov E.A. Anatomy and physiology of man. M., 1997.

9. Tatarnikova L.G. Valeology of a teenager. SPb., 1996.

10. Chumakov B.N. Valeology. Selected lectures. M., 1997.

11. Shelton G. Natural hygiene. SPb., 1993.

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1. Man as a holistic biological

The human body is a single entity. Man, with his complex anatomical structure, physiological and mental characteristics, represents the highest stage in the evolution of the organic world. Characteristic of any organism is a certain organization of its structures. In the process of evolution multicellular organisms cell differentiation occurred: cells of various sizes, shapes, structures and functions appeared. From identically differentiated cells, tissues are formed, the characteristic property of which is structural association, morphological and functional commonality and interaction of cells. Different fabrics are specialized in function. So, a characteristic property of muscle tissue is contractility; nervous tissue - transmission of excitation, etc. Several tissues combined into a certain complex form an organ (kidney, eye, stomach, etc.). An organ is a part of the body that occupies a permanent position in it, has a certain structure and shape, and performs one or more functions. An organ consists of several types of tissues, but one of them always prevails and determines its main, leading function. The composition of skeletal muscle, for example, includes striated muscle and loose connective tissue. It contains blood and lymphatic vessels and nerves. However, the main skeletal muscle is striated muscle tissue, which determines the contractile function of the muscle as an organ. Organs are the working apparatus of the body, specialized in performing complex types activities necessary for the existence of a holistic organism. The heart, for example, acts as a pump that pumps blood from the veins to the arteries; kidneys - the function of excreting end products of metabolism from the body; bone marrow - the function of hematopoiesis, etc. Organs were formed in the process of evolution of the animal world. An organ is a historically established system of various tissues united by the main function, structure and development common to a given organ.

2. General concepts of growth and development.

The concept of growth and development of organisms is one of the fundamental concepts in biology. The term growth is currently understood as an increase in the length, volume and body weight of children and adolescents, associated with an increase in the number of cells and the number of their constituents. organic molecules, i.e. quantitative changes. Development is understood as qualitative changes in the child's body, consisting in the complication of its organization, i.e., in the complication of the structure and functions of all tissues and organs, the complication of their relationships and the processes of their regulation.
The growth and development of the child, i.e., quantitative and qualitative changes, are closely interrelated and determine each other. Gradual quantitative changes that occur during the growth of the organism lead to the appearance of new qualitative features in the child. For example, the formation of a child's motor functions is associated with the maturation of the neuromuscular apparatus that ensures the implementation of these functions: with an increase in muscle mass and a change in the properties of muscle tissue, an improvement in the conduction of nerve impulses along nerve fibers from the central structures of the brain to the muscles and from muscles to the brain, an increase in the number of intercellular connections in the subcortical nerve structures and the cerebral cortex, with an increase in the number of connections between individual areas of the cerebral cortex,

involved in the implementation of motor functions. Thus, slow quantitative changes lead to the fact that the movements of a one-year-old child, unlike those of a newborn, acquire a pronounced conditioned reflex character, while the automatic movements of a newborn are provided by congenital unconditional reflex nervous mechanisms.
.The qualitative improvement of the child's motor functions, in turn, contributes to the quantitative morphofunctional maturation of brain structures, since due to an increase in motor activity in a child, the formation of new intercellular and interzonal connections in the subcortical and cortical formations of the brain proceeds more intensively.
Such examples could be given innumerable. All of them are an illustration of the objectivity of the laws of materialistic dialectics, and in particular the law of the transition of quantitative changes into qualitative ones discovered by K. Marx and F. Engels.

Among the body sizes, total (from French total - whole) and partial (from Latin pars - part) are distinguished. Total (general) body sizes - main indicators physical development person. These include body length and weight, as well as chest circumference. Partial (partial) dimensions of the body are terms of the total size and characterize the size of individual parts of the body.

Body sizes are determined during anthropometric surveys of various contingents of the population.

Most anthropometric indicators have significant individual fluctuations. Table 2 shows some average anthropometric indicators in postnatal ontogenesis.

The proportions of the body depend on the age and gender of the person (Fig. 4). Body length and its age-related changes, as a rule, are individual. So, for example, differences in the body length of newborns during normal pregnancy are in the range of 49-54 cm. The largest increase in the body length of children is observed in the first year of life and averages 23.5 cm. In the period from 1 to 10 years, this indicator gradually decreases by an average of 10.5 - 5 cm per year. From the age of 9, sex differences in growth rate begin to appear. Body weight from the first days of life until about 25 years of age in most people gradually increases, and then remains unchanged.

After the age of 60, body weight usually begins to gradually decrease, mainly as a result of atrophic changes in tissues and a decrease in their water content. total weight The body consists of a number of components: the mass of the skeleton, muscles, fatty tissue, internal organs and skin. In men average weight body 52-75 kg, for women - 47-70 kg.

In the elderly and senile age, characteristic changes are observed not only in the size and weight of the body, but also in its structure; these changes are being studied special science gerontology (gerontos - old man).
It should be emphasized that an active lifestyle, regular physical education slows down the aging process.

It should be noted that over the past 100-150 years there has been a noticeable acceleration in the somatic development and physiological maturation of children and adolescents - acceleration (from Latin acceleratio - acceleration). Another term for the same trend is "epochal shift". Acceleration is characterized by a complex set of interrelated morphological, physiological and mental phenomena. To date, morphological indicators of acceleration have been determined.

Thus, the length of the body of children at birth over the past 100-150 years has increased by an average of 0.5-1 cm, and the weight - by 100-300 g. During this time, the mass of the placenta in the mother has also increased. There is also an earlier alignment of the ratios of chest and head girths (between the 2nd and 3rd month of life). Modern one-year-old children are 5 cm longer and 1.5-2 kg heavier than their peers in the 19th century.

The body length of preschool children over the past 100 years has increased by 10-12 cm, and for schoolchildren - by 10-15 cm.

In addition to an increase in body length and weight, acceleration is characterized by an increase in size separate parts body (segments of limbs, thickness of skin-fat folds, etc.). Thus, the increase in chest girth in relation to the increase in body length was small. The onset of puberty modern teenagers occurs about two years earlier. The acceleration of development also affected motor functions. Modern teenagers run faster, jump further from a place, pull themselves up on the crossbar (horizontal bar) more times.

Epochal shift (acceleration) affects all stages human life, from birth to death. For example, the length of the body of adults also increases, but to a lesser extent than in children and adolescents. So, at the age of 20-25 years, the body length of men increased by an average of 8 cm.

Acceleration covers the entire body, affecting the size of the body, the growth of organs and bones, the maturation of the sex glands and the skeleton. In men, changes in the process of acceleration are more pronounced than in women.

Men and women are distinguished by sexual characteristics. This is primary signs(genital organs) and secondary (for example, the development of pubic hair, the development of the mammary glands, a change in voice, etc.), as well as body features, proportions of body parts.

The proportions of the human body are calculated as a percentage according to the measurement of the longitudinal and transverse dimensions between the boundary points set on various protrusions of the skeleton.

The harmony of body proportions is one of the criteria for assessing the state of human health. With disproportion in the structure of the body, one can think of a violation of growth processes and the causes that caused it (endocrine, chromosomal, etc.). Based on the calculation of body proportions in anatomy, three main types of human physique are distinguished: mesomorphic, brachymorphic, dolichomorphic. The mesomorphic body type (normosthenics) includes people whose anatomical features approach the average parameters of the norm (taking into account age, gender, etc.). In people of the brachymorphic body type (hypersthenics), transverse dimensions predominate, muscles are well developed, they are not very tall. The heart is located transversely due to the high-standing diaphragm. In hypersthenics, the lungs are shorter and wider, loops small intestine are predominantly horizontal. Persons of dolichomorphic body type (asthenics) are characterized by a predominance of longitudinal dimensions, have relatively longer limbs, poorly developed muscles and a thin layer of subcutaneous fat, and narrow bones. Their diaphragm is lower, so the lungs are longer, and the heart is located almost vertically.

3. Anthropometric studies.

The method of anthropometric research is widely used to determine the physical development of people involved in physical education and sports. This method of studying the human body is mainly based on taking into account quantitative, external morphological indicators. However, a number of anthropometric studies (spirometry, dynamometry) also give an idea of ​​the functions of various systems and organs. In general, indicators of physical development reflect the functional state of the body and are important for assessing the state of health and performance.
The technique of conducting anthropometric studies is not complicated. They are usually performed by nurses. However, like any other scientific method research,
anthropometry requires skills and compliance with certain conditions that ensure the correctness and accuracy of indicators. Such basic conditions for carrying out all anthropometric changes are:
- performance of researches on the uniform unified technique;
- conducting primary and repeated studies by the same person and the same instruments;
- examination at the same time of the day (best in the morning on an empty stomach);
- the subject must be without clothes and shoes (only shorts are allowed).
Determination of weight. Weighing is carried out on conventional decimal medical scales, which must be verified and adjusted before use. The scale platform must be exactly horizontal to the floor (this is checked by a plumb line or a water "eye" installed on the scale). The balance must be sensitive to the weight of 100 g. Check the correctness of the balance by periodically weighing the branded weights (at least 30 kg). The subject must stand motionless in the middle of the scale platform. On the site, it is advisable to mark the footprints with paint, where the subject should become.
Height measurement. Height is measured with a conventional easel wooden stadiometer or a metal anthropometer of the Martin system.
Measurement of standing height using a wooden stadiometer is carried out as follows: the subject stands on the platform of the stadiometer with his back to the rack with a scale and touches it with three points - heels, buttocks and interscapular space. The head should not touch the stadiometer 1, but should be slightly tilted so that the upper edge of the external auditory meatus and the lower edge of the orbit are located in one line parallel to the floor.
The measurer stands on the side of the subject and lowers a tablet on his head, sliding along a centimeter scale. The reading is carried out along the bottom edge of the tablet. It is necessary to ensure that the subject stands without tension; in women with a high hairstyle, the hair should be loose when measured.
Measurement of height in a sitting position is carried out with the same wooden stadiometer having a folding bench fixed at a distance of 40 cm from the floor. The measurement is carried out as follows: the subject sits deeper on the bench with his back to the stadiometer stand,
Touching the head of the stadiometer is possible with the dolichocephalic shape of the skull in the subject.
Measurement of height with an anthropometer. Martin's metal anthropometer consists of 4 folding hollow metal rods. A sleeve with a cutout slides along the rod, on which divisions are applied with an accuracy of 1 mm. At the upper end of the anthropometer, a second sleeve with a measuring ruler is fixedly attached. The upper rod of the anthropometer can be used separately as a compass to determine the width of body parts. The whole device can be disassembled into parts and put away in a case, it is easy to transport and carry, which is a great convenience for using the anthropometer.
Circumference measurement chest. It is carried out with a rubberized centimeter tape in three positions: at rest, with full inspiration and maximum exhalation. The difference between the amount of inhalation and exit is called chest excursion; it is an important indicator of the state of respiratory function.
Method for studying the circumference of the chest. The researcher is asked to spread his arms to the sides. The measuring tape is applied like this. so that from behind it passes under the lower angles of the shoulder blades, and in front for men and children of both sexes up to 12-13 years old - along the lower segment of the nipple, for women - above the mammary gland at the place of attachment of the IV rib to the sternum; after applying the tape, the subject lowers his hands. Check if the tape is applied correctly. For convenience, it is recommended to conduct a study in front of a mirror, to which the subject is turned with his back. In the mirror, you can see if the tape is correctly applied at the back.
The circumference of the chest in a calm state in adult men is 88-92 cm, in women 83-85 cm. Excursion of the chest, depending on the growth of the patient and the volume of the chest, is 6-8 cm in adult men, 3-6 cm in women.
As a result of regular physical exercises, especially sports, chest excursion can increase significantly and reach 12-15 cm.
Spirometry is a method by which the vital capacity of the lungs is determined. The measurement is carried out with a water spirometer, which consists of two hollow metal cylinders inserted one into the other. The capacity of the spirometer is usually 7 liters.
Research methodology. The subject stands facing the spirometer, takes the mouthpiece with the rubber tube in his hands. Then, having previously taken 1-2 inhalations and exhalations, he quickly gains the maximum amount of air and smoothly blows it into the mouth. The study is carried out three times in a row; note best result. In this case, each subject must use an individual glass mouthpiece. Mouthpieces are boiled after use.
Spirometry is a good method for determining the function of the respiratory apparatus. According to the indicators of spirometry, it is possible to a certain extent to judge the function of the cardiovascular system.
With age, lung capacity changes.
The average vital capacity of the lungs for an adult man is 3500-4000 cm3, for women - 2500-3000 cm3.
In athletes, especially in rowers, skiers, swimmers, the vital capacity of the lungs can reach 5000-6000 cm3 or more.
The value of lung capacity depends on height and body weight, and therefore the definition of the so-called vital indicator, which is the ratio between the vital capacity of the lungs and body weight, is important. In an adult, this indicator should not be lower than 60. The norm for an adult athlete is considered an indicator of 62-68.
Dynamometry is a method by which the muscle strength of the hands and the strength of the back extensor muscles are determined.
A hand dynamometer is an ellipsoidal steel plate, the compression of which indicates the strength of the muscles, expressed in kilograms.
Research methodology. The dynamometer is taken in the brush with the dial inward (the button is facing the fingers). The arm is extended to the side and the dynamometer is squeezed as much as possible. Manual force is noted for each brush separately. The study for each brush is carried out 3 times
and record the best result. The average strength of the right hand for adult men is 40-45 kg, for women - 30-35 kg; the average strength of the left hand is usually 5-10 kg less.
The dead force is examined with a special spring dynamometer. The subject stands on the footboard with a hook on which the chain from the dynamometer is fixed. It should become so that 2/3 of each sole goes behind the metal base (usually it is embedded in a wooden platform). Legs should be straight and placed side by side. The body is bent, the chain is fixed to the hook so that the hand from the device is at the level of the track. After that, the subject, without bending his arms and legs, slowly unbends, stretching the chain to failure. Usually a single examination is sufficient. The deadweight in adult men is on average 130-150 kg, in women - 80-90 kg.
The scope of anthropometric research. In mass medical studies of athletes, they are usually limited to determining weight, height, chest circumference, lung capacity, muscle strength of the hand and back strength.
For a more complete and special examination, the scope of research can be expanded and include determining the circumference of the shoulder, forearm, thigh, lower leg, abdomen, neck and chest diameter, its anterior-posterior size, pelvic diameter, etc. These measurements are made with using a measuring tape and a thick compass. Of great interest, in particular, is the determination of the proportions of the body. All these Figure 13. measurement of backbone forces. research can significantly expand our understanding of the degree and characteristics of the physical development of the athletes being examined.
The results of anthropometric studies are evaluated using the methods of standards, correlations, profiles, indices.
Assessment by the standards method is the most accurate and objective. The assessment of the physical development of athletes by this method is carried out by comparing (comparing) the obtained data with the average - standard - values ​​established on a large number of surveyed of the same sex, age and height.
By processing a large number(usually the number of subjects is expressed in thousands) of anthropometric studies by the method of variation statistics determine the average value - "median" (M) and the standard deviation - sigma (±a). The resulting standard values ​​​​are reduced to tables for assessing physical development, which are very convenient to use. The data obtained during the measurements are compared with the corresponding indicators of anthropometric standards. If the measured value coincides with that indicated in the table of standards or differs from it in one direction or another by no more than the value of the “average deviation” shown here (± 1 / 2o), then the assessment can be considered satisfactory. If the obtained value differs from the average indicated in the table by more than one standard deviation, then the corresponding individual sign should be recognized as large or small, depending on which direction it deviates from the average value. If the obtained value differs from the average given in the table by more than two deviations (±a), then the assessment of the trait under study is considered very good or very poor, which thereby indicates extreme variations.
It should be borne in mind that the method of standards provides for the processing of materials obtained on homogeneous contingents of the subjects: students, schoolchildren, workers, collective farmers, sportsmen-dischargers, etc., living in the same geographical and climatic conditions, in the same city or the same locality.
Currently, such tables of standards are available not only in republican research institutions, but also in many sports and other organizations, educational institutions. These tables are developed by local experts.
It is also important to take into account the time when anthropometric standards were developed, since it is well known that the physical condition of the population of the USSR is improving from year to year and the old anthropometric standards obtained are no longer suitable for use.
Below, only as a sample, we present a table for assessing the indicators of the physical development of athletes.
Some authors consider the correlation method to be the most rational for the purposes of scientific processing of materials and evaluation of the results of anthropometric studies. It is based on the ratios of individual anthropometric indicators, which are calculated mathematically using the correlation coefficient, they determine the so-called regression coefficient. The latter shows how much one attribute changes when the other changes by one unit. Using the regression coefficient, you can build a regression scale, that is, find out what weight, chest circumference, etc., should be for a given height.
The profile method is based on the variational-statistical processing of survey results. It allows the obtained data to be represented graphically. Usually, for this purpose, grids are prepared in advance, on which digital indicators are applied.
For example, here is a sample anthropometric profile. The disadvantage of this method is the difficulty associated with the manufacture of a large number of grids and the work of drawing profiles; therefore, apparently, this method is currently little used.
The method of indices (indicators) is a set of special formulas that can be used to evaluate individual atropometric indicators and their ratios. A number of indicators are of interest and have a known practical significance.
The height-weight indicator characterizes the proportional (in relation to height) body weight.
The most common and most primitive is Broca's indicator, but to which a person's weight should be equal to his height without 100 units. This formula is used with Brooksch's corrections; in people with a height of 165 to 170 cm, 105 units should be subtracted, with a height of 175-185 cm, PO units; this indicator is unsuitable in childhood and adolescence.
Another common indicator is the Quetelet weight-height indicator, obtained by dividing the weight in grams by the height in centimeters; this indicator shows how many grams of weight per centimeter of growth (fatness indicator). On average, 1 cm of growth should account for 400 g of weight. An indicator of 500 g and above indicates signs of obesity, an indicator of 300 g and below indicates a decrease in nutrition.
An index of proportionality between height and chest circumference. The most common indicators of this kind include the chest indicator. To calculate it, the chest circumference in centimeters is multiplied by 100 and divided by the height in centimeters; Normally, this index is 50-55. An index less than 50 indicates a narrow chest, more than 50 indicates a wide chest.
The Erisman index is widely used; it is determined by subtracting half the growth from the chest circumference in a calm state; Normally, the circumference of the chest should be half a height.
If the circumference of the chest prevails over half the height, this indicator is indicated by a plus sign, if the circumference of the chest lags behind half of the height, a minus sign. The average values ​​of this indicator for a well-developed adult athlete are - 5.8, for an athlete - 3.8 cm.
Index of general physical development. An example of this kind of index is the Pignet index. It is calculated by subtracting from the height in centimeters (L) the sum of the chest circumference in centimeters (T) and the body weight in kilograms (P), i.e. L-(T---P); the smaller the residue, the better the physique. The physique at an indicator of 10-15 is strong, at 16-20 it is good, at 21-25 it is average, at 26-30 it is weak, at 31 and more it is very weak.
Theoretically, the index is compiled incorrectly, since opposite quantities are compared not in their relations, but through simple addition or subtraction. For people of short stature, but with a large weight, the indicator will always be high; this index is completely unsuitable for children and adolescents.
Most indexes are compiled mechanically, and therefore do not stand up to scientific scrutiny. Assessing the state of physical development by indices should be done with great caution. For this reason, apparently, the interest in the use of indices in medical and physical culture practice is beyond last years dropped sharply. However, many prominent therapists (A. L. Myasnikov and others) recommend in their manuals some indices for the purposes of clinical anthropometry.

4. Basic physiological properties of the organism.

The human body, like all living beings, is a separate, stable, self-regulating, self-reproducing open biological system. The vital activity of the organism is provided with a number of important physiological properties that individual cells, tissues, organs and their systems and the organism as a whole possess.

Metabolism and energy (metabolism) is the basis of life. In the human body, the processes of transformation of substances continuously occur, going with the expenditure or release of energy as a result of biochemical reactions. The human body is an open energy system, i.e. matter and energy are constantly being removed from the body, the loss of which is constantly replenished by the influx of matter and energy from outside. Therefore, metabolism consists of two opposite processes:

• anabolism - it's a collection synthesis reactions occurring in cells, in which more simple substances more complex ones are formed; These reactions take place with the expenditure of energy.
• catabolism- a set of decomposition reactions in which more complex substances decompose to simpler ones; come with the release of energy.

Anabolism and catabolism - These are two interrelated aspects of metabolism. Catabolism reactions release energy, which is spent on the processes of synthesis of substances. Anabolism reactions are the providers complex substances going to plastic needs and splitting in order to release energy. The primary source of matter and energy for the human body are nutrients. The end products of metabolism, which can no longer be absorbed by the body, are excreted into the external environment. Thanks to the continuously flowing metabolic process, the body resists the destructive action of the external environment. Metabolic disorders lead to the development of diseases, and with the cessation of metabolism, the death of the body occurs.

Irritability is the ability of cells, tissues, an organ and the whole organism to respond to the action various kinds energy, i.e. to the action of stimuli. Nervous, muscular and glandular tissues are most irritable.

Excitability- this is the ability of a cell, tissue, organ and the organism as a whole to respond to the action of the energy of the stimulus. Excitation is primarily associated with the ability of cells to change membrane potential: under the action of a stimulus, membrane resting potential cells are converted to action potential, which is able to spread throughout the cell and from cell to cell. Nerve, muscle and secretory cells have a particularly pronounced property of excitability.

Description of work

The human body is a single entity. Man, with his complex anatomical structure, physiological and mental characteristics, represents the highest stage in the evolution of the organic world. Characteristic of any organism is a certain organization of its structures. In the process of evolution of multicellular organisms, cell differentiation occurred: cells of various sizes, shapes, structures and functions appeared. Tissues form from identically differentiated cells. characteristic property which - structural association, morphological and functional commonality and interaction of cells.

The perfect structure of the animal organism is associated with the coordination of all physiological processes, which changes in normal conditions according to the current needs of the body. These needs are provided by the activity of physiological systems, the functions of which are strictly integrated. The main systems that determine the regulation of these functions are:

Somatic nervous system";

Autonomic nervous system 2 (sympathetic and parasympathetic);

interoceptor system ( nerve endings in internal organs);

Mediators (biogenic neuroactive substances);

Hormones, metabolites, enzymes 3;

Triggers (launchers).

All this taken together constitutes the neurohumoral regulation of 4 physiological processes, which is based on the synthesis of nervous and chemical factors.

There are so-called barrier mechanisms that regulate the transition of physiologically necessary substances into the internal environment of cells and organs, and thus the action of humoral factors is realized. Academician D.S. Stern identified barriers: vascular-tissue and blood-cerebral, the latter regulates and protects the relative constancy of the composition and properties of the internal environment of the brain.

In the process of long-term evolution of the animal organism, a relative CONSTANTITY of physiological functions has been created, the main purpose of which is ADEQUATE ADAPTATION to constant changes in the external environment. Accordingly, the last change domestic regulatory mechanisms. Thus, in the process evolutionary selection regulatory mechanisms have arisen that contribute to the normal organization of physiological processes that are the basis of HOMEOSTASIS, i.e. constancy of the internal environment. The latter also affects the gene apparatus.

An important element of the regulation of functions is the preservation of the POTENTIAL reactive ability of the body in case new changes external conditions. This is the essence, in fact, of the physical education of a person.

The most effective is AUTO-REGULATION of physiological processes. Functions are considered the main regulator of the vital activity of the organism. nervous systems. This is especially true for motor activity: for example, cutting the nerves leading to the muscles causes paralysis of the corresponding motor function. An important role chemical transformations in nerve activity.

The barriers mentioned above have a dual function: regulatory and protective. The first determines the transition from the blood into the cell only of those substances that are necessary for normal function. The second protects the cell from foreign substances entering it. For example, bile pigments are constantly in the blood, but they are alien to the brain and striated muscles.

The performance of any activity of an animal organism, whether it is the pursuit of prey or salvation from a predator, as well as any human activity (professional, social, domestic, sports, etc.) requires the expenditure of energy. permanent accumulation energy and the preservation of its relative constancy occurs primarily due to the functions of the so-called life-supporting systems (cardiovascular and respiratory). However, all systems are vital. So, the cardiovascular system spreads nutrients organs and promotes the excretion of their metabolic products (slags) from the body, and the respiratory one delivers oxygen and removes carbon dioxide. The digestive system, liver, pancreas, kidneys, spleen - provide the necessary substances to all organs of the animal body. There is also a system of endocrine glands (pituitary, pineal, thyroid, parathyroid glands, adrenal glands, gonads), which produce hormones - to participate in the humoral regulation of physiological processes.

The influence of the autonomic nervous system on various physiological processes is based on ANTAGONISM between the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems. It has been experimentally proven, for example, that irritation of the sympathetic nerve against the background of muscle fatigue leads to a significant increase in its performance. Irritation of the vagus (parasympathetic) nerve leads to a slowing of the heart rate, and if the sympathetic nerve is stimulated, to an increase in the rhythm. It is also known that the sympathetic nervous system affects the functional state of the central nervous system and sensory organs (vision, hearing, taste, smell, touch). This is how the doctrine of the adaptive-trophic function of the nervous system (trophic nutrition) arose.

The impact of the environment through the sensory system is transformed into brain impulses, from which they are transmitted to the peripheral elements of the autonomic nervous system. These impulses are mainly sent to the hypothalamus (hypothalamus - a formation in the brain, consisting of 48 nuclei). The latter regulates: 1) thermoregulation; 2) activity of cardio-vascular system; 3) water and salt metabolism; 4) permeability of vessels and tissue membranes; 5) protein metabolism; 6) carbohydrate metabolism; 7) fat metabolism; 8) endocrine functions of the gonads; 9) work gastrointestinal tract; 10) urination; 11) breathing; 12) constancy of the internal environment; 13) the processes of sleep and wakefulness.

All this is possible only if they "work" interoceptors, those.

nerve elements in the internal organs, whose role is the centripetal transmission of impulses from the periphery to the centers. Known: 1) mechanoreceptors, or baroreceptors that perceive changes in pressure; 2) chemoreceptors that respond to changes in the chemical composition and physicochemical properties of the intimate environment of cells and organs; 3) thermoreceptors - temperature; 4) osmoreceptors responsible for hypo- or hypertonic changes in the internal environment. And again, we emphasize the idea that "training" these elements under the influence of at least physical activity helps to maintain the normal functioning of all physiological systems of the body.

The influence of individual organs on the functions of various physiological systems is interesting - with the help of "metabolites".

Metabolites brain depress and slow the heart rate. The cerebrospinal fluid and blood flowing from the brain increase the efficiency of the tired neuromuscular apparatus. In small doses, they increase gastric secretion, in large doses, they depress. In the liver, the amount of glycogen and bile pigments is increased. The diuretic effect is enhanced.

Metabolites of muscles: vessels expand, increasing the efficiency of tired muscles (especially with deep fatigue), increase urination.

Lung metabolites: slowing down and inhibition of the heart, vasodilation, increased urination.

Metabolites stomach: in small doses, they increase the work of the heart, in large doses, they depress; increase blood circulation.

Metabolites liver: narrowing or dilation of blood vessels, increased urination.

Metabolites kidneys: narrowing or dilation of blood vessels, increased work of the heart, increased urination.

Thus, the functioning of the system or individual organs is under the mutual influence of metabolites of other organs. This is a manifestation of the neurohumoral regulation of physiological processes.

An important role in this regulation is played by the state of the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), which is also a kind of barrier and nutrient medium for the brain. With muscle fatigue, an increased content of potassium ions in the CSF was found, while K in the blood becomes less, and the amount of Ca increases. The same picture is observed with prolonged fasting, with overheating. All these changes affect the function of the brain - the basis of the central nervous system (CNS).

Main mechanism self-regulation consists in the fact that the development of any physiological process creates such intermediate processes in the body, during which the inhibition of some processes and the stimulation of others, opposite, develop simultaneously. In these intermediate processes, any of the following factors can prevap: physical, physico-chemical, chemical, enzymatic, humoral, neurohumoral and nervous. Academician P.K. Anokhin also noted that the very deviation of functions from the norm serves as an impulse for the return of the norm. That's what it is " Golden Rule self-regulation". Each line of regulation operates on the principle of feedback. "The father of cybernetics" N. Wiener believed: "In numerous examples so-called homeostasis, we are faced with the fact that Feedback participates not only in physiological phenomena, but also turns out to be necessary for the continuation of life.

Interestingly, the law of deviation of homeostasis does not apply to all regulated functions, but only to three of them: the ability of a living thing to reproduce; to adaptation; to regulation of energy flow (metabolism). The latter is the main property of a living system. At the same time, the higher the ability to adapt (and it is also based on energy processes), the higher vitality systems. Finally, the ability to reproduce ensures the preservation of the species.

The three main properties of the living are in close interaction. And as the organism develops, therefore, a constant increase in the capacities of these systems is required, which leads to their self-development.

At the same time, it is known that the deviation of homeostasis creates a group of certain diseases associated, in the opinion of many, with the unfavorable influence of factors external environment. Here is an example: overeating - obesity, obese diabetes, atherosclerosis. What about stress response? Increase or decrease in ambient temperature, hunger or thirst, physical effort or blood loss, infection or injury, emotional overstrain or immobilization - all this can be the cause stress reaction. To protect itself from destruction and death, the body develops a number of stereotypical protective, adaptive reactions (G. Selye).

2. The impact of natural and socio-ecological factors on the human body

In the development of diseases, external and internal factors are distinguished.

External factors:

a) physical: mechanical (shocks, injections, sprains) cause bruises, fractures, wounds, etc.; temperature (high and low temperature) - cause overheating or cooling; radiant energy - thyroid cancer, blood diseases, etc.; Electric Energy causes various lesions - from burns to the death of the body; change atmospheric pressure(norm 760 mm Hg; more often there is a sharp decrease - up to 730 mm Hg) - dangerous for people with diseases of the cardiovascular system;

b) chemical: poisons of organic (snake venom, alcohol) and inorganic origin (mercury, iodine, over 4000 harmful substances and compounds contained in tobacco smoke);

G) social: defined social structure society and its elements ( healthy lifestyle life, economic sphere, healthcare, etc.)

e) insufficient physical activity(hypokinesia). Even the Greek philosopher Aristotle said: "Nothing exhausts and destroys a person like prolonged physical inactivity." Currently defined up to 19 negative effects hypokinesia, among which here we will name 6 groups: a decrease in the K / Ca coefficient in the bones, a deterioration in proprioceptive (in muscles) sensitivity, a decrease in coordination, general detraining and asthenia;

e) psychogenic: caused by violations of the processes of higher nervous activity, which often lead to social factors (economic distress, professional insolvency, demographic situation, etc.).

Internal factors:

1. Heredity: more than 1500 diseases are inherited. Literally in recent years, genes for bronchial asthma, diabetes mellitus have been discovered, and the human code has been deciphered.

2. Constitution - it turns out that the body type (normostenic, hyper sthenic, asthenic) plays certain value in the occurrence of diseases. So, it is known that hypersthenics are "prone" to obesity, hypertension, diabetes mellitus; asthenics - to gastric ulcer, diseases of the nervous system and disorders of the higher nervous activity

3. Reactivity - the body's ability to respond in a certain way to the effects of ordinary and painful stimuli (general adaptation syndrome - G. Selye's doctrine of stress).

4. Immunity - congenital and acquired immunity to action infectious agents. The disease of the century is an acquired immunodeficiency syndrome that is becoming an epidemic. AT Bryansk region several hundred HIV-infected people have been registered.

5. Allergy- increased and qualitatively altered sensitivity to the action of allergens of plant and animal origin.

All these factors are presented in sufficient detail in any textbook of physiology. It seems to us that the scheme (Table 2.1) presented by N.M. Amosov, an academician, professor, doctor, is more important. medical sciences. At the age of 80, having an implanted pacemaker, he performs daily exercises in the form of 2-4 thousand chi movements! Such is his belief in the healing power of exercise.

Table 2.1

Factors of the development of diseases in modern man (according to N.M. Amosov)

At present, unfortunately, one has to prove a close relationship\ physical and mental activity person. Many types of labor can be attributed to mental, which differ significantly in organization. workflow, load distribution, degree of neuro-emotional stress Conditionally distinguish groups:

1. The work of engineers, economists, accountants, office workers, requiring mainly tension thought processes and carried out according to a specific plan.

2. The managerial nature of work is typical for managers, teachers: uneven workload, acceptance non-standard solutions, conflict situations.

3. Scientists, writers, artists: an unregulated schedule of fluctuations (increase) in neuro-emotional stress (NEN).

4. Camera work: responsibility and high NES.

5. Labor with a heavy load on small muscle groups: the tension of individual analyzers and attention functions (compositors, controllers, etc.).

6. Labor medical workers: great responsibility, lack of information, complexity of relationships, high NEN.

7. The development of new knowledge requires the tension of memory, attention, thought processes necessary for the perception and reproduction of new information.

Muscle fatigue is normal physiological state developed in the course of evolution as a biological device that protects the body from overload. Mental work is the achievement of nature to high steps its development, and the human body has not yet had time to adapt to it. Therefore, the onset of nervous (mental) fatigue, unlike physical (muscular) fatigue, does not lead to an automatic cessation of work, i only causes overexcitation, neurotic shifts, which, accumulating, lead to illness. Thus, the number of neuroses in the world over the past 80 years has increased 28 times, and mortality from coronary disease among men aged 35-44 increased by 60%. "Diseases of civilization" are especially frequent among workers of the intellect: physical labor (sedentary labor, emotional overload). The working brain consumes significantly more oxygen than other tissues of the body - up to 20% overall balance. When reading difficult book after the first 8 pages, carbon dioxide emission increases by 12%, after 16 pages - by 20%, and after 32 - by 35%.

During mental work, the vessels of the brain are overfilled with blood, the vessels of the extremities narrow, the vessels of the internal organs expand, i.e. the reverse picture, characteristic of muscular activity. With the appearance of NEN, the cardiovascular system suffers sharply: the heart rate increases and blood pressure, thermoregulation is disturbed (sweating

is distinguished). Fatigue increases with dissatisfaction with work. Functional fatigue is at first partial, compensated. Kosilov S. A. describes the signs of fatigue during mental labor(Table 2.2).

Table 2.2 External signs intellectual fatigue

From underemployed muscular system a limited flow of information enters the brain, which leads to a weakening of the excitatory process and inhibition in certain areas cerebral cortex. But when using various combinations of muscle groups, 7.1 x 10 170 impulses can be sent to the cerebral cortex, which significantly increases the tone of cortical activity.

High performance is ensured only if the rhythm of life is correctly coordinated with individual biorhythms person. There are circadian rhythms during which more than 50 body functions change. During wakefulness maximum value indicators of the cardiovascular, endocrine, muscular, excretory and other systems reach, while at night, recovery processes mainly occur. The greatest efficiency and activity - at 8-12 o'clock, then some decline - at 12-16 o'clock, rise in the evening - at 16-22 o'clock, a sharp decrease at night - from 22 to 8 o'clock in the morning. "Larks" are active from 9 a.m. to 2 p.m., "owls" - after 6 p.m., go to bed late, get up late, inhibited, often with a headache. The discrepancy in biorhythms can reach 6 hours, and this is unfavorable for health, "owls" are formed as a result of the way of life: it is known that there are no "owls" among the peasants.

K.K. Platonov characterizes overwork in this way (Table 2.3).

The perfect structure of the animal organism is associated with the coordination of all physiological processes, which changes under normal conditions in accordance with the current needs of the organism. These needs are provided by the activity of physiological systems, the functions of which are strictly integrated. The main systems that determine the regulation of these functions are:

Somatic nervous system";

Autonomic nervous system 2 (sympathetic and parasympathetic);

Interoceptor system (nerve endings in internal organs);

Mediators (biogenic neuroactive substances);

Hormones, metabolites, enzymes 3;

Triggers (launchers).

All this taken together constitutes the neurohumoral regulation of 4 physiological processes, which is based on the synthesis of nervous and chemical factors.

There are so-called barrier mechanisms that regulate the transition of physiologically necessary substances into the internal environment of cells and organs, and thus the action of humoral factors is realized. Academician D.S. Stern identified barriers: vascular-tissue and blood-cerebral, the latter regulates and protects the relative constancy of the composition and properties of the internal environment of the brain.

In the process of long-term evolution of the animal organism, a relative CONSTANTITY of physiological functions has been created, the main purpose of which is ADEQUATE ADAPTATION to constant changes in the external environment. Accordingly, the last change domestic regulatory mechanisms. Thus, in the process of evolutionary selection, regulatory mechanisms have arisen that contribute to the normal organization of physiological processes that are the basis of HOMEOSTASIS, i.e. constancy of the internal environment. The latter also affects the gene apparatus.

An important element of the regulation of functions is the preservation of the POTENTIAL reactive ability of the body in case new changes in external conditions. This is the essence, in fact, of the physical education of a person.

The most effective is AUTO-REGULATION of physiological processes. Functions are considered the main regulator of the vital activity of the organism. nervous systems. This is especially true for motor activity: for example, cutting the nerves leading to the muscles causes paralysis of the corresponding motor function. The role of chemical transformations in the activity of the nerve is also important.

The barriers mentioned above have a dual function: regulatory and protective. The first determines the transition from the blood into the cell only of those substances that are necessary for a normal function. The second protects the cell from foreign substances entering it. For example, bile pigments are constantly in the blood, but they are alien to the brain and striated muscles.

The performance of any activity of an animal organism, whether it is the pursuit of prey or salvation from a predator, as well as any human activity (professional, social, domestic, sports, etc.) requires the expenditure of energy. permanent accumulation energy and the preservation of its relative constancy occurs primarily due to the functions of the so-called life-supporting systems (cardiovascular and respiratory). However, all systems are vital. So, the cardiovascular system distributes nutrients to the organs and contributes to the excretion of their metabolic products (slags) from the body, and the respiratory system delivers oxygen and removes carbon dioxide. The digestive system, liver, pancreas, kidneys, spleen - provide the necessary substances to all organs of the animal body. There is also a system of endocrine glands (pituitary, pineal, thyroid, parathyroid glands, adrenal glands, gonads), which produce hormones - to participate in the humoral regulation of physiological processes.

The influence of the autonomic nervous system on various physiological processes is based on ANTAGONISM between the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems. It has been experimentally proven, for example, that irritation of the sympathetic nerve against the background of muscle fatigue leads to a significant increase in its performance. Irritation of the vagus (parasympathetic) nerve leads to a slowing of the heart rate, and if the sympathetic nerve is stimulated, to an increase in the rhythm. It is also known that the sympathetic nervous system affects the functional state of the central nervous system and sensory organs (vision, hearing, taste, smell, touch). This is how the doctrine of the adaptive-trophic function of the nervous system (trophic nutrition) arose.

The impact of the environment through the sensory system is transformed into brain impulses, from which they are transmitted to the peripheral elements of the autonomic nervous system. These impulses are mainly sent to the hypothalamus (hypothalamus - a formation in the brain, consisting of 48 nuclei). The latter regulates: 1) thermoregulation; 2) the activity of the cardiovascular system; 3) water and salt metabolism; 4) permeability of vessels and tissue membranes; 5) protein metabolism; 6) carbohydrate metabolism; 7) fat metabolism; 8) endocrine functions of the gonads; 9) the work of the gastrointestinal tract; 10) urination; 11) breathing; 12) constancy of the internal environment; 13) the processes of sleep and wakefulness.

All this is possible only if they "work" interoceptors, those.

nerve elements in the internal organs, whose role is the centripetal transmission of impulses from the periphery to the centers. Known: 1) mechanoreceptors, or baroreceptors that perceive changes in pressure; 2) chemoreceptors that respond to changes in the chemical composition and physicochemical properties of the intimate environment of cells and organs; 3) thermoreceptors - temperature; 4) osmoreceptors responsible for hypo- or hypertonic changes in the internal environment. And again, we emphasize the idea that "training" these elements under the influence of at least physical activity helps to maintain the normal functioning of all physiological systems of the body.

The influence of individual organs on the functions of various physiological systems is interesting - with the help of "metabolites".

Metabolites brain depress and slow the heart rate. The cerebrospinal fluid and blood flowing from the brain increase the efficiency of the tired neuromuscular apparatus. In small doses, they increase gastric secretion, in large doses, they depress. In the liver, the amount of glycogen and bile pigments is increased. The diuretic effect is enhanced.

Metabolites muscles: blood vessels dilate, increasing the efficiency of tired muscles (especially with deep fatigue), increase urination.

Metabolites lungs: slowing down and oppression of the heart, vasodilation, increased urination.

Metabolites stomach: in small doses, they increase the work of the heart, in large doses, they depress; increase blood circulation.

Metabolites liver: narrowing or dilation of blood vessels, increased urination.

Metabolites kidneys: narrowing or dilation of blood vessels, increased work of the heart, increased urination.

Thus, the functioning of the system or individual organs is under the mutual influence of metabolites of other organs. This is a manifestation of the neurohumoral regulation of physiological processes.

An important role in this regulation is played by the state of the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), which is also a kind of barrier and nutrient medium for the brain. With muscle fatigue, an increased content of potassium ions in the CSF was found, while K in the blood becomes less, and the amount of Ca increases. The same picture is observed with prolonged fasting, with overheating. All these changes affect the function of the brain - the basis of the central nervous system (CNS).

Main mechanism self-regulation consists in the fact that the development of any physiological process creates such intermediate processes in the body, during which the inhibition of some processes and the stimulation of others, opposite, develop simultaneously. In these intermediate processes, any of the following factors can prevap: physical, physico-chemical, chemical, enzymatic, humoral, neurohumoral and nervous. Academician P.K. Anokhin also noted that the very deviation of functions from the norm serves as an impulse for the return of the norm. This is the golden rule of self-regulation. Each line of regulation operates on the principle of feedback. The "father of cybernetics" N. Wiener believed: "In numerous examples of the so-called homeostasis, we encounter the fact that feedback is involved not only in physiological phenomena, but also turns out to be necessary for the continuation of life."

Interestingly, the law of deviation of homeostasis does not apply to all regulated functions, but only to three of them: the ability of a living thing to reproduce; to adaptation; to regulation of energy flow (metabolism). The latter is the main property of a living system. At the same time, the higher the ability to adapt (and it is also based on energy processes), the higher vitality systems. Finally, the ability to reproduce ensures the preservation of the species.

The three main properties of the living are in close interaction. And as the organism develops, therefore, a constant increase in the capacities of these systems is required, which leads to their self-development.

At the same time, it is known that the deviation of homeostasis creates a group of certain diseases associated, in the opinion of many, with the unfavorable influence of factors external environment. Here is an example: overeating - obesity, obese diabetes, atherosclerosis. What about stress response? An increase or decrease in ambient temperature, hunger or thirst, physical effort or blood loss, infection or injury, emotional overstrain or immobilization - all this can cause a stress reaction. To protect itself from destruction and death, the body develops a number of stereotypical protective, adaptive reactions (G. Selye).