Lexical devices of modern poetry. Realities, vernacular, jargon, prosaisms, archaisms, terms. Stylization: historical stylization and historical poetry.
Examples of lexical devices. Modern poetic techniques, part 5.

Poetic dictionary.

Modern poetic devices, part 5

Poetry is impossible without figurative speech, i.e. speech is lively (not clerical), bright, expressive, having aesthetic value. An important role in the creation of figurative speech is played by the selection of vocabulary, i.e. a specific layer of words from the entire vast context of the language, a layer that is organically suitable for fulfilling the author's task when writing a specific work. It should not be assumed that it does not matter what vocabulary and in what neighborhood is used in poems: each layer of the language has its own coloring and its own effect when used, especially if words from different vocabulary layers are combined in the context. On this they are based lexical devices in poetry - the conscious use of certain layers of the language in the works and the variation of their combinations in the context.
Each poet above the average level has his own individual author's style, a special creative style - this is what distinguishes him even among those who write in the same vein and makes him recognizable. Lexical devices typical for a particular author to a large extent help this recognition, individuality.
In poetry, the following lexical devices are used to create expression:

realities

1. Realities - purely modern life concepts, signs of life, facts of culture, political life, significant recent events, etc.; a lexical device that helps to establish a close spiritual connection between the author and the contemporary reader:

Where the days melt like half-stations.
Where not "Stop tap", but "Delete".
(Alexey Torkhov)

The word “Delete” mentioned in this example is known to absolutely all computer users, which include the majority of poetry lovers.

vernacular.

1. Colloquialism is a lexical device based on the use of folk colloquial words and expressions that give the character of ease and rude humor:

Yes, good Polyakov, laziness is our mother.
But catchy words - do not put a limit.
For cha the horse mackerel of the whole Taurida understand?
He chews his own - munching every now and then.
(Stanislav Minakov)

Poets like to inadvertently screw a colloquial expression into the context of high style. When it is appropriate in tone, mood of the work and content, the lexical device of using vernacular emphasizes the natural flow of colloquial speech. However, unfortunately, with the use of vernacular and vulgarisms - especially in parodies and humorous works - they often “go too far”, trying to “be closer to the people”. It looks tasteless and primitive.

Local color.

1. Local flavor - the introduction of elements that characterize local life, customs, nature, etc., including characteristic local catchwords.
   “Whose words are combined into speech, like an amber low” (Stanislav Minakov) - the Ukrainian word “low” (beads, necklace) is used here.

At least for the duration of the verse,
Movement of a living thing across the sky, across the sky,
Save ourselves from the powerful embrace of sin,
Leaving the day - his zradu and malice.
(Ibid.)

Ukrainian "zrada" means "treason, betrayal."

Was to myself. And grew big.
And you appeared, so great -
knocked me out of my thoughts, off my feet, off the path and off the pantalik.
And so I live, with a torn soul.
(Elena Buevich)

Here the author uses a Ukrainian idiom, which also has a colloquial sound and means "to confuse". Colloquialism, a lively and expressive word, very characteristic of everyday Ukrainian speech, moreover, in the same row of enumerations with a literal and not figurative meaning (knock down), contributes to the strong expressive coloring of this poignant lyrical poem.
The use of local realities and Ukrainisms (“Surzhik” words formed from a Russian root according to Ukrainian grammatical norms, or words that sound the same in both languages, but have accents in different places), is very characteristic of the Russian lyrics of Ukraine:

Ah, the river is fun!
Towel dangled
To the pimply water - the braids of the hands - willows A...
And in rye stripes -
Sets hair on fire
A dahlia flame at a steep forehead!
(Igor Litvinenko)

The lexical device of local color can help achieve several goals at once: creating spiritual closeness with readers - representatives of a given linguistic community that uses these realities; introduction of the reader - a native of other places in a specific language environment, familiarization with the interesting features of speech in a given area, which allows you to "plunge into live speech"; and also - sometimes - the creation of a light comic effect - for example, in recent years, a clearly visible tendency has manifested in the Russian poetry of Ukraine to write poems of a satirical or political orientation in the so-called "ukr-rus" (Mikhail Perchenko's term). Those. combine lines in Russian and Ukrainian in one poem, as well as sentences of a mixed type (with words from two languages ​​and with author's neoplasms in Surzhik).

Ukrainomovniy, do not lakaysya words Rus!
Russian-speaking, do not be afraid and do not be afraid!
I present my future shoulders.
Yes, I undertake to recreate the unity:
Russia, Ukraine, Belarus -
Slavic unity of forces and speech.
(Mikhail Perchenko "Ukr-Russian language")

"Do not sneer" - in Ukrainian "do not be afraid", "maybutnє" - "future".

Jargon.

1. Jargons are words from the lexical layer used by various social groups: youth, criminal elements, social classes, etc.

Here is such a whim. This is such a fool.
Does not let you fall asleep, stomps like a dose.
I would like to become a horse. Dear Sivka-Burka.
And rush you away from mirrors and prose.
(Alexey Torkhov)

Goose, shout, goose, shout.
Cheerful, shout, gander!
As long as the owner, gloomy by night,
You didn't get hooked.
Until the prunes got into the bush...
(Stanislav Minakov)

The lexical device of using jargon in these specific cases clearly gives the poems a strong effect of modernity, although - I warn you - of course, there is always a danger of "replaying", enough of too much, which can damage the impression of the work.

Prosaisms.

1. Prosaisms are expressions from everyday, clerical, scientific and other prose vocabulary that are used in a poem as outwardly foreign elements, but with internal motivation for validity and plot integrity:

“I was asked every morning about the futility of the day” (Elena Morozova), “I signed the landscape with a turquoise willow branch, / So, March redeemed my travel ticket until spring" (Lyudmila Nekrasovskaya). The lexical method of using prosaisms requires the author to have a developed sense of language, the ability to combine it with a high style. For an author who does not have these properties, arbitrarily introduced prosaisms reduce the high sound and give the situation a shade of absurdity, comicality, even when it comes to romantic and pathos things. Read more here:.

Stylization.

1. Stylization - reproduction of the features of the style of another era, literary movement, writing style, features of the language of a particular social stratum or nationality:

On the! The hammer fighter cracked his right hand on the table,
And the face of an intellectual rival was blown off.
And what? We recently plugged into the belt
Two candidates of sciences from the eighth and thirtieth apartments!..
(Stanislav Minakov)

It seems to us like a shot of an ungulate:
“Tug-taritam. Tug-taritam."
(Svetlana Skorik)

And this is an excerpt from my poem-dilogy "Trizna", from the cycle "Polovchan". I used stylization for the Turkic languages ​​and at the same time - for the clatter of horse hooves (although the latter is already a technique of onomatopoeia).

In this regard, it is appropriate to recall the movie "The Diamond Hand", where the actor Andrei Mironov very similarly imitates the English language, while not pronouncing a single phrase in English.

In story poetry, a common technique historical styling.
A good example of historical stylization is Lyudmila Nekrasovskaya's poem "The Vault of Fire", plotted with a ban on love for the priestesses-servants of the temple of Fire. The heroine of the poem - the high priestess of the temple - has to make a life choice: either calling, or finding a loved one, moreover, with the help of bribery. The introduction of the problems and ideas inherent in modernity into the plot, without interfering with the description of the historical era, helps the author's main idea - to consider the situations encountered in life in an original way:

The Vault of Fire is your path.
Do you, O Great One, not know
What can't be ordered to love?
If the wrath of your angry gods,
Like a gardener, portends death,
I prefer novice love,
Because I can have a family with her.

However, the reception of historical stylization does not require the author to have a good knowledge of historical realities, conditions, culture, reproduction of the details of events, therefore, such poetry should be distinguished from historical poetry as such.

The crowd flowed into the Ides of March.
Look, Spurinna: the ides have begun!
Pompey laughs in the statue like an idol:
Ah, Caesar, you do not value your own life!

But Caesar should not be a coward,
And if death happens only once,
Then let her secretly prepare a sting,
And the one to whom it is appointed will betray.

Not every Guy cherishes Brutus for himself, -
Gaius Cassius and Gaius Casca do not count here.
Your child at the last minute
Betrayal will cut the thread of life...
(Yuri Gridasov "Caesar. Final")

In this case, this is purely historical poetry, considering the issue of betrayal of loved ones - a universal human issue and inherent in any historical period - from the height of a universal approach and with very good knowledge of this particular historical era.

Archaisms.

1. Archaisms are obsolete words and old grammatical forms, mostly Slavic. The lexical technique of using archaisms is used in historical poetry and in narrative poetry - in the case of historical stylization - to convey the color of the era, and in high-style lyrics - to enhance solemnity:

Pray, little one, pray to the number!
Lean towards the tsifiri with a shaky neck!
Look at both! .. But do not miss
that hour, that moment when Khodyna
will lay "thing fingers"
on the strings and in the feather-grass retinue
shakes "scarlet shields".
(Stanislav Minakov)

Using archaisms in an ordinary lyrical work of a non-ironic and non-romantic hue, the author must coordinate them with the lexical context, otherwise these words will look ridiculous and alien, and next to prosaisms and jargon - simply ridiculous. Of course, authors with a developed sense of language perfectly organically combine archaisms and jargon or colloquial words side by side without negative consequences and without even a hint of irony. But sometimes they deliberately organize an incongruous neighborhood in order to achieve an ironic sound:

Say more? My friend, you are quite a penguin.
(Ibid.)

And two maternity mothers
carry chickens from the store,
and hens prophetic fingers
stick out, buried in the sky,
threaten from bags and shopping bags.
(Ibid.)

Here, the colloquial phrase “maternity mothers” and prosaic realities (“chickens”, “shop”, “bags and shopping bags”) are adjacent to the archaic phrase “prophetic fingers” (in conjunction with the emotionally colored verb “threaten”), which gives a magnificent ironic connotation to the whole work declared as "poetry".

Terms.

1. Terms are a narrowly professional lexical layer, usually used only by representatives of a particular profession in communication with each other. The terms can be mathematical, medical, computer, philological, etc. etc. The lexical method of using terms is used for “professional color” (my expression, by analogy with the concept of “local color”), as well as for the effect of modernity or irony.

Your copyright is protected
in all living languages.
(Natalya Belchenko)

Where is the chip that inescapably stores in me
A code of love that protects a child's soul...
(Ibid.)

And you need an audit of your soul
Finish before the New Year.
Liability with an asset lead to zero
Showing all your naivety
When passive: I love you,
In the asset: no hope for reciprocity.
(Lyudmila Nekrasovskaya)

And the doctor, subject to autumn,
Recipes for everyone:
"A moment of beauty. Three drops of happiness.
Dawn glass. Leaf fall.
(Ibid.)

Pasta.

1. Pasta - foreign words and catchphrases inserted into the text.

(My term is derived from the concept of "macaronic poetry" by A. Kwiatkowski - humorous or satirical poetry sprinkled with foreign vocabulary for comic effect.) The lexical method of using pasta is characterized by writing foreign words and expressions both in Latin letters, in their original form, and using the Russian alphabet. Now a lexical device based on the use of pasta is far from always used for irony - on the contrary, it is used to increase tension in emotional moments or in the context of “smart”, intellectual words used for the sake of modern sound: “I don’t argue, love story is strange. Especially - close ”(Stanislav Minakov). In this case, the relevance of pasta is also due to the internal rhyme: dispute yu - love story (love side and).

Do not believe the pillars and do not believe the scribes:
at the finita la comedia sunset
like a celestial you are mortal like a beast
vulnerable, and bright, like an emperor.
(Irina Ivanchenko)

Patch of sand and ant traffic.
(Gennady Semenchenko)

And Reichelson sonata. CD
Honey from melodies interferes in the chest ...
(Lyudmila Nekrasovskaya)

Of great importance in creating figurative poetic works with an original, unique author's sound are author's neologisms. This is such an important issue that it requires a detailed comprehensive consideration in a separate article.

© Svetlana Skorik, 2012
Article published, protected by copyright. Distribution on the Internet is prohibited.

S. I. Skorik. Position School, 2012.

MODERN POETIC TECHNIQUES
ALLUSION

Allusion - literary technique of quoting using a reference to a well-known fact or person, a proverb, a saying, a quote from a well-known work, the use of a walking expression in a poem.

Examples of allusion:

So in Kareninsky will lie on the sleepers

Kyiv as a Requiem of our partings.

(Irina Ivanchenko)

And the lightning will come in

Like music without words.

Like an impressionist

Into the grass where are you and breakfast.

(Natalia Belchenko)

The last example of allusion plays on the title of the painting "Breakfast on the Grass" by the French Impressionist painter Claude Monet.

As you can see, quoting often occurs in the form of a comparison, although this is not necessary: ​​well-known images, parts of proverbs can naturally intersperse in the text, thus referring to their source and causing stable associations. Very often they are used as a joke:

What a quixote

did we forget?

(Marina Matveeva)

In this allusion, the name of the literary hero Cervantes Don Quixote is used, which in this case, softening the abusive expression “what the hell” (or “goal”), gives the whole sentence an ironic connotation.

The artistic reception of allusion is very popular among all modern "living classics", since the original masters of the word always liked to engage in dialogue with other poets - predecessors and contemporaries. Allusion is an artistic technique that is also popular with the intellectual reader, since it involves his memory and sense of linguistic harmony - in fact, "the center of aesthetic pleasure."

However, all good things should be in moderation. An excessive abundance of allusions in a poem leads to a dimming of the meaning, distracts from the stated topic and actually turns the work into a set of beautiful phrases, a trinket, devoid of original interesting thoughts. In such poems, the allusion, under the guise of demonstrating the erudition of the author, is designed to hide the fact that he has absolutely nothing to say.

APPLICATION

Application - quotation technique, artistic technique inclusion in the text of the poem of a direct quote or quote in a slightly modified form. A line with a direct quote is not quoted, but organically enters the text of the poem, often being a reference line from which some conclusions follow about the stated thought, and often not reinforcing, but rather refuting the quote. In such cases, direct quoting must use a really well-known work of a famous classic or a saying. Otherwise, if the quotation is direct, but belongs to a not too well-known author, it must first be placed as an epigraph before the poem, always indicating who it belongs to.

Application examples:

An example of an application as a direct quotation technique. Based on the stanza in the poem by Evgeny Pugachev

And lost at the bottom

Love is the last coin...

Of course, with Her no light is needed,

But is there still light in me? -

Tatyana Gordienko places a line from there as an epigraph above her eight-line:

But is there still light in me...

E. Pugachev

and ends his poem with a direct quote, refuting the idea inherent in it:

"But is there still light in me..."

Or maybe you don't need light?

Shines the last coin!

At least at the very bottom.

An example of an application as a method of quoting in a modified form:

Put a leash on my mouth,

pull the Word by the melodious tongue.

(Irina Ivanchenko)

In this application, the saying “You can’t throw a scarf on someone else’s mouth” is played up.

In the application of Natalia Belchenko " In a china shop meaning eternal elephant"The proverb-comparison "like an elephant in a china shop" is played up, and in the application of Yuri Kaplan " Later Danube Delta sleeves"- the expression" sleeveless ".

Application by Irina Ivanchenko “Stop, the driver is strange, / my wandering around the countries, / my walking in the dark”is based on the playful use of the titles of the works - “Journey beyond the three seas” by Afanasy Nikitin and “Journey through the torment” by Alexei Tolstoy.

Usually, the quote included in the application does not really have a direct relationship to the subject in question in the poem, and is included deliberately - as a joke. Therefore, it should not be confused with contamination (see below). The artistic technique of the application is very popular with well-read readers, as it involves their sense of subtle irony, imagination, and creative thinking.

In many ways, it was precisely from the artistic technique of appliqué - as a parody of the previous style of traditional poetry - in the 60s-70s of the twentieth century. new directions have grown - neomodernism, underground and conceptualism.

It is appropriate to recall here such a variety of poetic errors as phraseological confusion, when the beginning of one phraseological turn is unintentionally, out of ignorance, connected with the end of another. This causes a completely unforeseen and undesirable humorous effect in a pathos or sincere work.

Application of the artistic technique of application testifies to a developed sense of language, since it requires the author to be able to play with the expression used, its sound, direct and figurative meanings.

CONTAMINATION

Contamination as an artistic method of quoting- the inclusion of a well-known expression in the text of the poem not in the form of a quote, but as an organically relevant detail in this case.

Examples of contamination.

Mysterious digital codes

I want to invest in iron verse...

(Natalia Belchenko)

This example of contamination goes back to Lermontov: "And boldly throw an iron verse in their eyes, / Drenched in bitterness and anger."

Not because it is necessary

But because next to him is another.

(L. Nekrasovskaya)

Compare this example of contamination with Innokenty Annensky: "Not because it is light, / But because it does not need light."

Get ink, cry still...

It's already March, and still there is no rest!

Compare this example of contamination and its literary source - B. Pasternak: “February. Get ink and cry! .. "

Is memento mori?! What is it, uncle, memento,

when there are five sixes on the hand, and Vaskin's entry!

(Stanislav Minakov)

is an example of contamination in the description of a card game.

Contamination as a method of word creation and graphic technique- combining several words into one.

My year! My tree! (S. Kirsanov) Significantly whistling (Stanislav Minakov) - i.e. "whistling God knows what."

What you whisper, whispers,

Branch-good-branch-evil?

Will I perish barking,

Didn't cross Saturday?

Here, the last two examples of contamination are especially interesting, which are graphic techniques, i.e. techniques that contribute to artistic expression by deliberately changing the accepted spelling of words and distorting their standard form. The contamination of "Shepcheshtoty" is based on the intersection of two "sh" and on cutting off the matched sound: whisper sh sh then you. Such a connection is a way, with the help of continuous writing, to convey an indistinct muttering, a whisper in which it is difficult to distinguish individual words, one deaf shu-shu-shu is heard. The verb "zavo-zalaya" is a humorous author's neologism. It was formed by conjoint writing (but through a hyphen) of two different verbs, with the ending cut off from the first of them. An unexpected and very funny effect.

REMINISCENCE

Reminiscence (lat. reminiscentia, recollection) is a quoting technique, an artistic technique, which consists in the fact that the author reproduces rhythmic-syntactic constructions from someone else's poem.

Reminiscence example

And we ourselves are still in good health,

And our children go to school in the morning

Along Kirov street, Voykov street,

Along Sacco-Vanzeti street.

(Konstantin Simonov)

Using the stanza of the classic of Soviet literature Konstantin Simonov, but already describing the junction of the era of stagnation with the period of perestroika, when the “new thinking” was introduced with a creak, Yuri Kaplan writes:

After all, we ourselves are still in poor health,

And our children still go to school

Along the streets of Zhdanov and Voroshilov

And even on Brezhnev Square.

INTERTEXT

Intertext is an artistic technique in postmodernism, which consists in the implicit, hidden conscious construction by the author of his entire work on other people's quotes or images of painting, music, cinema, theater and on reminiscences to other people's texts that require unraveling. At the same time, the quote ceases to play the role of additional information, a reference to something, and, recalling the original meaning, serves to express a different meaning in a new context, sets dialogism, polyphony and makes the text open for multidimensional reader reading and understanding.

Osip Mandelstam wrote: “A quotation is not an excerpt. A quotation is a cicada - inexorability is characteristic of it. Anna Akhmatova put it this way about the essence of 20th-century poetry: "But perhaps poetry itself is one magnificent quotation." However, it is precisely the artistic device “intertext” that tends to sin with the multidimensionality of supposedly embedded meanings and the deliberate demonstration of the author’s erudition in the absence of any global, original differences between the author’s thoughts and the thoughts present in the quote. Thus, this artistic technique may completely lose its meaning, since it ceases to be a technique and turns into its imitation. What is detrimental to a poem that is overly full of allusions creates a breeding ground for intertexts that flourish in postmodernism, which already cease to play the role of dialogue and polyphony, because dialogue cannot be based on one-dimensional replicas embedded in one mental plane, only confirming what was known and before. So the declared "polyphony" gradually slips into a literary cacophony.

An example of intertext in postmodernism

Ismar killed Hippomedon, Lead killed Eteocles...

note: another, not that, because: Polyneices and Eteocles

(Oedipal vision) in the morning the good are dead, shining with stones of the wrists,

such is the news of the onset of the last winter

on groves of rare olives outside the black color, where it seems.

Forget. White stones or teeth in a dream, or lilies

tart drops in pebble ice through a hair of displacement.

But Amphidiac kills Parthenopaeus. However,

according to sources smoldering on both rivers from the archive,

It was not he who killed Partenopeus at all, but a certain Periclimen, the son of Poseidon.

Oh, only names! .. which also needs to be taken into account

in the light of future events rolling like millstones across the plain.

Hollow Troy with dry Helen inside. Troy, where

Elena child-and-soldiers-and-peas - who built your walls

in the children's city of angina? Sisters in white coats

under which there is nothing like the heart of ashmavedha,

bright mercury at the barrier of dreams known to all.

Meanwhile, Melanippus - Tydia wounds in the stomach.

(Arkady Dragomoshchenko. Excerpt from The Theban Flashback)

There is no need to quote the entire text, since even this passage shows what lies ahead for the reader.

Thus, when using artistic methods of quoting, it is necessary to observe the measure so that the “pendulum effect” does not turn out, as with the direction of “poetry for poetry”, when at first it was absolutized and brought to a complete separation from life, from reality, and in later historical periods - just because of this - they were generally eliminated from the "ship of modernity".

Poetic devices are so important in poetry that it is simply impossible to overestimate their importance. They can only be compared with the poet's arsenal, the use of which will make speech soft, lyrical, lively and melodic. Thanks to them, the work becomes bright, emotional, expressive. The reader can more sensitively and fully feel the atmosphere created by the author.

The characters in the works come to life, become more expressive. Russian speech is very rich in poetic devices, of which there are more than two dozen, among them:

1. Allusion.
2. Antonomasia.
3. Assonance.
4. Aphorism.
5. Exclamation.
6. Hyperbola.
7. Inversion.
8. Irony.
9. Pun.
10. Contamination.
11. Metaphor.
12. Metonymy.
13. Appeal (apostrophe).
14. Streamlined expressions.
15. Personification.
16. parallel structures.
17. Repetition.
18. Opposition (antithesis).
19. Sarcasm.
20. Synecdoche.
21. Comparison.
22. Trails.
23. Default.
24. Gain (gradation).
25. Figures.
26. Epithet.

However, not all of them are widespread in poetry. We will consider the frequently encountered poetic techniques of poems.

Poetic devices with examples

The epithet in Greek means “applied”, the epithet is an expressive definition of a certain object (action, event, process), which serves to emphasize, highlight any property characteristic of this object.

An epithet is a figurative, metaphorical definition, not to be confused with a simple definition of an object, for example, “loud voice” is just a definition, “bright voice” is an epithet, “cold hands” is just a definition, and “golden hands” is an epithet .

The following series of phrases can also serve as examples of epithets: a ruddy dawn, a singing fire, an angelic light, a wonderful evening, a lead cloud, a piercing look, a scratching whisper.

As a rule, adjectives (gentle waves) serve as epithets, it is rare to find a numeral (first friend), an adverb (love passionately), and verbs (desire to forget), as well as nouns (fun noise).

Comparison is a poetic technique by which the properties most inherent in the described object are reflected in similar properties of a completely different object. Moreover, the properties of the object being compared are usually more familiar and close to the reader than the object indicated by the author. So inanimate objects are brought an analogy of animate, spiritual or abstract - material. Examples of comparison can be: "eyes like the sky, blue", "leaves are yellow, like gold."

A metaphor is an expression based on the use of words in a figurative sense. That is, a property characteristic of one object is assigned to another on the basis of some similarity. As a rule, to describe an inanimate object, use the definition of an animate one and vice versa. For example, “eye-diamond”, “heart of ice”, “nerves of steel”, “the honey of your words is bitter to me”, “the mountain ash lit up with a red brush”, “it pours like a bucket”, “deadly boredom”.

Personification also refers to poetic techniques, which means transferring the properties of animate objects to inanimate objects. Or attributing human feelings, emotions, actions to an object that it does not possess. With the help of personification, the reader perceives the picture created in front of him dynamically and vividly. For example, “a thunderstorm is coming”, “the sky is crying”, “streams are running”, “the sun is smiling”, “frost is drawing patterns on the window”, “leaves are whispering”.

Hyperbole, translated from the Greek "hyperbole", means excess, exaggeration. Poets often use this method of poetic speech for obvious, indisputable, conspicuous exaggeration to make their thoughts more expressive. For example, “I will repeat for the hundredth time”, “we have enough food for a year”. The reverse technique of hyperbole is litote - a deliberate understatement of the properties of an object: “a boy with a finger”, “a man with a fingernail”.

As you have already seen, poetic techniques are very diverse and numerous, and for any poet, this, in turn, is a wide scope for creating, creating their works, enriching them with a beautiful literary language.

Everyone is well aware that art is the self-expression of an individual, and literature, therefore, is the self-expression of the writer's personality. The “baggage” of a writing person consists of a vocabulary, speech techniques, skills in using these techniques. The richer the artist's palette, the more opportunities he has when creating a canvas. The same is with the writer: the more expressive his speech, the brighter the images, the deeper and more interesting the statements, the stronger the emotional impact on the reader will be able to have his works.

Among the means of speech expressiveness, often called "artistic techniques" (or otherwise figures, tropes) in literary work, metaphor is in the first place in terms of frequency of use.

Metaphor is used when we use a word or expression in a figurative sense. This transfer is carried out by the similarity of individual features of a phenomenon or object. Most often, it is a metaphor that creates an artistic image.

There are quite a few varieties of metaphor, among them:

metonymy - a trope that mixes meanings by contiguity, sometimes involving the imposition of one meaning on another

(examples: "Let's take another plate!"; "Van Gogh hangs on the third floor");

(examples: “nice guy”; “pathetic little man”, “bitter bread”);

comparison - a figure of speech that characterizes an object by comparing one with another

(examples: “like the flesh of a child is fresh, like the call of a flute is tender”);

personification - "revival" of objects or phenomena of inanimate nature

(examples: “ominous haze”; “autumn cried”; “blizzard howled”);

hyperbole and litote - a figure in the meaning of exaggeration or understatement of the described subject

(examples: “he always argues”; “a sea of ​​\u200b\u200btears”; “there was no poppy dew in his mouth”);

sarcasm - an evil, caustic mockery, sometimes outright verbal mockery (for example, in rap battles that have become widespread recently);

irony - a mocking statement when the speaker means something completely different (for example, the works of I. Ilf and E. Petrov);

humor - a trope that expresses a cheerful and most often good-natured mood (for example, the fables of I.A. Krylov are written in this vein);

grotesque - a figure of speech that deliberately violates the proportions and true sizes of objects and phenomena (often used in fairy tales, another example is Gulliver's Travels by J. Swift, the work of N.V. Gogol);

pun - deliberate ambiguity, a play on words based on their ambiguity

(examples can be found in anecdotes, as well as in the work of V. Mayakovsky, O. Khayyam, K. Prutkov and others);

oxymoron - a combination in one expression of incongruous, two contradictory concepts

(examples: "terribly beautiful", "original copy", "flock of comrades").

However, speech expressiveness is not limited to stylistic figures. In particular, we can also mention sound writing, which is an artistic technique that implies a certain order of construction of sounds, syllables, words to create some kind of image or mood, imitation of the sounds of the real world. The reader will often meet sound writing in poetic works, but this technique is also found in prose.

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What are artistic techniques for? First of all, in order for the work to correspond to a certain style, which implies a certain imagery, expressiveness and beauty. In addition, the writer is a master of associations, an artist of the word and a great contemplative. Artistic techniques in poetry and prose make the text deeper. Consequently, both the prose writer and the poet are not satisfied with just one layer of language; they are not limited to using only the superficial, basic meaning of the word. In order to be able to penetrate into the depth of thought, into the essence of the image, it is required to use various artistic means.

In addition, the reader must be lured and attracted. For this, various techniques are used that give special interest to the story and some mystery that needs to be unraveled. Artistic means are called differently paths. These are not only integral elements of the overall picture of the world, but also the author's assessment, the background and general tone of the work, as well as many other things that we, when reading another creation, sometimes do not even think about.

The main artistic devices are metaphor, epithet and comparison. Although the epithet is often regarded as a kind of metaphor, we will not go into the wilds of the science of "literary criticism" and traditionally single it out as a separate means.

Epithet

The epithet is the king of description. Not a single landscape, portrait, interior is complete without it. Sometimes a single well-chosen epithet is much more important than a whole paragraph created specifically for clarification. Most often, when talking about it, we mean participles or adjectives that endow this or that artistic image with additional properties and characteristics. An epithet should not be confused with a simple definition.

So, for example, the following words can be proposed to describe the eyes: lively, brown, bottomless, large, made up, crafty. Let's try to divide these adjectives into two groups, namely: objective (natural) properties and subjective (additional) characteristic. We will see that words such as "big", "brown" and "made up" convey in their meaning only what anyone can see, since it lies on the surface. In order for us to imagine the appearance of a particular hero, such definitions are very important. However, it is the “bottomless”, “live”, “cunning” eyes that will tell us best of all about his inner essence, character. We begin to guess that before us is an unusual person, prone to various inventions, having a living, moving soul. This is precisely the main property of epithets: to indicate those features that are hidden from us during the initial examination.

Metaphor

Let's move on to another equally important trope - metaphor. a comparison expressed by a noun. The author's task here is to compare phenomena and objects, but very carefully and tactfully, so that the reader cannot guess that we are imposing this object on him. That's right, insinuatingly and naturally, you need to use any artistic techniques. "tears of dew", "fire of the dawn", etc. Here, dew is compared with tears, and dawn is compared with fire.

Comparison

The last most important artistic device is a comparison, given directly by using such unions as "as if", "like", "as if", "exactly", "as if". Examples include the following: eyes like life; dew, like tears; tree like an old man. However, it should be noted that the use of an epithet, metaphor or comparison should not only be for the sake of a "red word". There should be no chaos in the text, it should gravitate towards elegance and harmony, therefore, before using this or that trope, you need to clearly understand the purpose for which it is used, what we want to say.

Other, more complex and less common artistic techniques are hyperbole (exaggeration), antithesis (opposition), and inversion (reverse word order).

Antithesis

Such a trope as an antithesis has two varieties: it can be narrow (within one paragraph or sentence) and expanded (placed on several chapters or pages). This technique is often used in the works of Russian classics when it is required to compare two heroes. For example, Alexander Sergeyevich Pushkin in his story "The Captain's Daughter" compares Pugachev and Grinev, and a little later Nikolai Vasilyevich Gogol will create portraits of the famous brothers, Andriy and Ostap, also based on the antithesis. Artistic devices in the novel "Oblomov" also include this trope.

Hyperbola

Hyperbole is a favorite device of such literary genres as epic, fairy tale and ballad. But it is found not only in them. For example, the hyperbole "he could eat a boar" can be used in any novel, short story, and other work of the realistic tradition.

Inversion

We continue to describe artistic techniques in the works. Inversion, as you might guess, serves to give the work additional emotionality. It is most often observed in poetry, but often this trope is also used in prose. You can say: "This girl was more beautiful than the others." And you can shout out: "This girl was more beautiful than the others!" Immediately there is enthusiasm, and expression, and much more, which can be seen when comparing two statements.

Irony

The next trope, irony, in a different way - a hidden author's mockery, is also used quite often in fiction. Of course, a serious work must be serious, but the subtext hidden in irony sometimes not only demonstrates the wit of the writer, but also forces the reader to take a breath and prepare for the next, more intense scene. In a humorous work, irony is indispensable. The great masters of this are Zoshchenko and Chekhov, who use this trope in their stories.

Sarcasm

Another one is closely connected with this technique - it is no longer just good laughter, it reveals shortcomings and vices, sometimes exaggerates, while irony usually creates a bright atmosphere. In order to have a more complete picture of this trail, you can read several fairy tales by Saltykov-Shchedrin.

personification

The next step is impersonation. It allows us to demonstrate the life of the world around us. There are images such as grumbling winter, dancing snow, singing water. In other words, personification is the transfer of the properties of animate objects to inanimate objects. So, we all know that only a person and an animal can yawn. But in literature, such artistic images as a yawning sky or a yawning door are often found. The first of them can help create a certain mood in the reader, prepare his perception. The second is to emphasize the sleepy atmosphere in this house, perhaps loneliness and boredom.

Oxymoron

Oxymoron is another interesting trick, which is a combination of the incongruous. This is both a righteous lie and an Orthodox devil. Such words, chosen quite unexpectedly, can be used by both science fiction writers and lovers of philosophical treatises. Sometimes only one oxymoron is enough to build a whole work that has both the dualism of being, and an insoluble conflict, and subtle ironic overtones.

Other artistic techniques

Interestingly, the "and, and, and" used in the previous sentence is also one of the artistic means called polyunion. What is it for? First of all, to expand the narrative range and show, for example, that a person has both beauty, and intelligence, and courage, and charm ... And the hero also knows how to fish, and swim, and write books, and build houses ...

Most often, this trope is used in conjunction with another, called This is the case when it is difficult to imagine one without the other.

However, this is not all artistic techniques and means. Let's take a look at the rhetorical questions. They do not require an answer, but at the same time they make readers think. Perhaps everyone knows the most famous of them: "Who is to blame?" and "What to do?".

These are just the basic artistic techniques. In addition to them, one can distinguish parceling (sentence division), synecdoche (when the singular is used instead of the plural), anaphora (similar beginning of sentences), epiphora (repeating their endings), litote (understatement) and hyperbole (on the contrary, exaggeration), periphrase (when some word is replaced by its brief description.All these means can be used both in poetry and in prose.Artistic techniques in a poem and, for example, a story, do not fundamentally differ.