Engineering geology as a branch of general geology.

Geology - is a complex science of the Earth, its structure, composition, history of development, as well as the processes occurring in its air, water and stone shells. The main object of study of geology is the outer solid shell of the Earth - lithosphere(earth's crust): its composition, structure, processes taking place in it and the history of development, as well as patterns of distribution and conditions for the formation of minerals, including various building materials.

The study of the various rocks that make up the earth's crust provides us with numerous proofs that it is constantly changing in the process of its development. Therefore, scientific geological views on the origin of the Earth and the development of life on it played a big role in the triumph of the materialistic explanation of all natural phenomena.

Geological knowledge is widely used in the practice of various branches of the national economy. Knowledge helps to find ores, oil, coal, gas, all kinds of building materials and other minerals. Only relying on the knowledge of geology, it is possible to erect various engineering structures (buildings, bridges, roads, dams, tunnels, defensive structures, etc.) and make them sufficiently stable and durable with the least expenditure of funds, labor and time.

With the development of productive forces and the deepening of scientific knowledge of the surrounding world, geology also developed. But as it developed, certain branches of geology were separated into independent sciences. So formed: crystallography, mineralogy, petrography, dynamic and historical geology, hydrogeology, geomorphology, Quaternary geology, engineering geology, soil science, etc.

One of the oldest branches of the geological sciences, which developed in connection with the extraction and use of minerals, was mineralogy- the science of minerals, their composition, physical properties and formation processes.

Crystallography- the science of crystals, their external form and internal structure. Crystallography studies both natural mineral bodies and various artificial materials. The crystalline state of matter is very important to consider in the technology of building materials.

Petrography- the science of rocks of the earth's crust, usually consisting of several minerals. Petrography studies the origin, composition and properties, conditions of occurrence and geographical distribution of rocks.

dynamic geology- the science of the processes occurring in the earth's crust and on its surface and transforming it (the movement of the earth's crust, volcanism, earthquakes, the destruction of rocks, the transfer and deposition of destruction products).

historical geology- studies the history of the development of the earth's crust and the plant and animal organisms that inhabited it, as well as the successive formation in time of the rocks that make up the earth's crust.

A special branch of geology is engaged in the study of fossil remains of plant and animal organisms that existed in past geological periods and make it possible to establish the relative age of rocks. paleontology.

Hydrogeology- the science of groundwater, its formation, occurrence, movement, properties and conditions that determine its use in the national economy, as well as their influence on the stability of engineering structures, including roads, etc.

Of particular importance for road construction is Quaternary Geology, whose task is to study the deposits of the latest Quaternary period, continuing to the present.

The continuous growth of the national economy and culture in our country has led to the development of new geological disciplines - engineering geology, soil science, permafrost, etc.

Engineering geology studies the current state and dynamics of the surface layers of the earth's crust in connection with human engineering activities. Its task is to consider those geological phenomena and processes (landslides, landslides, icing, karst, etc.) that determine the conditions for the construction of engineering structures (bridges, buildings, roads, dams, etc.) and the nature of measures that ensure the stability of natural earth masses .

Ground science is a relatively young geological discipline and studies the origin, composition, structure and properties of any rocks of the surface layers of the earth's crust in order to understand them as an object of human engineering activity. Soil science is organically linked with engineering geology and makes extensive use of geological methods for studying rocks (soils). In the study of soils, the methods of soil science, physical and colloidal chemistry, structural mechanics, and the mechanics of dispersed bodies are also widely used.

1.2. The role of domestic scientists in the development of engineering geology.

The need to involve geologists in construction arose in the middle of the 19th century, when the construction of roads, bridges, tunnels, various industrial and civil buildings and structures was widely developed in the advanced countries of Europe and America. Experience has shown that without engineering and geological surveys, and sometimes special studies, it is impossible to ensure the reliability of construction and the efficient, trouble-free operation of structures that are becoming more complex and expensive.

In Russia, geological research was originally carried out during the construction of railways, many of which crossed areas with a complex geological structure and the development of geological processes dangerous for structures. For example, major geological studies were carried out during the construction of the railway through the Caucasus Range, the Siberian Railway, the Trans-Caspian Road and other structures. The most prominent geologists were involved in the surveys: A.L. Karpinsky (1847-1936), D.L. Ivanov, L.V. Mushketov, A.P. Pavlov (1854-1929), V.A. Obruchev ( 1863-1956) and many others. Later, the need for geological surveys began to be felt in other types of construction.

At the beginning of the last century, geological surveys for hydrotechnical, transport, industrial, civil, agricultural and other types of construction acquired a wide scope. Since the late 1920s, these works have been called engineering-geological. In 1932, the world's first department of engineering geology was established at the Moscow Geological Institute, headed by F.P. Savarinsky (1881-1946). Since the beginning of the 1930s, methodical manuals, instructions and manuals on engineering-geological surveys have been published (I.V. Popov and others). In 1937, a textbook by F.P. Savarinsky "Engineering geology".

Geology - the science of the composition, structure and patterns of development of the Earth, other planets of the solar system and their natural satellites.

History of geology

The study of the physical materials (minerals) of the earth dates back at least to ancient Greece, when Theophrastus (372-287 BC) wrote Peri Lithon (On Stones). During the Roman period, Pliny the Elder described in detail many minerals and metals, and their practical uses, and correctly identified the origin of amber.

Some modern scholars, such as Fielding H. Garrison, believe that modern geology began in the medieval Islamic world. Al-Biruni (973-1048 AD) was one of the first Muslim geologists whose writings contain an early description of the geology of India. He assumed that the Indian subcontinent was once a sea. The Islamic scholar Ibn Sina (Avicenna, 981-1037) offered a detailed explanation of the formation of mountains, the origin of earthquakes and other topics that are central to modern geology, and which provides the necessary foundation for the further development of science. In China, the encyclopedist Shen Kuo (1031-1095) formulated a hypothesis about the formation of the earth: based on observations of fossil shells of animals in a geological layer in the mountains hundreds of kilometers from the ocean, he concluded that the land was formed as a result of mountain erosion and silt deposition.

Niels Stensen (1638-1686) is credited with three defining principles of stratigraphy: the principle of superposition (English), the principle of primary horizontality of layers (English), and the principle of the sequence of formation of geological bodies (English).

The word "geology" was first used by Ulisse Aldrovandi in 1603, then by Jean André Deluc in 1778, and introduced as a fixed term by Horace Benedict de Saussure in 1779. The word comes from the Greek ?? meaning "Earth" and ????? meaning "teaching". However, according to another source, the word "Geology" was first used by the Norwegian priest and scientist Mikkel Pedersøn Escholt (1600-1699). Esholt first used the term in his book titled Geologica Norvegica (1657).

Historically, the term geognosia (or geognostics) has also been used. This name for the science of minerals, ores, and rocks was proposed by the German geologists G. Füchsel (in 1761) and A. G. Werner (in 1780). The authors of the term denoted by them the practical areas of geology that studied objects that could be observed on the surface, in contrast to the then purely theoretical geology, which dealt with the origin and history of the Earth, its crust and internal structure. The term was used in specialized literature in the 18th and early 19th centuries, but began to fall into disuse in the second half of the 19th century. In Russia, the term was preserved until the end of the 19th century in the titles of the academic title and degree "Doctor of Mineralogy and Geognosy" and "Professor of Mineralogy and Geognosy".

William Smith (1769-1839) drew some of the first geological maps and began the process of ordering rock strata by studying the fossils they contained.

James Hutton is often regarded as the first modern geologist. In 1785 he presented to the Royal Society of Edinburgh a paper entitled The Theory of the Earth. In this article, he explained his theory that the Earth must be much older than previously thought, in order to allow enough time for the mountains to erode, and for the sediments to form new rocks on the sea floor, which in turn , were raised to become dry land. In 1795 Hutton published a two-volume work describing these ideas (Vol. 1, Vol. 2).

Hutton's followers were known as Plutonists, due to the fact that they believed that some rocks were formed as a result of volcanic activity and are the result of the deposition of lava from a volcano, in contrast to the Neptunists, led by Abraham Werner, who believed that all rocks settled from a large ocean, the level of which gradually decreased over time.

Charles Lyell first published his famous book Fundamentals of Geology in 1830. The book, which influenced the ideas of Charles Darwin, successfully contributed to the spread of actualism. This theory claims that slow geological processes have taken place throughout the history of the Earth and are still happening today, in contrast to catastrophism, the theory that the features of the Earth are formed in one catastrophic event and remain unchanged thereafter. Although Hutton believed in actualism, the idea was not widely accepted at the time.

For most of the 19th century, geology revolved around the question of the exact age of the earth. Estimates have ranged from 100,000 to several billion years. At the beginning of the 20th century, radiometric dating made it possible to determine the age of the Earth, an estimate of two billion years. The realization of this vast span of time has opened the door to new theories about the processes that have shaped the planet.

The most significant achievement of geology in the 20th century was the development of the theory of plate tectonics in 1960 and the refinement of the age of the planet. The theory of plate tectonics arose from two separate geological observations: seafloor spreading and continental drift. The theory revolutionized the earth sciences. The age of the Earth is currently known to be about 4.5 billion years.

In order to awaken interest in geology, the United Nations proclaimed 2008 the "International Year of Planet Earth".

Branches of geology

In the process of development and deepening of specialization in geology, a number of scientific directions (sections) have been formed.

The sections of geology are listed below.

• Mineral geology studies the types of deposits, methods of their prospecting and exploration.
• Hydrogeology is a branch of geology that studies groundwater.
• Engineering geology – branch of geology that studies interactions
• geological environment and engineering structures.
• Geochemistry is a branch of geology that studies the chemical composition of the Earth, processes that concentrate and disperse chemical elements in various spheres of the Earth.
• Geophysics is a branch of geology that studies the physical properties of the Earth, which also includes a set of exploration methods: gravity, seismic, magnetic, electrical, various modifications, etc.
• The following branches of geology deal with the study of the solar system: cosmochemistry, cosmology, space geology and planetology.
• Mineralogy is a branch of geology that studies minerals, questions of their genesis, and qualifications. The study of rocks formed in the processes associated with the atmosphere, biosphere and hydrosphere of the Earth is engaged in lithology. These rocks are not exactly called sedimentary rocks. Permafrost rocks acquire a number of characteristic properties and features, which are studied by geocryology.
• Petrography is a branch of geology that studies igneous and metamorphic rocks mainly from the descriptive side - their genesis, composition, textural and structural features, as well as classification.
• Petrology is a branch of geology that studies the genesis and conditions for the origin of igneous and metamorphic rocks.
• Lithology (Petrography of sedimentary rocks) is a branch of geology that studies sedimentary rocks.
• Geobarothermometry is a science that studies a set of methods for determining the pressure and temperatures of the formation of minerals and rocks.
• Structural geology is a branch of geology that studies disturbances in the earth's crust.
• Microstructural geology is a branch of geology that studies the deformation of rocks at the microlevel, on the scale of grains of minerals and aggregates.
• Geodynamics is a science that studies the processes of the most planetary scale as a result of the evolution of the Earth. It studies the relationship of processes in the core, mantle and earth's crust.
• Tectonics is a branch of geology that studies the movement of the Earth's crust.
• Historical geology is a branch of geology that studies data on the sequence of major events in the history of the Earth. All geological sciences, to one degree or another, are historical in nature, they consider existing formations in a historical aspect and are primarily concerned with clarifying the history of the formation of modern structures. The history of the Earth is divided into two major stages - eons, according to the appearance of organisms with solid parts, leaving traces in sedimentary rocks and allowing, according to paleontology, to determine the relative geological age. With the advent of fossils on Earth, the Phanerozoic began - the time of open life, and before that it was the Cryptotosis or Precambrian - the time of hidden life. Precambrian geology stands out as a special discipline, as it deals with the study of specific, often highly and repeatedly metamorphosed complexes and has special research methods.
• Paleontology studies ancient forms of life and deals with the description of fossil remains, as well as traces of the vital activity of organisms.
• Stratigraphy is the science of determining the relative geological age of sedimentary rocks, the division of rock strata, and the correlation of various geological formations. One of the main sources of data for stratigraphy is paleontological definitions.
• Geochronology is a branch of geology that determines the age of rocks and minerals.
• Geocryology is a branch of geology that studies permafrost rocks.
• Seismology is a branch of geology that studies geological processes during earthquakes, seismic zoning.
• Volcanology is the branch of geology that studies

Basic principles of geology

Geology is a historical science, and its most important task is to determine the sequence of geological events. To accomplish this task, a number of simple and intuitive signs of the temporal relationships of rocks have been developed since ancient times.

Intrusive relationships are represented by contacts between intrusive rocks and their enclosing strata. The discovery of signs of such relationships (hardening zones, dikes, etc.) unequivocally indicates that the intrusion was formed later than the host rocks.

Sexual relationships also allow you to determine relative age. If a fault tears rocks, then it was formed later than they.

1. SECTIONS OF GENERAL GEOLOGY. Mineral geology studies the types of deposits, methods of their prospecting and exploration. Hydrogeology is a branch of geology that studies groundwater. Engineering geology is a branch of geology that studies the interactions between the geological environment and engineering structures. Geochemistry is a branch of geology that studies the chemical composition of the Earth, processes that concentrate and disperse chemical elements in various spheres of the Earth. Geophysics is a branch of geology that studies the physical properties of the Earth, which also includes a set of exploration methods: gravity, seismic, magnetic, electrical, various modifications, etc. The study of the solar system is carried out by the following sections of geology: cosmochemistry, cosmology, space geology and planetology. Mineralogy is a branch of geology that studies minerals, questions of their genesis, and qualifications. The study of rocks formed in the processes associated with the atmosphere, biosphere and hydrosphere of the Earth is engaged in lithology. These rocks are not exactly called sedimentary rocks. Permafrost rocks acquire a number of characteristic properties and features, which are studied by geocryology. Lithology is the branch of geology that studies the formation of sedimentary rocks. Petrology is a branch of geology that studies the origin of rocks. Petrography is a branch of geology that studies the origin of rocks formed at high temperatures and pressures. Geobarothermometry is a science that studies a set of methods for determining the pressure and temperatures of the formation of minerals and rocks. The Earth is a "living", actively changing planet. Movements occur in it, differing in scale by many orders of magnitude. Structural geology is a branch of geology that studies disturbances in the earth's crust. Microstructural geology is a branch of geology that studies the deformation of rocks at the microlevel, on the scale of grains of minerals and aggregates. Geodynamics is a science that studies the processes of the most planetary scale as a result of the evolution of the Earth. It studies the relationship of processes in the core, mantle and earth's crust. Tectonics is a branch of geology that studies the movement of the Earth's crust. Historical geology is a branch of geology that studies data on the sequence of major events in the history of the Earth. All geological sciences, to one degree or another, are historical in nature, they consider existing formations in a historical aspect and are primarily concerned with clarifying the history of the formation of modern structures. The history of the Earth is divided into two major stages - eons, according to the appearance of organisms with solid parts, leaving traces in sedimentary rocks and allowing, according to paleontology, to determine the relative geological age. With the advent of fossils on Earth, the Phanerozoic began - the time of open life, and before that it was the Cryptotosis or Precambrian - the time of hidden life. Precambrian geology stands out as a special discipline, as it deals with the study of specific, often highly and repeatedly metamorphosed complexes and has special research methods. Paleontology studies ancient forms of life and deals with the description of fossil remains, as well as traces of the vital activity of organisms. Stratigraphy is the science of determining the relative geological age of sedimentary rocks, the division of rock strata, and the correlation of various geological formations. One of the main sources of data for stratigraphy is paleontological definitions. Geochronology is a branch of geology that determines the age of rocks and minerals. 2. PLACE OF ENGINEERING GEOLOGY AND RELATIONSHIPS WITH OTHER SUBJECTS. In its development, geology relied and relies on various natural sciences, and as factual materials accumulate, it itself became the ancestor of some natural sciences, which are no longer considered geological sciences. Thus, in questions of the structure and change of matter, the study of its properties and laws of motion, geology is closely connected with physics and chemistry and widely uses the basic methods of these sciences. A vivid expression of this connection is the emergence of geophysics and geochemistry. Geophysics combines a complex of sciences that consider the physical properties of the Earth and the physical processes occurring on it. Geochemistry studies the chemical composition of the Earth and the laws of distribution, distribution, combination and migration of chemical elements in the earth's crust. Modern geology cannot do without the application of the methods and conclusions of these sciences, but their development was also possible only on a solid geological foundation. An equally close connection unites geology with such sciences as geodesy, which studies the size and shape of the Earth, or physical geography, which covers a wide range of natural conditions that determine the geographic environment (relief, climate, soils, etc.). In questions of the origin and development of life on Earth, geology is closely connected with the biological sciences, and in order to clarify the problem of the origin of the Earth, its relationship with other celestial bodies and its position in the Universe, it cannot do without the conclusions of astronomy and the achievements of astronautics. Consequently, the entire vast field of natural science is closely connected with geology. This is especially acutely felt in our time, when the unity of the nature around us, the interconnection of all natural processes and phenomena are becoming more and more obvious. At the same time, the specialization of certain areas of natural science is growing every year, and a person is not able to cover in detail all the achievements and methods of various fields of science, which are continuously accumulated in the process of scientific creativity and put forward by practice. This is fully applicable to geology as well. Geology, on the one hand, is a single science of the Earth, on the other hand, it is a series of sciences that are mutually intertwined and closely related to each other, studying different aspects and results of the process of development and formation of the Earth, but pursuing different goals and using different methods. Currently, among the branches of geology, scientific disciplines are usually distinguished, mainly studying: 1) the material composition of the earth's crust; 2) geological processes; 3) manifestations of organic life and the history of its development on Earth based on the remains of extinct organisms and traces of their vital activity; 4) the historical sequence of geological processes. Historically, the geological sciences dealing with the study of practical issues have stood out in a special group, although in content they are closely related to "theoretical geology", and the latter, in turn, deals with the solution of the most important practical problems. A special group of geological disciplines is made up of methodological and geological and economic sciences that study research methods used in various branches of geology, as well as methods for the most effective and economic solution with the help of geology of various requests of the national economy related to the search, extraction and use of mining raw materials and construction various structures. Finally, most recently, "marine geology" has emerged as an independent branch - a science that studies the composition, structure, minerals and the history of the formation of the bottom of the seas and oceans, using specific research methods in conditions that differ sharply from subaerial ones. Among the geological disciplines that study mainly the material composition of the earth's crust are: mineralogy, crystallography, petrography, petrology and lithology. Mineralogy is the science of minerals (natural chemical compounds), which studies their composition and form, physical properties, conditions of formation and change in interconnection. The study of the crystal structure of minerals, the physical properties of a crystalline substance, the interaction between crystals and their host environment, as well as the processes occurring in a crystalline environment, is carried out by crystallography - a science bordering on geology and physics. Petrography, petrology and lithology are the sciences of rocks, considering from different points of view their structure and composition, patterns of formation, forms of occurrence and distribution. The complex of sciences that study geological processes is united by dynamic geology, which considers processes that cause changes in the earth's crust, form the relief of the earth's surface and determine the development of the earth as a whole. A wide variety of research objects led to the separation of such independent sciences from dynamic geology as volcanology, seismology, and geotectonics. Volcanology studies the processes of volcanic eruptions, the structure, development and causes of the formation of volcanoes and the composition of the products they emit. Seismology is the science of the geological conditions for the occurrence and manifestation of earthquakes. Geotectonics (tectonics) is a science that studies the movements and deformations of the earth's crust and the features of its structure resulting from these movements and deformations. The section of geotectonics that considers the nature and patterns of placement and combination of various rocks in the earth's crust, which determine its structure, is called structural geology. It is often regarded as an independent geological discipline. The sciences that study external (exogenous) geological processes occurring in the surface parts of the earth's crust as a result of interaction with the atmosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere are directly related to solving issues that affect social life and, therefore, determine the geographical environment. Therefore, they are referred to as physical geography, although they are inextricably linked with dynamic geology. These sciences include: 1) geomorphology - the science of the formation and development of landforms; 2) land hydrology, which studies water spaces (rivers, lakes, swamps, groundwater, snow cover, glaciers, etc.) on Earth, i.e. a huge range of issues also covered by glaciology - the science of glaciers and limnology - the science of lakes ; 3) climatology, etc. The sciences that study the development of living nature over geological time include paleontology - a science that is as biological as geological. The emergence and development of this science is closely connected with geology, and its significance for the development of geology is enormous. Paleontology, based on the study of the remains of extinct animals and plants, establishes the relative age of rocks and makes it possible to compare heterogeneous strata of sedimentary formations that arose simultaneously. Geological chronology and periodization of geological history are based on the data of this science. It is also of great importance for elucidating the physical and geographical conditions of past geological epochs. The historical sequence of geological processes is studied by historical geology. This is a geological record that reproduces the entire complex and diverse history of the development of the earth's surface, manifestations of mountain building, volcanism, advances and retreats of the sea, changes in physical and geographical conditions, etc. One of the main sections of historical geology - stratigraphy - considers the sequence of stratification of layered sedimentary rocks and establishes their age according to paleontology, and, more recently, geophysics. Its other sections - the doctrine of facies and paleogeography - are aimed at identifying the physical and geographical conditions of the distant past and recreating the nature of the earth's surface in different geological periods. The most important of the geological sciences dealing with the study of practical issues include: the doctrine of minerals, hydrogeology, engineering geology. The doctrine of minerals is the oldest branch of geological knowledge, which is rightly considered the ancestor of modern geology. It studies all natural mineral formations that can either be directly used by people or serve as an object for the extraction of metals, minerals and chemical elements necessary in the national economy. The variety of minerals and their enormous, but far from equal importance led to the separation of many sections of the science in question into independent disciplines, such as the theory of ore and the theory of non-ore deposits. Subsequently, the geology of coal, the geology of oil, the geology of radioactive elements, etc., emerged. Finally, a new important branch of the science of minerals is metallogeny. GEOSPHERES AND PROCESSES OF THEIR INTERACTION. The internal structure of the Earth has always been of interest to humanity and has served as the subject of research by many scientists from ancient times to the present day. Despite this, there are still very few reliable data on the internal structure of the Earth. The study and precise knowledge of the structure of the Earth is of great scientific and practical importance. The body of the Earth has a concentric structure and consists of a core and a number of shells, the density of which increases abruptly from the surface of the Earth to its center. The concentric shells that make up the Earth are called geospheres. The outer geosphere of the Earth is the atmosphere, which is an air shell, the thickness of which is approximately equal to 20,000 km. The atmosphere, taking into account its changing composition, is divided into three shells: the troposphere, stratosphere and ionosphere. Troposphere - the surface layer of the atmosphere, the thickness of which in the middle latitudes is 10-12 km. The troposphere contains almost 9/10 of the total mass of gases that make up the atmosphere, and almost all of the water vapor. As the altitude increases (moving away from the Earth's surface), the temperature drops sharply. At an altitude of 10-12 km, the average temperature is minus 55 ° C. Clouds form in this layer and thermal air movements are concentrated, including also all geological processes occurring above the earth's surface (for example, the transport of substances during volcanic eruptions, eolian and other processes ). The stratosphere is the layer following the troposphere, reaching 80-90 km in height. Due to the presence of ozone in the stratosphere, an increase in temperature up to plus 50 °C is detected in layers at a height of 30-55 km. At an altitude of 80-90 km, the temperature drops again to minus 60-90 ° C. The ionosphere is the uppermost and most distant part of the atmosphere from the Earth's surface. At an altitude of 20 thousand km, it gradually passes into interplanetary space. Instruments installed on artificial Earth satellites have revealed that the density of the upper layers of the atmosphere is 5 to 10 times higher than previously thought. The satellites recorded an increase in temperature in the ionospheric layer at an altitude of 225 km. Hydrosphere - is the water shell of the Earth. It includes all the natural waters of the seas and oceans, rivers, lakes, as well as the continental ice of the Arctic and Antarctica. Groundwater is also closely related to the waters of the hydrosphere. Unlike other geospheres, the hydrosphere does not form a continuous shell of the Earth. It covers 70.8% of the earth's surface and forms the oceans. The average depth of the hydrosphere is 3.75 km, the greatest depth reaches 11.5 km (Marian Trench). The outer solid geosphere of the Earth is called the lithosphere, often combined with the term earth's crust. The solid shell of the Earth has been studied by various methods to a depth of 15-20 km. The stratum was subjected to direct study with the help of boreholes only to a depth of 8 km. The third part of the surface of the earth's crust falls on the ledges of the lithosphere, which form the continents. The highest point on the continents is Mount Everest in the Himalayas, the height of which reaches 8.88 km. The average height of continental protrusions is only about 0.7 km above sea level. Often high mountains are located near deep ocean trenches. The lithosphere consists of a variety of rocks and minerals, i.e., certain chemical compounds or, more rarely, native chemical elements that are distinguished by their uniform composition and physical properties. The chemical composition of the lithosphere to a depth of 16 km is characterized by the predominance of the following elements (according to A.P. Vinogradov, in% by weight): oxygen 46.8 sodium 2.6 silicon 27.3 potassium 2.6 aluminum 8.7 titanium 0.6 iron 5.1 hydrogen 0.15 calcium 3.6 phosphorus 0.08 magnesium 2.1 carbon 0.1 The rest of the many chemical elements together make up about 0.5% of the composition of the earth's crust. Thus, the composition of the lithosphere is dominated by oxygen, silicon, aluminum, iron and calcium, which form various rocks. Observations in deep wells, mines and tunnels have shown that as we go deeper into the Earth, the temperature rises on average every 33 m by 1°C. geothermal step. The geothermal step in different parts of the globe deviates from the average value and in some areas reaches 100 m or more. Between the atmosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere there is a constant interaction, as a result of which there are significant changes in the composition and structure of the outer shell of the earth's crust. In the lithosphere under its upper layer, composed of sedimentary rocks / in descending order, granite and basalt shells are distinguished. The granite shell reaches its greatest thickness (up to 50 km) under modern mountain ranges (for example, the Pamirs, the Alps, etc.). Under the oceanic depressions (the bottom of the Atlantic and Indian oceans), this shell is completely absent in places or has a small thickness. The granite shell has a density of 2.6-2.7 g/cm3 and is composed of rocks of granite composition. The basalt shell is located directly under the granite one. Its thickness reaches 30 km under the continental plains (platforms). The density of the basalt shell is 2.8-2.9 g/cm3, since it is composed of basic rocks (basalts, etc.) that are poor in silicic acid. Due to the predominance of silicon and aluminum in the granite and basalt shells, they are combined into a geosphere called sialic, or s and a l (from the word silicium, which means silicon). The total thickness of the lithosphere, including the sialic shell, averages 50-70 km. Under the lithosphere lies a peridotite shell, consisting of even more basic rocks (i.e., i.e. with a lower content of silicic acid) than in the basalt shell. The density of the rocks of this geosphere, also called the simatic shell, is 3.2–3.4 g/cm3 in the upper part and 4.0–4.5 g/cm3 in the lower layers. The peridotite shell is distributed to a depth of 1200 km and covers the globe completely, without interruptions. Below is an intermediate shell to a depth of 2900 km. Its density is 5.3-6.5 g/cm3. Academician A.E. Fersman called this zone the ore geosphere, believing that it contains large quantities of pure metals, such as iron and nickel. The inner part of the earth, or the central core, starts from a depth of 2900 km and reaches the center of the Earth, i.e., to a depth of 6370 km. Thus, the radius of the central core is 3470 km, and its density is 9.0-10.0 and 11.0 g/cm3 in the very center. It is assumed that the core of the Earth has a silicate composition, and its composition contains iron no more than in other internal geospheres (shells). The high density of the core is explained by the fact that the substance here, being under very high pressure, has acquired the density of metals. According to modern concepts, the temperature in the upper part of the central core of the Earth does not exceed 2.0-2.5 thousand degrees. High pressure combined with high temperature in the Earth's core causes a special elastic-viscous state of its constituent substance, which in terms of physical properties approaches a liquid. 4. CONCEPTS ABOUT MINERALS. Rocks that are at or near the surface provide geologists with the basic information they need to study the geological past. Rocks are composed of minerals or fragments of older rocks, which in turn are also composed of minerals. Common to minerals is their crystalline essence. I. Basic law of crystallography. The birth of crystallography as a science is associated with the name of Nicholas Stenon, who in 1669 formulated the law of constancy of angles: "Crystals of different shapes of the same substance (mineral) have constant angles between the corresponding faces." Since, independently of each other, two more scientists M. V. Lomonosov (1740) and the French mineralogist Jean - B. Rome de Lisle discovered this law, it should be called the Stenon - Lomonosov - Rome de Lisle law. 2. Properties of natural crystalline substances. One of the main properties of a crystal is uniformity. A body should be considered homogeneous if, at finite distances from any of its points, there are others that are equivalent to it not only physically, but also geometrically; t. i.e. are in the same environment as the initial ones, since the placement of material particles in the crystal space is "controlled" by the spatial lattice, we can assume that the face of the crystal is a materialized flat nodal lattice, and the edge is a materialized nodal row. As a rule, well-developed crystal faces are determined by nodal grids with the highest node density. The point where three or more faces converge is called the apex of the crystal. Anisotropy is the ability of a crystal to exhibit different properties in different directions. Since different directions in the crystal structure of a substance built according to the law of three-dimensional periodicity may have unequal distances between atoms (nodes), and, consequently, chemical bonds of different strength, the properties in such directions may differ, and the crystals themselves will be anisotropic with respect to these properties. If the property does not change with direction, then the substance is isotropic. The ability to self-limit, that is, under certain conditions, to take on a natural multifaceted form. This also shows its correct internal structure. It is this property that distinguishes a crystalline substance from an amorphous one. An example illustrates this. Two balls carved from quartz and glass are lowered into a silica solution. As a result, the quartz ball will be covered with facets, and the glass one will remain round. Symmetry is the most general pattern associated with the structure and properties of a crystalline substance. It is one of the generalizing fundamental concepts of physics and natural science in general. E. S. Fedorov (1901) gave a definition of symmetry. ╚Symmetry is the property of geometric figures to repeat their parts, or, to be more precise, their property in different positions to come into alignment with the original position╩. Thus, such an object is symmetrical, which can be combined with itself by certain transformations: rotations and (and) reflections (see figure). Such transformations are called symmetric operations. (More on this in the lab). 3. Crystallogenesis. In nature, crystals are formed during various geological processes from solutions, melts, vapors, gases or solid phases. From aqueous solutions, a significant part of the mineral species owes its origin to crystallization: the precipitation of salt crystals in closed reservoirs at normal temperature and atmospheric pressure; growth of crystals on the walls of cracks and cavities during hydrothermal processes at great depths under conditions of pressure and temperature; the formation of separate crystals of secondary minerals in the zones of oxidation of ore deposits. Crystals of many minerals are formed from multi-component fiery - liquid magma. At the same time, if the magma chamber is located at a great depth and the magma cools slowly, then it has time to crystallize well and the crystals grow quite large and well faceted. If cooling occurs quickly (for example, during volcanic eruptions, outpourings of lava on the Earth's surface), almost instantaneous crystallization is observed with the formation of the smallest crystals of minerals and even a glassy substance. Crystals of the same minerals can form in nature both from aqueous solutions and from magmatic melts. For example: olivine, quartz, micas and others. A small amount of minerals is formed from gases and vapors. They have mainly minerals of volcanic origin. For example: native sulfur, ammonia, etc. Everyone knows snowflakes - the result of crystallization from water vapor. Crystals can form during recrystallization of solids. By prolonged heating (annealing), coarse-grained and even single crystals can be obtained from fine-grained aggregates. For example: recrystallization of limestones - a coarse-grained marble aggregate is formed (under the influence of high temperatures and pressure). 4. Causes and conditions for the formation of minerals. Material particles (atoms, molecules, ions) that make up gaseous and liquid (molten) substances are in continuous motion. From time to time they collide, forming nuclei - microscopic fragments of the future structure. For the most part, these embryos disintegrate. However, if they reach a critical value, i.e., contain such a number of particles that the addition of the next particle would make the growth of the nucleus energetically more favorable than its decay, then post-crystallization occurs. Such a possibility for most substances appears either with a decrease in temperature, as a result of which thermal fluctuations decrease, or with an increase in the concentration of a substance in a solution or gas, which leads to an increase in the probability of particles meeting each other, i.e., to the appearance of nuclei. In this case, crystallization does not occur in the entire volume, but only where the nuclei appear. The appearance of nuclei is facilitated by the presence of foreign fragments of crystals or dust particles, on the surface of which particles are collected, thereby facilitating the onset of crystallization. The reason for the crystallization of gaseous and liquid substances is that such a state is energetically more favorable in which the forces acting on the particles are balanced, and this is achieved only in the case of an ordered arrangement of material particles. And, it would seem, a growing crystal, striving for an equilibrium state, would have to acquire a certain, unique for each substance. Physically possible ideal equilibrium form, due only to the composition and structure. In fact, crystals of the same mineral or compound occur in a wide variety of forms. This is explained by the fact that various changing conditions of crystallization leave their mark on the shape of a crystal: temperature, pressure, chemistry and dynamics of the crystal-forming medium, etc. 5. The origin of minerals The origin of minerals is very interesting. Their formation during crystallization is due to certain patterns that determine three cycles of geological processes: 1. magmatic cycle(from the Greek "magma" - a mess), that is, the formation of minerals from liquid masses of deep origin; 2. sedimentation cycle(sedimentary, from lat. "sedimentum" - sediment) - the formation of minerals by weathering, transfer, deposition; 3. metamorphic cycle (from the Greek "metamorphism" - transformation, modification) - the appearance of new minerals as a result of the transformation of old ones that arose in the first two cycles. Any changes in the structure of minerals proceed imperceptibly; the development of minerals occurs very slowly. Depending on the origin, minerals are distinguished primary and secondary. Primary minerals are those formed for the first time in the earth's crust or on its surface in the process of magma crystallization. The primary most common minerals include quartz, feldspar, mica, which make up granite or sulfur in volcanic craters. Secondary minerals were formed under normal conditions from the destruction products of primary minerals due to weathering, precipitation and crystallization of salts from aqueous solutions, or as a result of the vital activity of living organisms. These are kitchen salt, gypsum, sylvin, brown iron ore and others. There are many processes that result in the formation of minerals in nature. The following processes are distinguished: magmatic, supergene, or climatic, and metamorphic. The main process is magmatic. It is associated with cooling, differentiation and crystallization of molten magma at various pressures and temperatures. Magma consists mainly of the following chemical components: Si02, Al203, FeO, CaO, MgO, K2O, it also contains other chemical compounds, but in smaller quantities. Minerals in this case are formed mainly at a temperature of 1000-1500 ° C and a pressure of several thousand atmospheres. All primary crystalline rocks are formed from minerals of igneous origin. Minerals, the origin of which is associated with magma and the internal heat of the Earth, are called primary. These include feldspars - orthoclase, albite, anorthite, orthosilicates - olivine and others. Minerals are also formed from gases (the gas phase of magma). The most common of them are pegmatites, or vein minerals, orthoclase with quartz, microcline, apatite, muscovite, biotite, and many others. Such minerals are called pneumatogenic. From the hot magma liquid (liquid phase) hydrothermal minerals are formed - pyrite, gold, silver and many others. Hypergene processes occur on the Earth's surface under normal conditions under the influence of water, temperature, and other factors. As a result, various chemical compounds dissolve and move, new (secondary) minerals appear, such as sylvin, quartz, calcite, brown iron ore and kaolinite. Minerals of the hypergene cycle are formed at pressures up to 1 atm and temperatures below 100°C. The qualitative composition of these minerals on the Earth's surface to a certain extent depends on geographic latitudes. It should be noted that the transformation of the same mineral under different conditions may proceed differently. For example, hydromicas are formed not only from micas, but also artificially. The main material for the formation of minerals of supergene origin are weathered primary rocks or those that have already undergone a transformation process. Living organisms also take part in this process. Minerals of the hypergene cycle, formed under the action of external processes, are part of sedimentary and parent rocks. Exogenous processes of mineral formation occur both on the Earth's surface and in the weathering crust. For the formation of minerals of exogenous origin, the processes of physical, chemical and biological weathering are important. During the metamorphic process, minerals are formed at great depths from the Earth's surface when physical and chemical conditions change (temperature, pressure, concentration of chemically active components). Under these conditions, many previously formed primary and secondary minerals are transformed. Among them, the most common are hematite, graphite, quartz, hornblende, talc, and many others. 6. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS 1. Optical properties Transparency is the property of a substance to transmit light. Depending on the degree of transparency, all minerals are divided into the following groups: transparent - rock crystal, Icelandic spar, topaz, etc.; translucent - sphalerite, cinnabar, etc.; opaque - pyrite, magnetite, graphite, etc. Many minerals that seem opaque in large crystals are translucent in thin fragments or grain edges. The color of minerals is the most important diagnostic feature. In many cases, it is due to the internal properties of the mineral (idiochromatic colors) and is associated with the inclusion of chromophore elements (Fe, Cr, Mn, N1, Co, etc.) in its composition. For example, the presence of chromium causes the green color of uvarovite and emerald, the presence of manganese causes the pink or lilac color of lepidolite, tourmaline, or sparrowite. The nature of the coloration of other minerals (smoky quartz, amethyst, morion, etc.) lies in the violation of the uniformity of the structure of their crystal lattices, in the occurrence of various defects in them. In some cases, the color of a mineral can be caused by the presence of the finest scattered mechanical impurities (allochromatic colors) - jasper, agate, aventurine, etc. To designate color in mineralogy, a method of comparison with the color of well-known objects or substances is common, which is reflected in the names of colors: apple- green, azure blue, chocolate brown, etc. The names of the colors of the following minerals can be considered standards: purple - amethyst, blue - azurite, green - malachite, yellow - orpiment, red - cinnabar, brown - limonite "tin-lime- white - arsenopyrite, lead-gray - molybdenite, iron-black - magnetite, brass-yellow - chalcopyrite, metallic gold - gold. The color of the dash is the color of the fine powder of the mineral. A trait of a mineral can be obtained by passing the tested mineral over the matte unglazed surface of a porcelain plate (biscuit) or a fragment of the same surface of a porcelain chemical glassware. This is a more permanent feature compared to coloration. In some cases, the color of the line coincides with the color of the mineral itself, but sometimes there is a sharp difference: for example, steel-gray hematite leaves a cherry-red line, brass-yellow pyrite - black, etc. The brilliance depends on the refractive index of the mineral, i.e. A quantity characterizing the difference in the speed of light when it passes from air to a crystalline medium. It has been practically established that minerals with a refractive index of 1.3-1.9 have a vitreous luster (quartz, fluorite, calcite, corundum, garnet, etc.). ), with an indicator of 1.9-2.6 - diamond brilliance (zircon, cassiterite, sphalerite, diamond, rutile, etc.). Polymetallic luster corresponds to minerals with a refractive index of 2.6-3.0 (cuprite, cinnabar, hematite) and metallic - above 3 (molybdenite, antimonite, pyrite, galena, arsenopyrite, etc.). The luster of a mineral also depends on the nature of the surface. So, in minerals with a parallel-fibrous structure, a typical silky sheen (asbestos) is observed, translucent "layered" and lamellar minerals often have a mother-of-pearl tint (calcite, albite), opaque or translucent minerals, amorphous or characterized by a disturbed structure of the crystal lattice (metamictic minerals) differ in resinous luster (pyrochlore, pitchblende, etc.). 2. Mechanical properties Cleavage - the property of crystals to split in certain crystallographic directions, due to the structure of their crystal lattices. Thus, calcite crystals, regardless of their external shape, always split along cleavage into rhombohedrons, and cubic fluorite crystals into octahedrons. The degree of perfection of cleavage differs in accordance with the following accepted scale: Cleavage is very perfect- the crystal is easily split into thin sheets (mica, chlorite, molybdenite, etc.). Cleavage perfect- when struck with a hammer, cleavage knockouts are obtained; it is difficult to obtain a break in other directions (calcite, galena, fluorite). Cleavage is average- a fracture can be obtained in all directions, but on the fragments of the mineral, along with an uneven fracture, smooth shiny cleavage planes (pyroxenes, scapolite) are clearly observed. Cleavage is imperfect or absent. The grains of such minerals are limited by irregular surfaces, with the exception of the faces of their crystals. Quite often differently oriented cleavage planes in the same mineral differ in degree of perfection. So, gypsum has three directions of cleavage: according to one - cleavage is very perfect, according to another - medium, and according to the third - imperfect. Separation cracks, in contrast to cleavage, are coarser and not quite flat; most often oriented across the elongation of minerals. Break. In minerals with imperfect cleavage, a break plays a significant role in the diagnosis - conchoidal (quartz, pyrochlore), splintery (in native metals), small-crack-. viscous (pyrite, chalcopyrite, bornite), uneven, etc. Hardness, or the degree of resistance of a mineral to external mechanical stress. The easiest way to determine it is to scratch one mineral with another. To assess the relative hardness, the Mohs scale was adopted, represented by 10 minerals, of which each subsequent one scratches all the previous ones. The following minerals are accepted as hardness standards: talc - 1, gypsum - 2, calcite - 3, fluorite - 4, apatite - 5, orthoclase - 6, quartz - 7, topaz - 8, corundum - 9, diamond - 10. When diagnosing it is also very convenient to use for scratching such objects as a copper (solid 3-3.5) and steel (5.5-6) ​​needle, knife (5.5-6), glass (~ 5); soft minerals can be tried to be scratched with a fingernail (tv. 2.5). Brittleness, malleability, elasticity. Fragility in mineralogical practice means the property of a mineral to crumble when a line is drawn with a knife or a needle. The opposite property - a smooth, shiny trace from a needle (knife) - indicates the property of the mineral to deform plastically. Malleable minerals are flattened under a hammer blow into a thin plate, elastic ones are able to restore their shape after removing the load (mica, asbestos). 3. Other properties Specific gravity can be accurately measured in the laboratory by various methods; an approximate judgment on the specific gravity of a mineral can be obtained by comparing it with common minerals, the specific gravity of which is taken as a standard. All minerals can be divided by specific gravity into three groups: light - with beats. weighing less than 3 (halite, gypsum, quartz, etc.); medium - with beats. weighing about 3-5 (apatite, corundum, sphalerite, pyrite, etc.); heavy - with ud. weighing more than 5 (cinnabar, galena, gold, cassiterite, silver, etc.). Magnetic. Some minerals are characterized by pronounced ferromagnetic properties, that is, they attract small iron objects - sawdust, pins (magnetite, nickel iron). Less magnetic minerals (paramagnetic) attracted by a magnet(pyrrhotite) or an electromagnet; Finally, there are minerals that are repelled by a magnet, diamagnetic(native bismuth). The test for magnetism is carried out using a freely rotating magnetic needle, to the ends of which the test sample is brought. Since the number of minerals with distinct magnetic properties is small, this feature is of great diagnostic value for some minerals (for example, magnetite). Radioactivity. All minerals containing radioactive elements - uranium or thorium - are characterized by the ability to spontaneous alpha, beta and gamma radiation. In the rock, radioactive minerals are often surrounded by red or brown rims, and radial cracks radiate from the grains of such minerals, included in quartz, feldspar, etc. Radioactive radiation acts on photographic paper. Other properties. For field diagnostics, the solubility of minerals in water (chlorides) or acids and alkalis, particular chemical reactions to individual elements are important (Reaction with HCl is important for the diagnosis of carbonates, with ammonium molybdate for phosphates, with KOH for talc and pyrophyllite etc. (see "Diagnostics" in the descriptions of specific minerals), flame coloring (for example, minerals containing strontium color the flame red, sodium - yellow).Some minerals emit an odor when struck or broken (thus , arsenopyrite and native arsenic emit a characteristic garlic odor), etc. Separate minerals are determined by touch (for example, talc is greasy to the touch).Table salt and other salt minerals are easily recognized by taste.

Geognosy textbook

Historically, the term geognosia (or geognostics) has been used in parallel. This name for the science of minerals, ores, and rocks was proposed by the German scientists G. Fuchsel (in 1761) and A. G. Werner (in 1780). They designated the practical areas of geology that studied objects that could be observed on the surface, in contrast to the purely theoretical geology at that time, which dealt with the origin and history of the Earth, its internal structure. The term geognosia was used in Western literature until the second half of the 19th century.

In Russia, the term geognosy was preserved until the end of the 19th century in the names of disciplines and titles: "Doctor of Mineralogy and Geognosy" or "Professor of Mineralogy and Geognosy". For example, V.V. Dokuchaev in 1883 received the degree of Doctor of Mineralogy and Geognosy.

In the 1840s "Geology and Geognosy" was a thematic section in the Mining Journal

In fiction, the words geologist and geology were published in 1862 in the novel by I. S. Turgenev - Fathers and Sons.

SECTIONS OF GEOLOGY

The main directions of geological research.

Geologist tools:

• 1. Descriptive - deals with the study of the location and composition of geological bodies, including their shape, size, relationship, sequence of occurrence, as well as a description of various minerals and rocks.
• 2. Dynamic - considers the evolution of geological processes, such as the destruction of rocks, their transfer by wind, glaciers, ground or ground water, the accumulation of precipitation (external in relation to the earth's crust) or the movement of the earth's crust, earthquakes, volcanic eruptions (internal).
• 3. Historical geology - deals with the study of the sequence of geological processes of the past.

Geological disciplines work in all three directions of geology and there is no exact division into groups. New disciplines appear at the intersection of geology with other fields of knowledge. The TSB provides the following classification: sciences of the earth's crust, sciences of modern geological processes, sciences of the historical sequence of geological processes, applied disciplines, as well as regional geology

Earth sciences

geological exploration of the earth's crust

Objects of mineralogy:

• · Mineralogy -- a branch of geology that studies minerals, questions of their genesis, qualifications. The study of rocks formed in the processes associated with the atmosphere, biosphere and hydrosphere of the Earth is engaged in lithology. These rocks are not exactly called sedimentary rocks. Permafrost rocks acquire a number of characteristic properties and features, which are studied by geocryology.
• · Petrography (Petrology) - a branch of geology that studies igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary rocks - their description, origin, composition, textural and structural features, as well as classification.
• · Structural geology - a branch of geology that studies the forms of occurrence of geological bodies and disturbances in the earth's crust.
• · Crystallography - originally one of the areas of mineralogy, now more of a physical discipline.

Sciences of modern geological processes

Volcanology is the study of volcanoes.

Or dynamic geology:

• · Tectonics -- a branch of geology that studies the movement of the earth's crust (geotectonics, neotectonics and experimental tectonics).
• · Volcanology is a branch of geology that studies volcanism.
• · Seismology -- a branch of geology that studies the geological processes during earthquakes, seismic zoning.
• · Geocryology is a branch of geology that studies permafrost rocks.
• · Petrology (Petrography) -- a branch of geology that studies the genesis and conditions of origin of igneous and metamorphic rocks.

Sciences about the historical sequence of geological processes

Fossil remains are studied by paleontology

Geological layers are studied by stratigraphy

Or historical geology:

• · Historical geology - a branch of geology that studies data on the sequence of major events in the history of the Earth. All geological sciences, to one degree or another, are historical in nature, they consider existing formations in a historical aspect and are primarily concerned with clarifying the history of the formation of modern structures. The history of the Earth is divided into two major stages - eons, according to the appearance of organisms with solid parts, leaving traces in sedimentary rocks and allowing, according to paleontological data, to determine the relative geological age. With the appearance of fossils on Earth, the Phanerozoic began - the time of open life, and before that it was the Cryptotosis or Precambrian - the time of hidden life. Precambrian geology stands out as a special discipline, as it deals with the study of specific, often highly and repeatedly metamorphosed complexes and has special research methods.
• · Paleontology studies ancient forms of life and deals with the description of fossil remains, as well as traces of the vital activity of organisms.
• · Stratigraphy - the science of determining the relative geological age of sedimentary rocks, the division of rock strata and the correlation of various geological formations. One of the main sources of data for stratigraphy is paleontological definitions.

Applied disciplines

• · Mineral geology studies the types of deposits, methods of their prospecting and exploration. It is divided into oil and gas geology, coal geology, metallogeny.
• · Hydrogeology -- a branch of geology that studies groundwater.
• · Engineering geology -- a branch of geology that studies the interaction of the geological environment and engineering structures.

Other branches of geology

They are mainly related to related sciences:

• · Geochemistry -- a branch of geology that studies the chemical composition of the Earth, processes that concentrate and disperse chemical elements in various spheres of the Earth.
• Geophysics - a branch of geology that studies the physical properties of the Earth, which also includes a set of exploration methods: gravity, seismic, magnetic, electrical, various modifications, etc.
• · Geobarothermometry -- a science that studies a set of methods for determining the pressure and temperature of the formation of minerals and rocks.
• · Microstructural geology - a branch of geology that studies the deformation of rocks at the microlevel, on the scale of grains of minerals and aggregates.
• · Geodynamics -- a science that studies the evolution of the Earth on a planetary scale, the relationship of processes in the core, mantle and crust.
• · Geochronology -- a section of geology that determines the age of rocks and minerals.
• · Lithology (Petrography of sedimentary rocks) is a branch of geology that studies sedimentary rocks.
• · History of geology -- a section of the history of geological knowledge and mining.
• · Agrogeology -- a branch of geology about the search for mining and the use of agro-ores in agriculture, as well as the mineralogical composition of agricultural soils.
• · Some sections of geology go beyond the Earth - space geology or planetology, cosmochemistry, cosmology.

You can also see the full list of sciences of the geological cycle.

Among the geological sciences, there are many different areas. The article will focus on the geology of oil and gas. This is applied science. Its task is to study the chemical and physical properties of gas, oil, their deposits, fields, reservoirs, tires, geochemistry of organic matter.

General information

The training of specialists in the field of oil and gas geology is carried out at universities specializing in the study of mining and the oil and gas industry. The course called "Applied Geology" is also aimed at studying the processes of accumulation and migration of hydrocarbons, studying the main patterns of the location of oil and gas fields.

Oil is a word that comes from the Arabic "nafat" (translated - to spew). Ever since an American entrepreneur drilled an oil well in Pennsylvania and people realized the importance of oil production, geologists have been interested in one question: where should these wells be drilled?

Since that time, many different theories have been proposed on the conditions for the formation of oil deposits, forecasting the conditions for discovering its reserves. The science of applied geology began to develop, which does not lose its relevance and is engaged not only in the field of oil production, but also in the gas industry.

What disciplines are studied?

Studying this specialty, students plunge into the world of the most interesting theories, one of which is anticlinal. It attracts quite a long and serious attention. The anticlinal theory was born even before the first oil well was drilled. But it has not lost its relevance to this day. In theory, we are talking about the relationship between oil deposits and anticlinal folding. In addition, students study the chemistry of oil and gas, their chemical composition and analysis methods. In the learning process, the sources of heat and heat flow of the Earth, the magnetism of rocks and minerals are necessarily studied. Future specialists need to have knowledge in the field of groundwater deposits and methods for their study, as well as issues of waste disposal into the bowels of the Earth.

This science studies the powerful domestic resource base and the development of oil and gas production. Teaching aids provide an opportunity to study the theoretical issues of geological processes, physical and chemical properties of oil and gas, as well as issues related to the formation of deposits and their placement. In addition, a prerequisite is the presence of a practical part: laboratory and control work on the geology of oil and gas. Particular attention in the process of teaching this specialty is given to fundamental disciplines, since without a foundation, as you know, the house of knowledge will be fragile. As a rule, applied geology can be studied both full-time and part-time.

What skills will graduates have?

What opportunities does applied geology provide as a specialty? What it is? Preparing specialists in this specialization, the compilers of the training programs provide that graduates of universities in the field of oil and gas geology will master the methods of prospecting and exploration (geological and geophysical) of oil and gas fields, the development and principles of building dynamic and statistical models showing hydrocarbon deposits. Mining engineers are graduates of geological departments with a specialization in Applied Geology.

Where to work after graduation?

Mining engineers participate in expeditions and geological exploration, research and design work in oil and gas production, in monitoring the development of deposits. Such specialists are able to conduct field geophysical and geological studies, perform a geological justification for the development of deposits, and evaluate resources and mineral reserves. They study oil and gas reservoir rocks and can recreate the ancient conditions under which oil and gas basins were formed. It is mining engineers who determine the technology of drilling and mining operations. All these knowledge and skills are acquired by future specialists in the geological specialty "Applied Geology".

What is this specialty and how does it differ from general geology?

When you specialize in oil and gas geology, you study a specific area of ​​science and material production related to the industrial development and exploitation of oil and gas fields. This applies to both land and water areas. The objects of professional activity of such a specialist are direct deposits of oil and gas, as well as gas condensate.

General geology studies the complex structure of the Earth and even other planets of the solar system, the main patterns of evolution and formation of geological bodies, the fundamental principles and basic methods of geological research.

Therefore, if you are interested in the production of gas and oil, then you should choose a university that is called "mining". Applied geology is also studied at universities with a specific specialization title: "oil and gas".

Teaching level

As a rule, highly qualified teachers work in such universities, with a high percentage of professorial staff, known in the geological communities of scientists.

Today, most of the geological faculties have a modern material and technical base, which makes it possible to solve extremely complex tasks in the field of prospecting, exploration, assessment of oil and gas potential and geoecological problems. In the process of training in the specialty "Applied Geology" ("Geology of Oil and Gas"), the latest computer technologies are used, and the students themselves have the opportunity to work at professional workstations, master specialized software packages of the world's leading operators in the oil and gas industry.

What does geodesy study?

This science comes from ancient times. The name is of Greek origin. In ancient times, she was engaged in the study of the Earth, dividing it into a coordinate system. The modern science of geodesy is associated with the study of artificial satellites, the use of electronic machines, instruments and computers to determine the position of an object on the surface of the Earth. She studies the shape of this object, its dimensions. Therefore, this science is in close relationship with mathematics, especially geometry, and physics. The task of such a specialist is to create a coordinate system and build geodetic networks to determine the position of points on the surface of our planet.

Employment

In general, all specialties of geological faculties are prestigious. Studying geology is interesting. And such a specialization as applied geology and geodesy allows you to get a job in the leading largest domestic oil and gas companies and abroad. The professional activities of graduates are often carried out in academic and departmental research organizations. These specialists are in demand in exploration and production companies, various kinds (higher, secondary special and secondary general) institutions of the education system.

Qualified specialists are always in demand in the administrative apparatus, in the regions where they deal with issues of the mineral resource base, as well as in the management and departments for subsoil use. In addition, many graduates work in institutions related to hydrogeological issues, engineering-geological and environmental problems. They work in organizations engaged in the exploration and exploitation of groundwater, their protection from depletion and pollution. Many specialists work at enterprises engaged in design and survey work in construction.