1. SUBJECT, OBJECT AND TASKS OF ORGANIZATIONAL MANAGEMENT
Organizational behavior is a scientific discipline that deals with the study of the behavior of working people and how they carry out activities within certain organizational structures, or organizations.
Organizational behavior is the systematic, scientific analysis of individuals, groups, and organizations in order to understand, predict, and improve the individual performance and functioning of an organization. The study of this discipline provides a set of tools in the form of concepts and theories that help people understand, analyze and describe what happens in organizations and explain why it happens.
If psychology itself is focused on the analysis of human behavior in general, then organizational behavior is addressed to its special form - the behavior of a working person, which in most cases is carried out within a certain organization. The need for such a study is due to the fact that the association of people into groups makes significant adjustments to their personal behavior. Individuals placed in certain organizational situations necessarily behave differently than if they were outside the organization.
This is primarily due to the fact that the organizational system itself begins to exert a strong influence on people, which changes and reorients the tendencies of their behavior. A person must reckon with the norms of behavior existing in the group, rules, traditions, customs, certain attitudes, as well as with collective thought, will, etc.
In modern conditions, knowledge of the basics of organizational behavior allows us to solve the following tasks:
· more fully reveal the potential of the organization's personnel and make a choice of directions for improving its activities, using modern technologies for these purposes;
to develop such projects of organizational systems that would meet the criteria that put the person and his needs at the center;
determine strategies for professional intervention to eliminate conservatism in the organization of work;
· overcome traditional and minimalist approaches to information technology.
The analysis shows that the objects are large and small enterprises, the subject is a set of managerial relations that arise between people in the process of joint work and manifest themselves in various forms of their behavior and at various levels of organization (behavior in them, that is, people's behavior).
2. MAIN PROBLEMS AND APPROACHES OF ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR
The field of study of the EP is the study of individual and group parameters of human behavior in an organization.
There are three levels of consideration of behavior problems: personal, group, organizational.
The personal level is the level of the individual, his decisions and his features, that is, motives, abilities, character. Morality, temperament, norms.
Group level - analysis of the characteristics of the group: age, gender, education, professional training, retraining, work experience, ability to make decisions, freedom of decision-making, interpersonal relationships, conflicts, etc.
Organizational level - organizational standards, the goals of which the employee should be aware of, the requirements for the solution, enshrined within the organizational culture.
Approaches to the study of organizational behavior
1. Focus on human capital (supporting approach). Analysis of the personal potential of the employee. Achieving the level of competence, theoretical activity, etc. Security perfection of knowledge, skills of employees, create an atmosphere for creative activity, provide an opportunity for self-realization.
2. The situational approach is based on the following principles:
the ability to quickly respond to the situation here and now;
making decisions in accordance with the situation;
the ability to see goals correctly;
providing the only correct method of management;
distribution of power;
Work assignments are universal in nature for organizing all types of situations.
3. A systematic approach, it should be understood as a complex of interacting elements, that is, when making decisions, it is necessary to evaluate their consequences for the entire organization, because the distinctive features of this approach are:
The consequences, both positive and negative, when interacting with people are placed on the shoulders of management, that is, the application of the approach is associated with human problems;
This approach can be applied to any person;
This approach takes time to analyze the entire system.
3. PREREQUISITES FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR
The study of modern theories of organizational behavior requires consideration of the history of the development of science as a whole, which together has passed the path of evolution - progressive development and consistent improvement. It is this natural form of the formation of science that confirms its viability.
Two stages should be distinguished in the development of EP: empirical and scientific.
The first attempts to comprehend human behavior arose in ancient times on an empirical basis. The fundamental problems of personality were formulated in the works of the great ancient Greek thinkers Socrates, Plato, Aristotle and other philosophers in the 4th-5th centuries. BC. For the first time in the history of European social thought, they posed the problem of the relationship between the individual and society, the social environment, the relationship between individualism and collectivism.
Questions of personality behavior in the environment were considered in various religious teachings. In particular, the idea of the primacy of the collective over the individual nourished early Christianity and, together with Orthodoxy, came to Russia. Orthodoxy is characterized by a special spiritual attitude, a sense of belonging and unity, empathy, mutual love and sacrifice.
The prerequisites for the formation of the scientific concept of organizational behavior can be considered the ideas of freedom, equality and fraternity of the French Enlightenment (Voltaire, J.-J. Rousseau, P.A. Holbach), utopian socialists (T. More, T. Campanella, R. Owen) in the middle of the 18th century, class doctrine (K. Marx), the psychology of peoples (W. Wundt) in Germany in the middle of the 19th century.
Many ideas of thinkers of the past and present are directly related to the problems of interpersonal communication and group interaction of people.
4. SYSTEMIC APPROACH TO ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR
A systematic approach to the description of organizational behavior consists in presenting the behavior of an employee as a result of the combined influence of interrelated elements.
Social exchange - the exchange of various social benefits as the basis of social relations, on which various structural formations (power, status, prestige) grow. According to the theory of social exchange by D. Homans, the frequency and quality of rewards are directly proportional to the desire to help the source of a positive incentive.
Social comparison - comparison by an individual of labor costs and remuneration received with labor costs and remuneration of colleagues. Levels of comparison can be different - individual, group, organizational, regional, country.
Social equity - reward evaluation based on the results of social comparison. It can be positive or negative depending on the experience of social interaction of the individual. Social justice is the main reason for choosing a certain form of organizational behavior (for example, conscientious work or avoidance).
Satisfaction is the employee's assessment and awareness of his position. It may be general, partial or absent altogether.
Purposefulness - striving to achieve the goal, activity based on awareness, hierarchy of goals, choice of means and calculation of results. Depending on the purposefulness, various types of purposeful behavior of a person are formed: the implementation of a life plan, following a duty, following cultural norms, the realization of close goals, self-directed behavior or lack of a guideline.
Rationality - the ability to effectively achieve goals and obtain a beneficial social comparison. The degree of rationality of organizational behavior allows you to determine the level of efficiency of personnel management. The definition of the rationality of organizational behavior is based on the use of test methods (MMPI test, R. Cattell, etc.).
Normativity is the correspondence of an individual's behavior to the norms accepted in a given social environment.
Deviance is the deviation of an individual's behavior from the goals and norms shared by the environment.
All categories of the systemic description of organizational behavior are interrelated and are implemented in the practical activities of the manager in the aggregate and in combination with each other. An integrated approach allows you to achieve the effective use of the organization's human resources.
5. INCOMING CHARACTERISTICS OF THE MODEL OF ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR
OP is a 3-level model, in which each subsequent level is based on the previous one. A person, coming to the organization, has his own character traits and established patterns of behavior. He becomes a member of a group that appears to him, on the one hand, as freedom and develops his abilities, and on the other hand, imposes restrictions on a person. The same applies to org-ii as a whole.
1. Economy. system: Human capital:
1) prof. training and qualification
2) work experience and traditions
3) general culture and work culture
4) social-psych. human qualities
5) health and performance
The most effective areas for investing in human capital in different countries are:
1) health and social. security
2) education
3) labor migration
2. National culture
Accounting for cultural differences is necessary. Because organizational behavior in different cultures has a difference, which determines the variety of relationships and elements. There are 5 main characteristics:
1. Relationship with the environment. environment
People are dependent on the environment. environments
people live in harmony with the environment. environment
people dominate the environment. environment
2. Temporal orientation
orientation to the past
orientation to the present
・Future orientation
3. The nature of people
· kind people
people are not kind
people m/b both good and not good
4. Activity orientation
· action
· Existence
control
individualists
hierarchy
6. Spatial orientation
privacy
openness
mixed character
6. OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS OF THE OP
1) productivity includes productivity and efficiency.
Enterprises work productively if the product is in demand and its market share is high. However, productivity will depend on the effectiveness of the enterprise in achieving its goals (profit, output per unit of time).
2) absenteeism (absent) Ex: assembly line. The level of absenteeism, exceeding the permissible one, affects the efficiency and productivity of work at the enterprise with the complication of technological processes and the introduction of more sophisticated equipment
3) staff turnover (the cost of staff selection, but more trained personnel can come to a vacant position)
4) satisfaction
There are two ways to measure satisfaction:
1. single assessment method:
Completely dissatisfied _______________________ Completely satisfied
2. summing up the satisfaction ratings of various aspects of the work:
self-realization at work
nature of control
a fair remuneration
working conditions
Matching work to personality type
the psychological climate
The output elements of the EP provide a real opportunity to analyze the effectiveness of the implementation of many measures to improve work with personnel and changes in work within the organization.
7. FEATURES OF INFORMATION EXCHANGE IN THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS
The communication process is the process of exchanging information. Precisely because the exchange of information is built into all the main types of management activities, we call communications a connecting process. And one of the important management tools in the hands of a manager is the information at his disposal. Using and transmitting this information, as well as receiving feedback, he organizes, directs and motivates subordinates. Therefore, much depends on his ability to convey information in such a way that the most adequate perception of this information by those to whom it is intended is achieved.
In the process of communication, information is transferred from one subject to another. Individuals, groups, and entire organizations can act as subjects of the communication process.
Communication is carried out by conveying ideas, facts, opinions, sensations or perceptions, feelings and attitudes from one person to another, verbally or in some other form, in order to obtain the desired reaction in response.
When considering the communicative process, it is necessary to take into account that in the conditions of human communication, it is important not only how information is transmitted, but also how it is formed, refined, and developed. Communication and information are different. But things are related. Communication includes both what is being communicated and how that "what" is being communicated.
In order for communication to take place, at least two people are required. Therefore, each of the participants must have all or some of the abilities: to see, hear, touch, perceive smells and taste. Effective communication requires certain skills and abilities from each party.
Communication cannot be considered only as sending and receiving information, since we are dealing with the relationship of two individuals, each of which is an active subject - their mutual informing involves the establishment of joint activities. Therefore, in the communicative process, not only the movement of information takes place, but also an active exchange of it.
In a specifically human exchange of information, the importance of information plays a special role for each participant in communication, since people do not just exchange words, but strive to develop a common meaning. And this is possible under the condition. That information is not only accepted. But understandable and meaningful.
The essence of the communicative process is both the exchange of information and the joint comprehension of the subject. Therefore, in every communicative process, activity, communication and cognition are really combined.
The exchange of information necessarily implies an impact on the partner. The communicative influence that arises in this case is the psychological impact of one participant on another in order to change his behavior. The effectiveness of communication is measured precisely by how successful the impact was.
A communication network is a connection in a certain way of the participants in the communication process using communication channels. Channels are links that provide interaction and transfer of information between communication objects.
Communication networks can be of two types: centralized and decentralized.
In centralized networks, information moves sequentially from one participant to another. (reflect a hierarchical model of organizational relations and can be effective under certain conditions).
In decentralized networks, there is a free circulation of information flows between participants based on the decentralization of power. This ensures the formation of effective organizational interaction based on independence, creativity and initiative.
8. HUMAN PERCEPTION OF THE ENVIRONMENT
Perception can be defined in the most general way as the process of receiving and processing information. It lies in the fact that information obtained from the external environment is processed, brought into a certain order and systematized. It contains a person's idea of the environment and forms the basis of his actions, acting as the source material for human behavior. Each person's perception of reality is different and always subjective.
Human perception of the organizational environment includes two processes: information selection and information systematization.
The most important feature of the perception of information is selectivity. A person, using visual, sound, tactile channels for obtaining information, does not perceive all the information that comes to him, but only that which has a special meaning for him. The selection of information is influenced not only by the physical capabilities of the sense organs, but also by the psychological components of a person's personality, such as attitude to what is happening, previous experience, professed values, mood, etc. As a result, the selection of information, on the one hand, allows a person to discard unimportant or unnecessary information, and on the other hand, it leads to the loss of important information, to a significant distortion of reality. The systematization of information involves its processing in order to bring it to a certain form and comprehension, which allows a person to react in a certain way to the information received.
The systematization of information by a person is carried out in two ways:
Logical information processing;
Processing information based on human feelings, preferences, emotions, beliefs (“like - dislike”, “like - dislike”)
All factors influencing the perception of a person can be divided into internal and external. Among the factors internal to a person, the following can be distinguished:
the state of a person, his needs and expectations preceding the perception of the signal;
the presence of feelings of a positive or negative nature in relation to the perceived signal;
the degree of initial awareness of the received signals.
External factors that influence a person's perception of reality include:
the intensity of the transmitted signal;
signal mobility;
· the size;
the state of the environment in which the person is located.
Allocate ways of perception that make it difficult, create barriers and lead to errors in the perception of human reality:
stereotyping - reducing a more complex original phenomenon to a certain stereotype and, accordingly, to a simplified idea of this phenomenon.
transferring estimates of individual characteristics of a phenomenon to its other characteristics, or generalizing the assessment of a separate characteristic to the phenomenon as a whole.
Projection - the transfer of one's own feelings, motives, fears to other people.
first impression - (first impressions are deceptive).
9. COMMUNICATION PROCESS IN ORGANIZATION
The process of communication is the exchange of information between people. which is to ensure the understanding of transmitted and received information.
There are the following types of communications:
formal (determined by the organizational structure of the enterprise, the relationship of management levels and functional departments). The more control levels, the higher the probability of information distortion, since each control level can correct and filter messages;
Informal communications (for example, a rumor channel);
· vertical (interlevel) communications: top-down and bottom-up;
Horizontal communications - the exchange of information between different departments to coordinate actions;
interpersonal communication - oral communication of people in any of the listed types of communication.
Communication in an organization performs several important functions:
· providing information about the company's goals, how to do the job, standards of acceptable behavior, the need for change, etc.
· motivating members of the organization, for example, by determining valence, raising the degree of expectations and instrumentality, distributing specific goals and providing feedback.
· controlling and coordinating the efforts of individual employees, for example, by reducing work inactivity, communicating roles, rules and regulations, and avoiding duplication of efforts.
The transfer of information can be carried out in the following directions:
Top down: setting goals (what, when to do), instructing (how, in what way, who);
bottom-up: performance reports, inspection reports, employee opinion reports.
· in the horizontal direction: exchange of opinions, coordination of actions, planning, performance reports.
The transfer of information is carried out using sign systems. When classifying communication processes, we can distinguish:
verbal communication, speech is used as a sign system;
non-verbal communication, where various non-speech sign systems are used.
Errors that occur in the communication process are due to: selection of information, selectivity of perception, emotions, non-verbal signals, language problems, etc. Sometimes poor communication efficiency is associated with sources of interference such as physical distance, lack of feedback, status effects, and cultural differences. Communication barriers lead to the distortion of information and its loss. Using knowledge about the typology of communication barriers allows you to avoid negative consequences. Stand out:
1. communication barriers associated with the specifics of how people express their thoughts and their perception
2. communication barriers associated with unsatisfactory relationships in groups, between groups, with individuals. The message is not perceived due to a sense of antagonism or is deliberately distorted;
3. organizational communication barriers (levels of hierarchy, uncertainty of responsibilities, etc.);
4. technological communication barriers associated with the form of information transfer (ambiguity, possibility of repetition, etc.).
If the message is vague, the recipient may have difficulty deciphering it, or may think that the message does not mean what the sender had in mind. In this case, the likelihood increases that the recipient will act not on the basis of the message itself, but on the basis of their ideas, values, perceptions that affect decoding.
Up to (and including) the point at which the receiver decodes the messages, the communication process is concerned primarily with the exchange of information. Members of the organization know that they have reached an understanding and communicated effectively only after the feedback loop is completed, i.e. the second half of the process takes place.
business communication leadership organizational management
10. NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATIONS IN BUSINESS COMMUNICATION
People communicate through verbal and non-verbal communications. The share of verbal communications in the process of human communication is about 10%. Verbal communications are realized with the help of written and oral messages. Oral transmission of messages is carried out in the process of speech dialogue, negotiations, meetings, presentations, telephone conversations, namely: when the largest volume of messages is transmitted through voice communication. Written messages are transmitted through documents in the form of letters, orders, directives, instructions, regulations, etc.
Non-verbal communications are carried out through body language (up to 55% of all communications) and speech parameters (up to 35% of all communications). Body language has an effect on the other person. Body language includes: clothing, posture, gestures, actual body movements, posture, human figure, facial expression, eye contact, pupil size, distance between speakers, etc. Speech parameters include: speech rate, voice volume, voice timbre, intonation, choice of words, use of jargon, interjections, laughter, crying, whispering, various combinations of sounds that have no independent meaning, etc.
Body language is used by all people but understood by only a few. With clients, business partners, guests, family members, you communicate not only through conversation, but also through the mood of a person.
Understanding the body language of others is very important, but it is equally important to learn to speak this language yourself.
With some practice, you can learn to correctly interpret the body language of others, and this will allow you to better use the signs of your non-verbal body language, which conveys your true thoughts and allows you to better understand those with whom you communicate.
Without words, it will become clear to you whether partners are lying to you, whether people of the opposite sex feel sympathy or antipathy towards you, whether your guests are bored, whether clients are impatient; whether they are open, nervous, suspicious, angry or insecure.
Many body language signs can be used consciously or unconsciously.
A person who deliberately tilts his head to one side signals our interest. A person who is interested in something unconsciously tilts his head to the side. A frustrated and angry person unconsciously lowers the corners of his mouth.
Examples of conscious body language common in most European countries:
a raised hand with two fingers in a "V" means victory;
raised clenched fist - a sign of threat;
a raised hand or finger is a sign that a person wants to say something;
a finger attached to the lips means: quieter;
a finger pointing at the clock is a sign that it is time to end the conversation;
the palm applied to the ear shows: speak louder, hard to hear.
By understanding unconscious body language, you will be able to recognize hidden social, emotional, sexual and other attitudes, as well as understand the state of mind, attitudes and intentions of your acquaintances, relatives and partners.
11. TYPES AND TECHNIQUES OF LISTENING
Each person wants to see in his interlocutor an attentive and friendly listener. Therefore, each of us is pleased to communicate not with those who can speak, but with those who can listen. Studies show that no more than 10% of people know how to listen to the interlocutor. It is no coincidence that one of the areas for improving the skills of managers in the leading countries of the world is effective listening courses.
One of the most important moments in any listening is feedback, thanks to which the interlocutor gets the feeling that he is not speaking into the void, but with a living person who listens and understands him. Moreover, in any statement there are at least two meaningful levels: informational and emotional.
The following listening methods can be distinguished:
1. Deaf silence (apparent lack of reaction) .2. Assent.3. "Echo reaction" - repetition of the last word of the interlocutor. 4. "Mirror" - repetition of the last phrase of the interlocutor with a change in word order. 5. "Paraphrase" - the transfer of the content of the partner's statement in other words. 6 Motivation. 7. Clarifying questions. 8. Leading questions.
9. Grades, advice. 10. Continuation (when the listener wedged into the remark, tries to complete the phrase, suggests words). 11. Emotions. 12. Irrelevant statements (not relevant or related only formally).
13. Logical consequences from the statements of the partner, an example of the assumption about the cause of the event. 14. "Rude reactions." 15. Questioning (asks question after question without explaining the purpose). 16. Neglect of the partner (does not pay attention to him, does not listen, ignores the partner, his words.
Usually there are 3 measures in listening:
Support;
clarification;
Commenting.
During support, the main goal is to enable a person to express his position. Appropriate reactions of the listener at this stage are silence, assent, emotional "accompaniment".
In the process of clarifying the goal: to make sure that you understand the interlocutor correctly, for this they ask clarifying, leading questions, a paraphrase is made.
When commenting, the listener expresses his opinion about what he heard: gives advice, assessments, comments.
12. ROLE BEHAVIOR IN ORGANIZATION
A role is a way of behavior set by society. The role consists of two basic foundations:
intentions;
requirements, expectations of other people regarding roles.
During the day, a person performs various roles. He is inclined to make decisions, to talk about problems that interest him, but most importantly, a person must learn not to put up with defeats. Therefore, it is necessary to constantly develop positive thinking, that is, a person must direct his efforts to solving the problems he faces.
The role theory of personality is a theory according to which a personality is described by means of social functions and patterns of behavior acquired and accepted by the subject or forced to perform, due to the social status of the individual in a given social group. The main provisions are formulated by J. Mead and R. Linton. The first focuses on the mechanisms of “role learning”, mastering roles in the process of interpersonal interaction, the second draws attention to the socio-cultural nature of role prescriptions and their connection with the social position of the individual, as well as to the maintenance of role requirements by a system of social and group sanctions.
Within the framework of the theory, such phenomena as “role conflict” are experimentally identified - the experience by the subject of ambiguity or confrontation of role requirements from different social communities, of which he is a member, which creates a stressful situation; integration and disintegration of the role structure of the personality - a consequence of the harmony or conflict of social relations; role set; role tension; adaptation to the role, etc.
Self-esteem affects the performance of the role, it is formed from childhood. By the age of 6, the child should learn to evaluate others and transfer to himself. In school years, there is an adjustment and further development of self-esteem.
There are 4 types of installations, in relation to others:
I am good - you are good - this is the most correct and productive attitude, since in most cases we are harmed not by intent, but by thoughtlessness;
I am good - you are bad - it is typical for those who are not capable of self-affirmation being created, they seek to place responsibility on other people's shoulders. Such people humiliate others.
I am bad - you are bad - such people lose the meaning of life, apathy for work, easily irritated.
Thus, it is rare when a person wholly and completely belongs to one or another installation. As a rule, a synthesis of such installations is observed.
13. DYNAMICS OF ROLE BEHAVIOR
Every person has to play many roles during their life. Ultimately, the role is either suitable or not, a person chooses different ways to behave in the role. The same person in different roles can produce a completely different impression. It also depends on the mood, experience, situation. It is impossible to learn all roles. Distinguish
intended (prescribed) - those roles that cannot be chosen and changed: gender, race;
selected (selected).
The learning of roles and the formation of a role in an organization is undergoing changes, and this depends on a number of factors (on changes in society).
The change of role is connected with the development of civilization and culture. Each person in this or that role absorbs certain patterns of behavior.
Thus, the development of a role is a process in the course of life and work of a person, which must be carried out in an ascending manner.
14. CONDITIONS FOR SUCCESSFUL ROLE BEHAVIOR
One of the reasons that can prevent successful role behavior is the lack of clarity and acceptability of the role. It begins to unfold with the first introductory conversation.
Causes of conflict barriers due to the role:
performance by the employee of several mutually exclusive roles;
The performance by the employee of a role that occupies a dual position in the organization;
role overload, when employees went beyond the scope of the role when performing the task.
Actions of the manager to eliminate role problems:
1. change of work - it is necessary to analyze the situation enough to change the state of work.
2. shift of workers;
3. unloading of roles;
4. create conditions for creative activity;
5. change your attitude towards people.
From the worker side:
1. understand the situation (conduct a deep analysis);
2. change your attitude horizontally or vertically.
15. SOCIAL ROLES
Relationships in a team arise between people as carriers of certain social roles, suggesting the constancy of behavior in accordance with a more or less clearly established standard.
A whole system of norms is necessary for the emergence of a role.
A social role is a set of norms that determine behavior in a given social position of a given social position. A person can form his individual image according to his role, predict his behavior in the role and foresee the result.
Social roles differ:
By gender - men and women;
According to the method of manifestation - active and latent;
According to the degree of standardization - standardized and freely interpreted;
In terms of importance - dominant and secondary.
Each role has associated rights and responsibilities. The role involves how to behave towards others and what can be expected from them. Certain rights, obligations and expectations are always associated with the role, and the individual who does not justify them is subject to sanctions, and the one who justifies them is encouraged. Different people often have different values, ideas about the same role and behave differently in it.
Role is a dynamic aspect of status. Status is a social rank that determines a person's place in the system of social relations. Possession of status allows a person to expect and demand certain attitudes from other people.
The influence of roles in a person's life is great and he gets used to his roles. The process of adaptation to the role is also carried out individually and the human brain strictly controls the actions, at such moments it controls what to say and how to act. To improve relationships between people, it is useful to use role inversion - the ability to put oneself in the place of another.
Roles in the team are divided into "production" (functional and social) and "interpersonal".
Specialists distinguish the following production roles:
coordinator - has the greatest organizational skills and, as a result, usually becomes the leader of the team, regardless of their knowledge and experience;
Idea generator - the most capable and talented member of the team, develops options for solving any problems facing the front;
controller - is not capable of thinking creatively, but due to deep knowledge, experience, erudition, he can properly evaluate any idea;
grinder - has a broad view of the problem;
Enthusiast - the most active member of the team;
Seeker of benefits - an intermediary in internal and external relations;
performer - conscientiously implements other people's ideas, but needs constant guidance;
assistant - a person who personally does not strive for anything.
It is believed that the team will function normally with the full distribution and conscientious performance of the listed roles. According to the roles associated with interpersonal relationships, team members are usually divided into leaders and followers. The first group is formed by preferred persons (“stars”, authoritative, ambitious, attractive people). The second includes all the rest, including those who are not preferred (neglected, outcasts), with whom they cooperate only involuntarily and make them responsible for everything.
16. TRANSACTIONAL ANALYSIS
Transactional or transactional analysis is a system of group psychotherapy in which the interaction of individuals is analyzed from the point of view of the three main states of the Self.
The founder of this trend in psychology and psychotherapy is the American psychologist and psychiatrist Eric Berne, who developed it in the 1950s. 20th century E. Bern singled out the subject of research and observation - human behavior. The method created by E.Bern is divided into several stages:
Structural analysis, or the theory of ego states;
· proper transactional analysis of activity and communication, based on the concept of "transaction" as the interaction of the ego-states of two individuals entering into communication (the ego-state is understood as the actual mode of existence of the I-subject);
analysis of psychological games;
Script analysis (analysis of a life scenario - "script").
E.Bern believed that each person has his own life scenario, the model of which is outlined in early childhood. People grow up, but in accordance with their life scenario they continue to play various games. The whole life of mankind is filled with games. According to E. Bern, the most terrible game is war. There are three I-States: I-Adult, I-Parent, I-Child. Group psychotherapy, according to E. Berne, should take shape at the Adult-Adult level. The head of the enterprise, the manager must learn to identify the states of the Adult both in his own consciousness and behavior, and in the consciousness and behavior of other people, especially subordinates, clients, partners, achieving communication at the Adult-Adult level.
Skillful possession of this method helps the manager to achieve effective communication. Communication will be effective when it is conducted in the same language, i.e. the Adult will talk to the Adult, the Child to the Child, the Parent to the Parent.
Distinguish between transactional analysis in the narrow and broad sense. In a narrow sense, it is an analysis of the interaction of two or more people, in a broad sense, it is a socially oriented psychotherapeutic method, the ultimate goal of which is the formation of a harmonious, socially adapted personality.
Structural analysis studies how much of a person's personality and actions this or that ego state occupies.
The ego-state Parent (R), according to E. Berne, reveals itself in such manifestations as control, prohibitions, ideal requirements, dogmas, sanctions, care, power. A parent is a collection of dogmas and postulates that a person perceives in childhood and which he then retains throughout his life. This is the dominant part of the personality. The parent is the most inert part of the human self, which always remains outside the zone of criticism. The parent influences the behavior of a person, performing the function of conscience.
An adult (B) is distinguished by his state - attentive, interested, aimed at searching for information. The facial expression of the Adult is pensive, attentive, open; intonations adequate to reality. Postures of a person with an ego-state Adult: the head and torso are tilted towards the interlocutor.
Child (Rb) - a set of norms that characterize a child from different angles: inattention, clumsiness. State changing from depressed to over-enthusiastic. Postures: spontaneous mobility, fingers clenched into fists.
In transactional analysis, interaction in communication is understood as an interaction of positions.
1) additional transactions - they adequately understand the situation and positions of each other.
2) Intersecting transactions - occur when there is an inadequacy of the assessment of the situation and contact, when one partner does not want to understand the other.
3) Hidden transactions - including two levels: expressed in words (verbal) and implied, psychological, the understanding of which is possible with sufficient knowledge of each other by partners.
17. SCHEME OF INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOR
External environment (down arrow) Freedom of choice (4 down arrows) Imagination - Conscience - Self-consciousness - Will (from all one down arrow) Reaction (down arrow) External physiological manifestations (down arrow) individual movements and gestures (down arrow) Actions
Proactive behavior, which is formed only by a person, involves the ability to choose a response to what is happening.
Human behavior is determined by:
1) motivation
2) perception
3) attitude
4) assimilation
18. BASICS OF MOTIVATION
The role of tools that cause the appearance of certain motives are incentives, which can be used as:
Separate items.
Actions of other people.
Promises;
Bearers of obligations and opportunities;
Opportunities provided, etc.
Incentives have various forms, but in management practice, one of its most common forms is material incentives, since the role of this incentive process is exceptionally large. The fundamental difference between stimulation and motivation is that stimulation is only one of the means by which motivation can be carried out. From the point of view of management, it is very important not only to know the direction of a person’s actions, but also to be able, if necessary, with the help of motivation, to orient these actions in the direction of certain goals.
19. APPLICATION IN THE PRACTICE OF MANAGEMENT OF THE CONTENT THEORY OF MOTIVATION
The very first method of motivation, which arose thousands of years ago, was the “carrot and stick” method. This method provides only two forms of influence on the employee - either encouragement or punishment, regardless of the personality characteristics of the individual.
In the 1930s, the theory of “human relations” was developed (Z. Freud, E. Mayo). In the 1940s, substantive theories of motivation were formed, and in the 1960s, process theories of motivation were developed.
In the development of theories of motivation, two main patterns should be distinguished:
individualization of approach to each employee;
An increase in the number of factors influencing labor motivation.
A need is a perceived need, a lack of something. Needs serve as a motive for action.
1. Hierarchical theory of needs
In 1940, Abraham Maslow proposed a theory of human needs.
He identified five hierarchical levels of needs:
1. Physiological needs (needs for water, food, sexual needs, etc.).
2. Needs for security and confidence in the future (needs for physical and social security, protection, stability).
3. Social needs (needs for communication, love, belonging to a group, etc.).
4. Needs for respect and recognition (the need for evaluation by others, for prestige, respect, recognition of professional competence, attractiveness, etc.).
5. Needs for self-expression and self-development.
Application of the theory
1. Knowledge of the hierarchy of needs requires the manager, first of all, to determine which level of the hierarchy is most relevant for the employee. For example, the director has two secretaries. One is the daughter of a prominent businessman, who is not interested in wages, the attractiveness of work for her is connected with the interesting people around her and the signs of attention that they give her. Another husband has lost his job, and she has to provide for a family of four alone. In the first case, the work satisfies the needs of the third and fourth levels, in the second - the first level.
2. Hierarchy of needs allows you to understand that the levels of actual needs of employees may vary. For one subordinate, a few phrases from the boss are enough, marking his great contribution to the common cause, in order to double his efforts, for another, neither praise nor very high material rewards serve as motivating factors.
3. This concept helps the organization determine the sequence of motivating employees, taking into account not only physiological needs, but also the needs of higher levels.
4. Accounting for the dynamism of needs. (You cannot expect a motivation that worked once to work effectively all the time.)
Motivating factors actively influence human behavior and increase labor motivation.
20. APPLICATION IN THE PRACTICE OF MANAGEMENT PROCESS THEORIES OF MOTIVATION
1. Theory X and Theory Y
Douglas MacGregor describes the traditional view of the human factor in manufacturing as "Theory X", which includes several theses regarding the average person:
He is lazy by nature - works as little as possible. He has no ambition, he does not like responsibility, he prefers to be controlled. He is very egocentric, indifferent to the interests of the organization. By nature, he tends to resist change. He is gullible, not very smart, ready to be deceived by any charlatan or demagogue.
According to D. McGregory, the theory of U is more in line with the current situation. This theory is based on the assumption that employees love to work, are creative in their approach to business, seek responsibility and can direct their activities independently. People are not passive by nature, they become so only as a result of working in a particular organization. Leaders have a responsibility to ensure that people can develop their inherent good qualities. An important task is to create in the organization such conditions under which people could more easily achieve both their own goals and the goals of the organization.
2. The theory of goal-setting proceeds from the fact that the employee's understanding of the goal activates the need for achievement, stimulates performance. The development of goals contributes to the improvement of the activities of individual employees and groups.
3. The theory of justice (J. Adams, 1970) establishes that people determine for themselves the ratio of the reward received and the effort expended and correlate it with the reward of other people doing similar work. If the comparison shows an imbalance, i.e. a person believes that his colleague received more remuneration for the same work, then he experiences psychological stress. It is necessary to motivate this employee, relieve tension, restore justice.
Main conclusion. Until people begin to believe that they are getting a fair remuneration, they will tend to reduce the intensity of work. A vivid illustration of this theory can be considered a decrease in the efforts of public sector employees in Russia, due to a long delay in wages caused by a budget deficit.
4. Expectancy theory
In 1964, Victor Vroom laid out the foundations of a new motivational theory - the theory of expectations. He argued that the leader must know three things related to the effectiveness of the activities of individuals and the organization as a whole:
a person believes that the results obtained depend on his efforts (З→Р)
the person believes that the reward will correspond to the results obtained (P → B)
For a person, the reward should be significant (V - valency - satisfaction with the reward).
The degree of labor motivation (M) can be expressed by the formula:
М=(З→Р)* (Р→В)* V
If one of these points is violated, the efficiency of the worker is reduced. Summarized, these provisions can be presented in the following form:
effort -> performance -> reward -> need for performance
Thus, the application of procedural theories of motivation enables the manager to take into account not only the needs of the staff, but also their perception of the current situation, as well as the possible consequences of the chosen type of behavior.
21. RULES OF EFFECTIVE MOTIVATION
1) Only what is asked is done - only what is measurable is done - only what is rewarded is done
2) During the working day, people do what they will communicate
MOTHER'S RULE: If you (when you) - do it - then you can do it
3) If the efficiency of the quality of work does not improve, then reinforcements do not work
4) Have a clear idea at what stage of what cycle of motivation is subordination.
22. PROCESS OF PERCEPTION
The process of perception is the process by which a person selects, limits and interprets information to create his own picture of the world around him.
1) Selective perception - people who notice stimuli are associated with existing needs (those that they expect, those that are rarely different from others)
2) Selective distortion - people who notice annoyance may perceive information differently than the sender intended, and interpret it in such a way as to support, rather than challenge, beliefs.
3) Selective memorization - only that info that can be convinced is remembered.
23. THEORY OF ATRIBUTION
In this theory, the factors that determine behavior are divided into 2 internal and external.
The accuracy of defining attributes depends on the following points:
1) Distinctness - consists in the fact that various actions of a person can be considered as ordinary behavior and as unusual behavior. If the behavior is seen as normal, then it is perceived as a consequence of internal attributes. If the behavior is seen as unusual, then it is perceived as a consequence of external attributes.
2) Consensus - behavior corresponds to a high consensus when other people in the initial situation behave in a similar way. High consensus corresponds to external attribution, and low consensus corresponds to internal attribution.
30 Consistency - This behavior often exhibits high consistency due to internal attribution and low consistency due to external attribution.
24. BEHAVIOR MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES
The most common methods are:
1) Positive reinforcement - after the employee implements his behavior, the management encourages him.
2) Negative reinforcement - is a consequence of something unpleasant that a person would like to avoid. Negative reinforcement reinforces and increases the likelihood of a behavior by blocking or discouraging unwanted consequences.
25. MAIN STRATEGIES FOR MANAGING INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOR
Management of the behavior of the organization should be carried out taking into account the phase of the life cycle of the organization (LLC). The phases of the life cycle are predictable changes in the state of the organization that occur in time with a certain sequence (from birth, flourishing to cessation of existence or radical modernization).
According to the model of organizational development of L. Greiner (1972), there are five stages (phases) of the life cycle of an organization, separated from each other by moments of organizational crises.
The first stage: the birth of the organization - the definition of the main goal and the desire to maximize profits, the realization of the creative potential of the founders of the organization. The organizational structure is informal, resulting in a leadership crisis. The main task of the first stage is to enter the market and survive.
The second stage: childhood and adolescence - short-term profit and accelerated growth. A bureaucratic management structure is being formed, which leads to the suppression of the autonomy of departments. The main task of the second stage is to strengthen and capture part of the market.
The third stage: maturity - systematic, balanced growth, the formation of an individual image of the organization, decentralization of leadership and delegation of authority. Development is ensured through structural adjustment, which subsequently leads to a crisis of control. The main task is to diversify the activities of the organization.
The fourth stage: the aging of the organization (the highest stage of maturity) - the preservation of the results achieved, changes in the system for coordinating the functioning of the organization's divisions. In the structure of the organization, strategic divisions are distinguished with high independence, which subsequently becomes the cause of the crisis of borders. The main task is to ensure the stability and preservation of the organization.
Fifth stage: the revival of the organization - the desire to revive the organization, the expansion of cooperation. A new impetus to development is given by the creation of a team of like-minded people in the organization. The main task is the rejuvenation and revival of the organization. This stage may culminate in a crisis of "organizational fatigue" or trust. This stage is not the last in the life of the organization. It only indicates the logical completeness of a certain type of organizational development. A sixth stage may then follow, based on a dual structure: a "habitual" structure to ensure the performance of daily routine operations and a "reflective" structure to stimulate promising activities and personal development.
Each stage is distinguished by the peculiarities of the behavior of the personnel and the organization as a whole, the style of management, development goals and ways to achieve them. Management of the behavior of the organization should be focused on the reorganization of management structures. Organizational structures must change as the firm's objectives change. An imperfect structure leads to conflicts, disruption of normal operation, "role uncertainty", which leads to a decrease in the performance and profitability of the organization.
In general terms, the effectiveness of the organization refers to the ability to achieve the goals at the lowest cost. In connection with the complication of the tasks of managing a modern organization, a new concept of a highly effective organization is being formed. Thus, the process of managing the behavior of an organization should be aimed at the formation of a high-performing organization - an organization capable of achieving high-performing ones.
26. WAYS OF INFLUENCE ON PERFORMANCE
1) Alternative work schedule - provides for the rejection of a fixed work schedule, the replacement of which is proposed by an alternative:
Compressed work week
Flexible working hours (4-6 hours at work)
2) Reducing routine in work:
Constructiveness at work
Constant change in the pace of work
Expansion of the number of employees, combination of operations
Employee generalizations
27. SOCIO-PSYCHOLOGICAL MODEL OF BEHAVIOR
In modern Russian psychology, in particular, the Lomov School (Moscow State University), where they study the psychological characteristics of the activities of small groups. Aircraft and spacecraft crews are taken as the object of study. The results obtained are fully tied to organizations, since the number of high-risk situations and other indicators for modern business in Russia and space flights is the same.
Conducted studies have shown that during long-term joint work, interpersonal interaction and external communication become 2-3 times more important than other factors. In addition, with an increase in the complexity of the tasks performed, with their group solution, there is a greater stability of the temporal and stressful characteristics of actions.
To characterize the behavior of workers in a group, it is necessary to know the main group characteristics:
The level and dynamics of the psychological mood of the group;
organizational abilities of the group as a complex subject of activity in the conditions of uncertainty and instability of the organization;
highlighting the characteristics of leaders;
adequacy of self-determination of the individual and the group (role);
the degree of conformity of organizational and group relations to activities;
sources of tension in the group.
1. Personal level
Psychological features:
The individual's perception of the world around him. It influences behavior through values, principles, beliefs.
· Criteria base sets the priorities of behavior. It consists of a disposition towards people, events, processes, a set of values, beliefs and principles.
Individual traits and characteristics of a person's character that directly affect behavior: hereditary and physiological characteristics of a person; character, environmental factors.
Social features:
circle of communication, official and personal;
role, a set of actions depending on psychological characteristics and place in the management hierarchy;
· Status - assessment by others of the personality of the subject and the role used by him.
Each person is a person whose individuality is determined by life experience, refracted through the characteristics of the personality and manifested through the person's attitude to the surrounding phenomena and the originality of his internal mental functions.
Conventionally, one can speak of the internal, socio-psychological structure of the personality and its external structure as belonging to social groups.
The internal structure of the personality includes a number of substructures:
a) the psychological environment that has developed in the mind of the individual: a system of needs, interests, claims, value orientations, ideals, beliefs, worldview;
b) psychological means, the possibility of realization (abilities) of the individual: experience, skills, abilities;
c) mental properties of a person: character, emotions, will, thinking, memory, imagination, etc.;
d) physiological, hereditary qualities: temperament.
2. Group
Psychological features: psychological climate - the real state of interaction between people as participants in joint activities; conformism. Social features: status-role relations; professional-qualification relations.
Thus, being intermediate between individual and collective relationships, group relationships have specific characteristics that have a great influence on the model of organizational behavior.
The main problem of managing groups and group relationships is to determine the optimal combination of group and organizational interests in which labor factors motivating groups will be most effective.
28. THE CONCEPT OF A GROUP AND THE CLASSIFICATION OF GROUPS
A group is a real-life formation in which people are brought together according to common signs of joint activity and in a certain way are aware of their belonging to this formation.
Uniting in groups for joint activities, problems appear, tasks that cannot be solved. It can also be interpersonal relationships. Uniting in groups, they experience this effect. People come together in groups to do a certain job. The group affects the individual and the individual affects the group. The problem may be that in the process of activities with other people, people behave differently than when alone with themselves.
Signs of a social group:
general purpose and objectives of the activity;
The internal organization
group values;
own sign of isolation;
group pressure;
· consolidation of traditions, symbols.
Classification:
a real group, an association of people that exists in a common space.
conditional group, an association of people for research on a certain basis.
· a laboratory group, created for research and determined based on the needs of the group.
large groups, social communities, united on the basis of certain characteristics. They can be unorganized (rally) and spontaneous - they are organized according to national, class, gender characteristics.
· small groups - small groups can be official, but do not have legal status.
· Formal groups stand out as structural subdivisions, have a formal leader, group positions, role structure, functions, tasks. Formal groups exist within formally accepted organizations. Informal, created spontaneously in accordance with their sympathies. Allocate such as corporations and collectives.
Corporations are groups of randomly assembled people that lack cohesion. It is not very useful, and sometimes harmful.
The collective is the highest form of group organization in which interpersonal relations are mediated by the individual.
The goals of a person's entry into an informal group are often not realized, but they can be:
realization of the need for communication;
search for protection
The need for help
· personal sympathies;
desire for new sensations;
Fulfillment of the need for belonging.
We need to see the positive that informal groups can bring. Very often belonging to an informal group is a stronger factor than higher wages in a neighboring organization.
It is necessary to take into account the negative manifestations of informal groups. They often behave in unpredictable ways, they consume the resources of working time, give rise to rumors and create other situations that are unfavorable for the formal organization.
29. MAIN CHARACTERISTICS OF THE GROUPS
The main characteristics of the group
Composition (age; professional and social characteristics)
Structure (communications; preferences; power; emotional; interpersonal relations and its connection with the functional structure of group activity). The structure is based on status-role relations, professionally qualified characteristics and gender and age composition.
Status is determined by a number of factors: seniority; job title; location of offices; education; social talents; awareness; accumulation of experience.
Role characteristics are determined by two sides: human behavior; his assessment. Assessment of behavior in a role is given by self-assessment and other people. For the effective operation of the team, it is necessary that all roles complement each other, that is, the same role can perform several functions, and there may be conflicts. Professionally qualified characteristics include education, professional level.
group processes. Group processes include those that organize the activities of the group and are associated with the development of the group.
Group norms and values; Group norms are the rules that are developed by groups to which its members obey, it is the norms that influence people's behavior.
The norms help people in this group determine what behavior and what work is expected of them, if they are observed, assuming that a person belongs to the group, and if he opposes, then the norms can carry both a positive and a negative picture. Norms are associated with values that are formed on the basis of a certain attitude.
The values of a social group may not coincide, may be correlated differently with the norms, so the task of the manager is to identify the hierarchy of values.
system of sanctions.
30. INTERACTION PERSON AND GROUP
The interaction of a person and a group is always bilateral in nature: a person, through his work, through his actions, contributes to the solution of group problems, but the group also has a great influence on a person, helping him to satisfy his needs of security, love, respect, self-expression, personality formation, elimination of worries, etc. P. It is noted that in groups with good relationships, with an active intra-group life, people have better health and better morals, they are better protected from external influences and work more efficiently than people who are in an isolated state or in “sick” groups affected by insoluble conflicts and instability. . The group protects the individual, supports him and teaches both the ability to perform tasks and the norms and rules of behavior in the group.
But the group not only helps a person to survive and improve his professional qualities. The impact of the group on a person has many manifestations.
Significant changes in human behavior that occur under the influence of the group.
Changes in such characteristics of a person as perception, motivation, sphere of attention, rating system, etc. A person expands the scope of his attention by increasing attention to the interests of other members of the group. His life is dependent on the actions of his colleagues, and this significantly changes his view of himself, his place in the environment and others.
In a group, a person receives a certain relative "weight". The group not only distributes tasks and roles, but also determines the relative position of each. Group members can do exactly the same job, but have a different "weight" in the group.
The group helps the individual gain a new vision of his "I". A person begins to identify himself with the group, and this leads to significant changes in his worldview, in understanding his place in the world and his destiny.
Being in a group, participating in discussions and developing solutions, a person can also give out suggestions and ideas that he would never give out if he thought about the problem alone. The effect of brainstorming on a person significantly increases the creative potential of a person.
It is noted that in a group a person is much more inclined to take risks than in a situation where he acts alone. In some cases, this feature of changing human behavior is the source of more effective and active behavior of people in a group environment than if they acted alone.
Being in interaction with the group, a person tries in various ways to influence it, to make changes in its functioning so that it is acceptable for him, convenient for him and allows him to cope with his duties. Naturally, both the form of influence and the degree of influence of a person on a group significantly depend both on his personal characteristics, his ability to influence, and on the characteristics of the group. The interaction of a person with a group can be either in the nature of cooperation, or merger, or conflict. For each form of interaction, a different degree of manifestation can be observed. That is, for example, we can talk about a hidden conflict, a weak conflict, or an unresolvable conflict.
31. PROCESS OF FORMATION OF MOTIVATIONAL PROGRAMS
The problem of the economic interest of employees in improving the final results of the organization remains one of the most important. The readiness and desire of a person to perform their work qualitatively is a key factor in the success of the functioning of the organization itself.
Effective management of a person is possible only with proper motivation of his activity, only through the motives underlying his actions. It is necessary to know what caused certain motives, how and in what ways they can be put into action, how the process of motivating people is carried out.
Under the motivation of a person to activity is understood a set of internal and external driving forces that encourage a person to act, set the boundaries and forms, and the direction of these actions, focused on achieving certain goals.
Its main elements are:
· subjects and objects of motivation, as well as a system of social factors that determine the economic behavior of people. The latter, in turn, include creativity, motives, needs, incentives, attitudes, value orientations, interests and goals;
External motivators, or incentives, of economic behavior, socio-political conditions, financial and tax policy, legal, housing and family conditions, spiritual environment, natural and geographical environment, etc.
Motives are things that cause certain actions of a person. They not only encourage a person to act, but also determine what needs to be done and how this action will be carried out. Motives are personal in nature and depend on a variety of external and internal factors in relation to a person, as well as on the action of other motives that arise in parallel with them.
Human behavior is usually determined by a set of motives that are in some relationship with each other in terms of the degree of impact on a person. The motivational structure of a person formed in this way can be considered as the basis for the implementation of purposeful actions by him. Although the motivational structure of a person has a certain stability, it can change consciously due to changes taking place in his personality. The role of tools that cause the appearance of certain motives are stimuli, which can be used as: individual objects. the actions of other people. promises; bearers of obligations and opportunities; opportunities provided, etc.
Incentives - this is what is offered to a person in compensation for his activities or what he would like to receive as a result of certain actions. At the same time, a person's reaction to stimuli can be both conscious and unconscious, and his reaction to individual stimuli may not even be subject to conscious control.
Incentives have various forms, but in management practice, one of its most common forms is material incentives, since the role of this incentive process is exceptionally large. At the same time, it is very important to take into account the specific circumstances under which material incentives are provided. Exaggeration of its capabilities must be avoided. This is due to the fact that a person has a very complex and ambiguous system of needs, interests, priorities and goals.
The fundamental difference between stimulation and motivation is that stimulation is only one of the means by which motivation can be carried out. The higher the level of development of relations in the organization, the less often incentives are used as a means of managing people. This is due to the fact that using upbringing and training as one of the methods of motivating people, it is possible to ensure that the members of the organization themselves show an interested participation in the affairs of the organization, carrying out the necessary actions. without waiting or without receiving the appropriate stimulating effect at all.
From the point of view of management, it is very important not only to know the direction of a person’s actions, but also to be able, if necessary, with the help of motivation, to orient these actions in the direction of certain goals.
Thus, motivation in a more specific sense can be considered as a set of forces that encourage a person to carry out activities with the expenditure of certain efforts, at a certain level of diligence and conscientiousness, with a certain degree of perseverance towards achieving certain goals.
32. CONCEPT AND BASIC THEORIES OF LEADERSHIP
Leadership is the process of influencing individuals or groups of people to achieve their goals. Leadership is the most important factor in the organizational behavior management system. As a socio-economic phenomenon, leadership in its development has gone through a long evolutionary path, during which it was based on physical, generic, intellectual, economic and other features. It represents the historically established social need of people to organize their joint activities. According to A. Roddick, “leadership is the ability to awaken in employees the dream they will strive for, “breathe” into them the energy necessary for movement.”
A leader is a person (group of persons) who can have a real influence on the behavior of employees. The formal leader is not always the leader. The nomination of a leader is influenced by objective and subjective factors (situation, personal aspiration). The defining features in the assessment and support of the leader by the group are: vigor, determination, perseverance, enthusiasm, ambition, abilities and knowledge, justice, self-confidence, etc.
Basic Leadership Theories
There are several approaches to the study of leadership.
The approach from the position of personal qualities (1930s) explains leadership by the presence of a certain set of personal qualities common to all leaders. However, in practice, the existence of a standard set of qualities that leads to success in all situations has not been confirmed.
The behavioral approach (1940-50s) considers leadership as a set of patterns of behavior of a leader in relation to subordinates.
The situational approach (early 1960s) argues that situational factors play a decisive role in the effectiveness of leadership, while not rejecting the importance of personal and behavioral characteristics.
Modern approaches (1990s) postulate the effectiveness of adaptive leadership - reality-oriented leadership. It means the application of all known management styles, methods and ways of influencing people, in accordance with a specific situation. This allows us to interpret leadership not only as a science, but also as an art of management.,
One of the most common is the theory of leadership by K. Levin (1938). She identifies three leadership styles:
Authoritarian - characterized by rigidity, exactingness, unity of command, the prevalence of power functions, strict control and discipline, focus on results, ignoring socio-psychological factors;
Democratic - relies on collegiality, trust, informing subordinates, initiative, creativity, self-discipline, consciousness, responsibility, encouragement, publicity, orientation not only on results, but also on ways to achieve them;
Liberal - characterized by low demands, connivance, lack of discipline and exactingness, the passivity of the leader and the loss of control over subordinates, giving them complete freedom of action.
33. TYPES AND FUNCTIONS OF LEADERS
1. Leader-organizer. Its main difference is that it perceives the needs of the team as its own and actively acts. This leader is optimistic and confident that most problems can be solved.
2. Leader-creator. It attracts, first of all, the ability to see the new, to take on the solution of problems that may seem unresolved and even dangerous.
3. Leader-wrestler. Strong-willed, self-confident person. The first to face danger or the unknown, without hesitation enters the fight.
4. Leader-diplomat. He relies on an excellent knowledge of the situation and its hidden details, is aware of gossip and gossip, and therefore knows well whom and how to influence.
5. Comforter leader. To reach out to him because he is ready to support in difficult times. Respects people, treats them kindly, politely, helpfully, capable of empathy.
Informal leaders can be divided into three types:
· business (instrumental) enjoys recognition in the team, has a high qualification level, successful performance of the duties assigned to him. He takes the initiative in solving the problem situation in accordance with group goals and has the appropriate knowledge, information, skills and methods.
Everyone turns to the information leader with questions, because he is an erudite person, knows everything, can explain and help find the necessary information.
An emotional leader is a person to whom each person in a group can turn for sympathy and compassion. He takes on the functions of a group mood in problem situations.
From the position of group activity, the functions of an informal leader are reduced to two main ones: setting, maintaining goals, customs, traditions; motivation of group members' behavior in accordance with group norms.
34. ORGANIZATIONAL CLIMATE
The organizational climate, in contrast to the organizational culture, contains less stable characteristics and criteria that determine the climate mainly come from people, from employees and depend on subjective and objective factors: mood, character, health status, satisfaction of needs, understanding and attitude to work. The climate in each department is built in its own way, and there are no such departments where there would be identical organizational climates. An external factor influencing the climate is changes in the organization.
When designing an organization, the psychological climate of each department is formed through certain stages. This is especially noticeable when random people get into the department. The psychological climate of the organization is sensitive to management styles.
The organizational climate is associated with organizational culture, and under its influence, contradictions that arise both vertically and horizontally can be eliminated.
Thus, the formation of the organizational climate is influenced by both external and internal factors, and the main determinants are:
Management values, the values of managers and the peculiarities of their perception by employees are important for the climate in the organization;
economic conditions;
The organizational structure, it should be understood as a management structure, as a set of specialized, functioning units, interconnected in the process of substantiation, development, adoption and implementation of management decisions. Changes in organizational structure often result in significant climate change in the organization;
Characteristics of the members of the organization;
The size of the organization; It has been established that large organizations are characterized by greater rigidity and bureaucracy than small ones. It is easier to achieve a high level of cohesion in small companies than in large ones;
job content – this should be understood as the result of knowledge about a particular job in a particular organization. The point is that the title of the work should reflect its content and should be implemented. The applicant for this or that role must know to whom he reports. If a person does not know to whom to report and what role he performs, this indicates a weak organizational culture. For whom the employee is directly responsible, the overall purpose of the organization and the main activities. It follows from this that employees must clearly understand
The significance of the work, its order, reporting, relationship with other processes, links.
Management style, which is reduced to a set of the most characteristic and sustainable methods for solving typical problems and developing managerial decisions, taking into account the peculiarities of mutual understanding of officials subordinate to this leader.
35. ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE AND ITS PARAMETERS
Organizational culture is, first of all, a characteristic of an organization, which includes a complex of stably existing criteria, traits. For the first time, organizational culture as a category of management was developed in the 80s in the USA. A significant influence on the formation of the concept was provided by such scientific areas as research in the field of construction management, organization theory and research on organizational behavior.
Organizational culture is the prevailing in the organization and shared by the majority of its members a set of values, norms and principles that allows you to identify the organization in the external environment and achieve effective internal integration.
Studies of group behavior have shown that under the influence of organizational culture, the behavior of its individual members is formed, since organizational culture is built by people working in the organization and has individual features (there is no organization with the same culture). It should be noted that the basis of organizational culture is, first of all, the needs of people, the needs of the organization. Therefore, controlling the direction of change, adjusting the organizational culture, it is necessary to identify the needs of the individual, the organization.
Organizational culture has an impact on the effectiveness of the organization as a whole, but it is important to note that it manifests itself in the activities of people, primarily management personnel, in the structure of the organization, as well as the processes taking place in it. Research results have shown that organizational culture can contribute to the survival of the organization, achieving the highest results, but can lead to bankruptcy. That is, a modern leader needs to theoretically comprehend the parameters of organizational culture, but also be able to apply them in practice. This is especially true for senior managers who need to delve deeply into the essence of the internal and external environment, in particular public relations.
Organizational culture consists of the following components:
Philosophy that defines the meaning of the existence of the organization and its relationship to employees and customers; the dominant values on which the organization is based;
Norms shared by employees of the organization; the rules by which the “game” is played in the organization; the climate that exists in the organization and manifests itself in what the atmosphere is in the organization;
Behavioral rituals expressed in the organization of certain ceremonies.
36. PROPERTIES, FUNCTIONS AND DIAGNOSIS OF ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE
1. Joint work generates proposals from employees about organizational values and ways to follow these values.
2. Generality. Prefers not only knowledge, values, attitudes, customs, but also many other things used by the group to meet the existing needs of the members of this group.
3. The main elements of the culture of the organization do not require proof, they themselves, of course.
4. Hierarchy and priority. Every culture offers a ranking of values.
5. Consistency, it is assumed that organizational culture is a system and each link in the system can cause certain complications in achieving the goal and cause failures in the management of the existence and development of the organization.
Thus, these properties of organizational culture can destroy the organization or, on the contrary, elevate it.
The formation of organizational culture involves:
Defining the mission and core values of the organization;
Participation of personnel in the managerial impact on culture;
Formulation of employee behavior standards;
Development of traditions, symbols, history of the company;
Involvement of internal and external specialists;
Conducting corporate seminars, trainings, role-playing and psychological games, etc.
Organizational culture performs the following functions:
External (adaptation)
Internal (integration)
Organizational culture is associated with history, legend, symbolism, etc. The history of the development of the company - the values, traditions that are passed on to the newcomer. Based on the life of the company, new employees are given the opportunity to understand the main mission of the organization, the features of mutual understanding of its members. The situation he heard helps to comprehend the existing disputes of the impact on the mistakes that can be made by him and warned in time.
The symbols of the organization are of great importance in the formation of culture, emphasizing the belonging of people to a single whole.
Diagnostics of organizational culture is an opportunity for a specialist to study documents, provisions of the organization, reporting material. This is possible in a situation of confidential communication with people at all levels. The information obtained can be presented in the form of tables, graphs, creating a profile of organizational culture, which includes the content of values, their consistency. The results obtained in organizational culture depend on and directly indicate the features of management.
Managing organizational culture means shaping, strengthening and changing it.
37. ALGORITHM OF PSYCHOLOGICAL RESTRUCTURING
For the conditions for the implementation of work in a new team, a complex psychological restructuring is often necessary; this algorithm must begin with the construction of an ideal final result. For construction, the Levy method is used, such constructions are called. zebras, because they have a black and white list.
Table 1. Estimated zebra.
The first column - advantages, the second - disadvantages.
Analyzing this table, a table "Zebra B - target" is constructed, in which there are also 2 columns, 1 - ideals, 2 - goals.
Algorithm:
1) understand for yourself the essence of the new work and the qualities necessary for it
2) learn
3) assess the level of their own need to do a new thing
4) leave the thought of a new activity
5) Build the perfect end result for yourself
6) assess the degree of discrepancy between the ideal and the real
7) decide to rebuild according to the ideal end result
8) draw up an individual rebuilding program for each factor
9) start implementing the program, moving from more significant factors to less significant ones
10) involve the closest assistants of employees in the same work
Implementation of implicit goals requires additional study and analysis, which can be implemented using the introspection tree.
The 3xA principle for active engagement:
1. appearance
3. attitude
38. PARADIGMS OF INTERACTION
Correctly building interaction between people means choosing the right paradigm, which is m / b different for different situations. These paradigms proceed from the fact that no matter what position a person holds, they are not independent, they are constantly in a state of dependence with other people, which means that they find themselves in the position of a person influencing other people.
Paradigms:
1) won - won (disposition to seek mutual benefit of people)
2) won - lost (winning one - losing the other) is typical for an authoritarian leadership style
3) lost - won (she does not have her own criteria, such people are ready to please, they easily fall under the influence)
4) lost - lost (occurs inevitably when two people converge with "win-lose" attitudes)
5) won (this alternative is inherent in people who do not necessarily wish others to lose, this approach is most often found in everyday negotiations)
6) won - won, or "do not mess" (give up the agreement and remain in neutral interaction with each other)
The goal of the paradigm is to unify all stimuli.
Stages of creating a paradigm:
1. analysis of methods and forms of incentives for employees and the possibility of their use in specific conditions
2. analysis of actual needs and job satisfaction of employees
3. Comparison of analysis results
4. choice of methods and forms of stimulation
5. introduction of a motivational program
6. checking the effectiveness and methods of stimulation, as well as correction, if necessary.
39. BEHAVIOR MANAGEMENT IN ORGANIZATION
The modern organization is a dynamically developing system. In the EP, socio-economic organizations are analyzed - planned, intentionally created social formations designed to solve economic problems.
Organizational behavior is homeostatic, i.e. able to maintain the most important parameters within acceptable limits in the event of unexpected changes, disorders and complications. Organizations counteract disruptive influences and enhance beneficial influences by maintaining the stability of their internal environment and external relations and ensuring their development. The ability to self-preservation and development in the long term is called superstability.
The behavior of the organization in modern conditions should be analyzed in the context of the features and patterns of its interaction with the external and internal environment. In this regard, the adaptability of the organization as the ability to adapt its behavior to diverse changes in external and internal factors is of particular importance.
The choice of a specific form of behavior of the organization determines its optimality - the use of rational means and activities. This forms the effectiveness of the organization, which as a whole can be defined as the achievement of goals at the lowest cost.
An analysis of an organization's behavior requires an analysis of its relationships with various entities: the state, founders, consumers, suppliers, employees, management, etc. At the same time, assessments of the organization's behavior made from different positions may be contradictory. To increase the objectivity and reliability of the analysis of the organization's behavior, it is necessary to conduct it regularly, based on modern ideas about the patterns and mechanisms of organizational behavior.
Any organization is a dual unity of managerial relations - formal and personalized.
Formalized relationships - orient workers to establish and comply with strict requirements, providing top-down impact.
Formalized managerial relations can be:
Autocratic - employees obey the will of the leader;
Technocratic - workers are subject to the production process;
Bureaucratic - employees obey the organizational order to the detriment of the interests of the case.
Personalized relationships - focus on "soft" requirements, providing employees with independence in solving problems.
They can be:
Democratic - involving personnel in the management of the organization;
Humanistic - focused on human relations;
Innovative - encouraging creativity and innovation in the organization.
The behavior of the organization should be oriented towards a harmonious combination of formalized and personalized attitudes and orientations in order to establish cooperation in the organization. Cooperation is assessed as an integral characteristic of the organization's behavior, the basis of partnership, equality, solidarity, mutual respect and responsibility.
Cooperation indicators are:
Efficiency - the degree of achievement of a common goal;
Efficiency - the rationality of achieving the goal;
Meaningfulness - the perception of the goal and readiness for joint efforts;
Ethics is a means to an end.
Studying the behavior of an organization requires an analysis of its demographic parameters. This approach is based on the biological theory of A. Marshall's company, which represents organizational development based on the method of biological analogies: organizations, like living organisms, are born, develop, and are liquidated. The dynamics of these processes in today's highly competitive environment is very high. The experience of many countries shows that up to 80% of firms live no more than 3-5 years. This situation is due to the fact that the market economy has a Darwinian nature: organizations succeed when they satisfy the desires of consumers more effectively than their competitors.
40. PRINCIPLES OF MARKETING IN ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR
In modern economic practice, the relationship of the organization with the majority of market entities should be based on the principles of marketing. Marketing is the activity of identifying and meeting the needs of the market for a variety of goods and services. Marketing should be considered as an economic, social, managerial and technological process based on the following basic principles:
Constant study of the state and dynamics of the market,
Adaptation to market conditions, taking into account the requirements and capabilities of end users,
Active formation of the market in the directions necessary for the organization.
Management of the organization's behavior based on the principles of marketing should ensure work in a dynamic, continuous (ring) mode, which ensures the organization's flexibility and adaptability to turbulent changes in the market environment.
The purpose of managing the organization's behavior based on the principles of marketing is to determine the promising areas of the organization's activities in the market that provide the organization's competitive advantages with minimal resources.
Behavioral marketing in a broad sense means the orientation of behavior to the market. Behavioral marketing in the activities of the organization is the activity of managing the behavior of individuals, groups and the organization as a whole in their interaction with market entities based on the principles of marketing.
Behavioral marketing integrates the activities of all structural elements of the organization, individual actions and tools, processes occurring in the organization, and orients them to market needs. At the same time, behavioral marketing defines the market as the interaction of all environmental factors that affect the performance of the organization.
Anticipating the development of the situation, adapting to changes means developing, competing, and achieving success. Successful existence is possible only taking into account the most complex interweaving of the changing external and internal environments of the organization, global trends in the development of society.
Behavioral marketing has a significant impact on organizational behavior, which is reflected in the organization's relationship system:
1) in the external environment (with consumers, suppliers, intermediaries, competitors, partners, owners, management bodies, the public);
2) in the internal environment (intrapersonal, interpersonal, intergroup, personal-group, intraorganizational relations).
The marketing approach in organizational behavior is implemented on the basis of a situational approach, i.e. taking into account the synergistic interaction (at every moment) of all factors of the external and internal environment of the organization.
Behavioral marketing is based on a client-oriented ideology that determines the behavior of staff and the organization as a whole. Moreover, a new meaning is being put into the concept of "client", it does not mean only a direct buyer (consumer) of a product or service.
41. MANAGING THE BEHAVIOR OF THE ORGANIZATION'S CUSTOMER
An important component of organizational behavior is the attitude towards the clientele of the organization (consumers, buyers, partners). The formation of this component should also be based on the principles of the marketing concept of management.
There are four types of behavior of employees in relation to the clientele of the organization.
Clientele type of behavior - the behavior of the staff, focused on the full and comprehensive satisfaction of customer requests and their active involvement in mutually beneficial relationships. It is most characteristic of the marketing orientation of the firm. In its formation, the following are of great importance: the meeting of clients, the manner of communication, its form and content, the professionalism of the staff and other elements that create a positive attitude and a constructive atmosphere of business communication.
Anti-client type of behavior - the behavior of staff that repels the client. It can manifest itself in two ways. In the first case, the client can be repelled by situations; in the second case, the client is repelled by the employees themselves.
Pseudo-client type of behavior is the behavior of the staff, which both attracts and alarms the client. Its essence is an exaggeratedly attentive attitude towards the client. This behavior is characterized by certain socio-psychological features that give rise to conflicting feelings in the client.
Selective-client (selective) type of behavior - the behavior of staff that attracts some customers and repels others. This type is associated with awareness of one's own importance and the choice, as a rule, of the most prestigious and profitable clients. It is a combination of client and anti-client types of behavior in relation to different subjects of interaction. In the practice of interaction between an organization and clients, combined behaviors can occur. The development of a marketing concept of behavior involves two important behavioral areas: - preventive (preventive) behavior - focused on preventing risks and breakdowns in work with clients;
Compensatory behavior - failures and breakdowns in any situations are compensated by the success of the leader in other areas. Behavioral marketing forms a certain type of marketing behavioral culture of the organization, the defining features of which are: the organization's market orientation; image regulators of behavior; organization's behavior towards customers; socially responsible marketing; marketing behavioral environment.
42. BEHAVIORAL ORIENTATION OF STAFF
The marketing behavioral environment is the highest form of development of the organization's behavioral orientation.
Industrial orientation - characterized by an undeveloped behavioral culture, suppressed image regulators, the prevalence of one's own interests. There is a pretentious image adjustment, the signs of which are distorted ideas about entrepreneurship and market relations.
Sales orientation - is characterized by the emergence of a behavioral culture, the primitive formation of an image, which is provided by advertising in order to stimulate sales. There is a declarative image setting of personnel with signs of entrepreneurship and attempts to adapt to market relations.
Opportunistic orientation - characterized by the growth of behavioral culture, where image regulators begin to actively influence the consciousness of the staff and form important social norms of behavior. There is an instrumental image setting, the signs of which are developed entrepreneurship and the use of all market opportunities.
The regulatory levers of behavior are medium-term goals, the formation of a positive image, the choice of the optimal pricing policy, responsible advertising, respect for the interests of customers, and attention to after-sales service.
Marketing orientation - is characterized by the development of a high-level behavioral culture, in which image regulators are comprehended by the staff as a social necessity. They become norms-incentives, prompting the satisfaction of the needs of target consumer groups and the realization of the mission of the organization. There is a target image setting of personnel based on self-regulation of behavior and improvement of interaction between market entities.
In the practical activities of the organization, various types of behavioral orientation can be combined with each other.
The main task of behavioral marketing is to form a marketing behavioral environment based on marketing orientation.
Thus, each type of behavioral orientation reflects a certain level of the organization's behavioral culture, of which the marketing behavioral orientation is the most effective.
Behavioral marketing of organizational behavior is the most effective direction of personnel behavioral orientation, which allows to achieve effective organizational development based on the full and comprehensive satisfaction of market needs.
In general, the formation of a marketing behavioral culture is a complex and lengthy process that requires the mobilization of all types of resources and significant efforts on the part of the management and staff of the organization.
43. MODELS OF NATIONAL CULTURE
National culture is a well-established set of value orientations, behavioral norms, traditions and stereotypes, adopted in a given country or group of countries and assimilated by an individual. An important component of any national culture is the national business culture - a manifestation of culture in the business sphere.
The national business culture determines the most important parameters of the management system: leadership style, motivation system, negotiating style, attitude to laws and regulations, communications and interpersonal relations in the organization.
Features of the national business culture depend on historical, religious, climatic, social and other factors, develop under the influence of the specific social environment of a given region (country). The national business culture determines the formation of different systems of values and preferences, behavioral models and stereotypes. The most typical contrasts of national cultures are individualistic, group and clan. Comparative characteristics of American, Japanese and Arab business cultures: patterns of behavior ) approach, cultivation of individualism, orientation to utilitarianism. The Japanese model of business culture most fully absorbed the achievements of the national culture, which is based on collectivism, identification of the individual with the group, striving for achievements and harmony.
The European model recognizes the need for rationalism in behavior and at the same time focuses on creative learning and self-development.
Different cultures show different models of organizational behavior, up to the opposite ones, in several ways.
1. Attitude to time: - monochronic - consistency, phased organization of labor activity, concentration on one thing in a specific period, attitude to time as an important limited resource, accuracy and punctuality are valued. It is typical for representatives of business cultures in the USA, England, Germany, Scandinavia, etc.;
Polychronous - the combination in time of several cases that are not always brought to completion, the attitude towards time as an unlimited, endless and inexhaustible resource. Typical for Asian, Latin American, Arab countries, southern Europe, Spain and Portugal. Obviously, Russia also gravitates towards polychronic culture.
2. Attitude towards nature (environment):
Nature is regarded as an object subordinate to man, a source for satisfying needs. Interaction with nature is seen as a struggle to obtain certain resources or material benefits from nature. This approach is inherent in most developed countries; - man is a part of nature and must live in harmony with it (for example, Asian countries, Japan).
Russia was previously characterized by the first type, but now, due to environmental problems, we are moving to the second type.
Man's attitude to nature is reflected in stereotypes of behavior and assessments of current events.
3. Interpersonal relationships. Researchers from different schools identify up to 30 parameters related to the characteristics of interpersonal relations among representatives of different national cultures.
Managers operating at the international level must know and take into account the various nuances of business relations associated with the specific perception of individual components of culture and life: speech, demeanor, business correspondence and appearance, office interior, non-verbal means of communication (facial expressions, posture, gestures, personal space), gifts and souvenirs, exchange of business cards, appeals, greetings, tips, etc.
Knowledge of the cultural values prevailing in Russian society is also necessary for foreign professionals who work in Russia and have business ties with its citizens, whose cultural values and historical heritage differ from their own.
Further globalization of world relations, openness of borders, interpenetration of national cultures necessitate the use of socio-cultural management technologies that make it possible to implement a new managerial socio-cultural paradigm
Due to the socio-cultural content, the organizational behavior of multinational companies can be based not only on respect for the individual, regardless of social origin, ethnicity and nationality, gender, age, religion, etc., but also on stimulating the cultural diversity of personnel, accumulating national potential, using mental models of work as a necessary condition for the sustainable development of an organization in a cross-cultural space.
44. INTERNATIONAL CONTEXT OF ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR
An important feature of the development of the world community at the beginning of the XXI century. is the formation of a single economic space based on the processes of globalization and internationalization. This means a new stage in the development of international business, aimed at creating economic networks in different countries.
Accordingly, the boundaries of organizational behavior are expanding, allowing us to consider the patterns and characteristics of behavior not only at the level of individuals, groups or organizations, but also the main parameters of the behavior of the national economic system as a whole. Ignoring by the manager of national peculiarities of organizational behavior is the cause of conflicts, makes it difficult to establish contacts and find profitable partners in the international business system. The conflicts arising on this basis, as a rule, are acute and protracted due to the great emotional potential of people's ethnic self-awareness, the possibility of rapid consolidation of all persons of a certain community along ethnic lines.
National culture has a significant impact on the behavior of people in an organization and generally positions this organization in an international environment.
The international context in business is realized in various forms: work in an international team, management of a multicultural organization, communication with people belonging to different ethnic groups and confessions, etc.
With the beginning of the era of globalization of the economy in the 1970s. a new direction arose - cross-cultural (comparative) management, i.e. management at the intersection of cultures - national, business, corporate. The rapid development of a new direction began in the late 1980s - early 1990s. thanks to the research of G. Hofstede, F. Trompenaars, E. Hall and others. Cross-cultural management focuses on the study of behavioral characteristics inherent in various national business cultures, on the development of practical recommendations for improving the efficiency of managing global organizations with a multinational field of activity.
The ability to identify cross-cultural features of management is no less important at the micro level: on the scale of a separate organizational or corporate culture that has multinational features.
This is especially true for Russia, where representatives of more than a hundred nations and nationalities live, actively interacting with each other in the organizational and interorganizational space.
45. TYPES OF ORG BEHAVIOR MODELS
46. GROUP DECISION-MAKING METHODS
Leading Japanese companies have achieved a high level in the use of positive factors of employee awareness and participation in decision-making, in particular, by developing the system of "Quality Circles". The same organizational form effectively works in the direction of training employees, improving their skills, and developing them. Collective decision-making, the promotion of new ideas requires managers to have knowledge and ability to organize such events as brainstorming, the Delphi method, the Gordon method, expert surveys, modeling, business games, consideration of business situations, etc. The labor intensity and high demands on the professionalism of the organizers of collective mental activity, as a rule, are justified by high economic and socio-psychological results, allow the organization to remain competitive, developing, and the team to be highly productive, united, and people to be satisfied with work and membership in the team and organization.
To determine many situations of collective problem solving, collective activity, the concept of "dispute" is suitable. Let us use the definition given in the book by L. G. Pavlova “Dispute, discussion, controversy”: a dispute is any clash of opinions, disagreement in points of view on any issue, subject, a struggle in which each side defends its rightness. Often the words are perceived as synonyms for this word: discussion, debate, controversy, debate, debate. But often in the scientific literature these concepts reflect separate types of disputes.
The decision-making process is associated with the use of various strategies: reactive strategy, active strategy, integrated strategy.
The reactive strategy is associated with the passive expectation of changes in the external and internal environment of the organization and the response to these changes as a fait accompli. Supporters of this strategy save costs, but suffer from "myopia" and passivity, which is fraught with significant losses in the competitive struggle.
An active internal strategy involves active preparation for future events, proactive changes in the internal environment of the company (changes in priorities, redistribution of resources, structural reorganizations, etc.).
An active external strategy involves the use of various opportunities to influence the external environment of the organization through advertising, contacts with the public, with authorities, with other firms, and so on.
A strategy aimed at integrating internal and external processes implies the implementation of an active internal and external strategy based on the activities of strategic planning groups that analyze trends in changes in the external and internal environment of the organization, develop scenarios for possible scenarios and proposals for achieving the best results in a particular scenario .
At the first stage of the business game, its goal is formulated, the necessary initial information is given, teams are formed - small groups, and their activities are organized.
At the second stage, collective discussions of the problem are held in small groups, knowledge and experience are exchanged, group positions and points of view on solving the problem are developed.
At the third stage, an intergroup discussion is held, discussion of the reports of each small group, development of a common decision.
Consideration of specific situations is organized similarly, i.e., decision-making using an analysis of the parameters of a specific situation taken from practice. If the situation is known, there are already solution precedents, the problem is solved in a standard way. If the situation is similar to the previously taken place and resolved, its resolution may be in the way of adaptation, optimization of already made decisions. If the situation is unknown, it is necessary to search for a new solution method, including the use of collective mental activity.
The Delphi method can be considered as a method of mathematical processing of expert opinions: each of them ranks ideas according to their importance, assigns to each rank one or another number of points according to the accepted system, then the results are processed, and the idea that scored the most points is recognized as the most important.
W. Gordon's method is the method of synectics, i.e., the connection of the heterogeneous, therefore the participants are representatives of different fields of knowledge. The Gordon discussion scheme is similar to the brainstorming scheme, but verbal associations and a spread of reference elements for comparison that may seem inappropriate are encouraged. For example, the properties of incompatible "objects" - a teapot and a cat - can be compared (by the way, as a result of the comparison, the idea was born to create a "meowing" teapot, that is, a teapot with a whistle). The method of analogy is used when the participants in the discussion try to personify themselves with the subject of discussion. The method involves the division of the participants in the discussion into two groups: the first consists of idea generators - "seeders". Sometimes they do not even set a clear goal - in the expectation of the appearance of completely original proposals from the sphere of related, and sometimes distant areas of knowledge. The second group consists of experts who, after putting forward a mass of ideas by generators, comprehend and select ideas. Generators are usually the most active members of the group, possessing erudition and their own position. The organizers of the discussion should ensure an atmosphere of goodwill and cooperation. The process of finding a solution and being in such a group usually provides high job satisfaction and contributes to team cohesion and increased productivity.
Business games and case studies are recognized methods of collaborative problem solving and active learning.
Business games are a reproduction of the activities of economic managers and management personnel, game modeling of management processes. Games can be divided into educational, production and research, although other typologies exist. The organization of a business game requires serious preparation and sometimes the involvement of consultants - specialists. The organization of the game involves consideration of the same stages as in the discussion. However, the preparation of a production business game aimed at developing a forecast for the development of an organization should include the collection and presentation to participants of analytical information relevant to the issue under consideration, and sometimes variant calculations of the business plan. To the extent necessary, information processing tools should be provided and conditions should be created for working in groups and joint work of all participants. Of particular difficulty is the need to create an atmosphere of competition while maintaining goodwill and focus on the subject of discussion.
There are a number of ways to organize joint mental activity, including the above-mentioned "brainstorming", "Delphi method", "Gordon method", etc.
Brainstorming (brainstorming) should have a clear goal, include the following steps: silent generation of ideas, random enumeration of ideas, clarification of ideas, voting and ranking the importance of ideas to achieve the goal. Types of brainstorming: direct, reverse (starts with criticism of ideas), double (the number of participants exceeds the optimal number by two or three times with a corresponding increase in the duration of the event), a conference of ideas (usually for 4-12 people for 2-3 days), individual "brain assault” (to himself and a generator of ideas, and a critic). As for the optimal number of brainstorming participants, here the opinions of experts differ: who prefers to focus on the "Miller number", i.e. 5-9 people, who expands the interval to 7-15 people. Stages of brainstorming:
1) the breakdown of the group into “generators of ideas” and “criticizing the work of the subgroup can change roles”;
2) the vigorous activity of generators to put forward any proposals for solving the problem, the formation of an array of proposals;
3) the active work of critics in sorting the proposal into successful, unsuccessful, controversial;
4) discussion of controversial proposals;
5) discussion of the accepted set of proposals, their elaboration, development of feasibility studies, ranking according to a set of significant advantages and disadvantages. Next - work in accordance with the scenario of target management.
47. PROGRAM FOR CONSTRUCTION OF MODELS OF BEHAVIOR
The program includes 5 steps:
Stage 1: Determining the elements of behavior that affect the work of employees
Stage 2: Assessing how often this behavior is leading
Stage 3: Identification of random elements of behavior
Stage 4a: Development of an impact strategy
Stage 4b: Application of the developed strategy
Stage 4c: Summing up the dynamics of the necessary elements that appear in the behavior after the impact
Stage 4d: Maintaining the desired behavior
Stage 5: Evaluation of the improvement of the work performed
Stage 1 of the model is necessary, because from the point of view of production, not all elements of behavior are valuable, first of all, it is necessary to highlight the elements of behavior that are critical for a given employee.
Stage 2 determines how often critical elements appear.
Stage 3 identifies those random actions that are not desired and determines the low level of performance.
After such an analysis at 4 steps, a strategy for influencing employees is developed and applied, which allows you to strengthen or consolidate the desirable elements and stop the negative ones.
48. ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE AS A FACTOR OF FORMING THE BEHAVIOR OF ORGANIZATION
The behavior of an organization is largely determined by the configuration of the management system - an organizational structure that reflects the composition and relationships between its units and levels of management. The effectiveness of the functioning of the structure, to a greater extent than the formal distribution of functions between departments, depends on human behavior. With this in mind, the organizational structure should be understood as an ordered set of stably interconnected elements that ensure the functioning and development of the organization as a whole.
The behavior of the organization depends on the types of organizational structure, which are usually divided into the following types:
Bureaucratic (mechanistic) - include functional, linear, linear-functional and divisional (product, consumer, regional specialization structures);
Organic (adaptive) - include project, matrix, program-target and group (team) structures;
Innovative - include modular, integrated, conglomerate, atomistic, multidimensional, network, virtual and other structures.
Bureaucratic structures are based on the formalization of the organization's behavior and limit the activities of personnel by regulating actions and labor operations. Formalization of behavior makes it possible to reduce its variability and, ultimately, to manage and predict organizational behavior.
Organic structures are characterized by a flexible structure, coordination of organizational behavior based on mutual agreement and cooperation. In organic structures, there is no standardization of the behavior of the organization; they allow solving innovative problems.
The less predictable, more dynamic, and more complex the environment, the more bureaucratic structures are replaced by organic ones, or organic structures are partially incorporated into bureaucratic ones.
Innovative structures are characterized by high adaptability and openness, "intellectuality", which determines the organization's ability to self-learning, self-development and advanced self-management.
The structure of the organization directly affects the efficiency of its functioning, so it must be flexible and dynamic. In industrialized countries, the management structures of corporations change on average every three to five years, depending on the state of the organization.
The dynamics of organizational development requires a rational design of the organization in order to create an effective management mechanism. The formation of such a mechanism should be based not only on experience, analogies, habitual schemes and intuition, but also on scientific methods of organizational design. At the same time, it should be borne in mind that the organizational structure is a behavioral system in which people and the groups they form constantly enter into various relationships to solve common problems.
The methodology for constructing an organization includes three stages:
Composition stage - the formation of a general structural scheme of the management apparatus (goals and problems of the organization, hierarchy and links, centralization and decentralization, forms of interaction with the external environment);
Structurization stage - determination of the composition of the main units and the links between them (division of labor and specialization, departmentalization and cooperation, coordination, distribution of powers and responsibilities);
Stage of regulation - development of regulatory characteristics of the management apparatus and procedures for management activities (establishment of job responsibilities, composition of units, development of service regulations and procedures for performing work, determining the labor intensity of work).
The design of the organization provides for a combination of scientific approaches with export-analytical work, the study of advanced domestic and foreign experience. The criterion for the effectiveness of organizational design is the full and sustainable achievement of the organization's goals.
The dynamism of the external and internal environment of the organization determines the increasing importance of situational organizational design, which determines the choice of the structure of the organization by changing various factors (strategy and tactics of the organization, technology, personnel, challenges of competitors, market requirements, etc.).
1. SUBJECT AND METHODS OF INVESTIGATION OF ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR
EP studies allow us to determine ways to improve the efficiency of human labor activity. EP is a scientific discipline in which the results of new research and conceptual developments are constantly added to the main body of knowledge. OP is an applied science, thanks to which the experience of successful and unsuccessful companies is transferred to other organizations.
The science of EP allows managers to analyze the behavior of an individual in an organization, contributes to understanding the problems of interpersonal relations in the interaction of two individuals (colleagues or a boss and a subordinate), when considering the dynamics of relations within small groups (both formal and informal), between groups when considering intra-organizational relations - when the organization is viewed and managed as a whole system (for example, strategic alliances and joint ventures).
The objectives of the discipline: a systematic description of the behavior of people in various situations that arise in the organization; explanation of the reasons for the actions of individuals in certain conditions; prediction of employee behavior in the future. The ultimate goal of studying the EP is to master the skills of managing people's behavior in the labor process and their improvement.
EP is not only a theoretical discipline, but also a complex applied science of psychological, socio-psychological, social and organizational-economic aspects and factors that influence and largely determine the behavior and interaction of the subjects of the organization - people, groups, the team as a whole with each other. friend and with the external environment.
OP research methods:
Surveys (interviews, questionnaires, testing);
Collection of fixed information (study of documents, etc.);
Observations and experiments;
The method of structured observation (for example, when observing the organizational environment, the following elements are distinguished: premises, furnishings and equipment, design, lighting and color, appearance of members of the organization).
The research is based on laboratory and natural experiments.
2. INFLUENCE OF THE PERSON ON THE OP
The OP is based on a number of basic ideas about the nature of man and organizations.
Basic concepts that characterize any individual.
Individual characteristics. Each person is unique, and the concept of his individual characteristics has rigorous scientific evidence (differences in DNA parameters, fingerprints, etc.). The presence of individual characteristics suggests that the most effective motivation of employees is a specific approach of the manager to each of them. The proposition that each person is unique is commonly referred to as the law of individuality.
Perception. The attitude of a person to objective reality depends on its individual perception, which is a unique for each person, formed on the basis of accumulated experience, a way of seeing, systematizing and interpreting things and events.
Managers should analyze the peculiarities of the perception of employees, take into account the degree of their emotionality and find an individual approach to each employee.
The integrity of the individual. Companies have to deal with a whole personality, and not with its individual qualities - qualifications, ability to analyze, etc. A person's personal life cannot be completely separated from the labor process, moral conditions are inseparable from physical ones.
The implementation of the EP suggests that the administration of the organization needs not just qualified employees, but developed personalities. Managers must take into account the impact of work on the personality as a whole.
Behavior motivation. Normal human behavior is formed under the influence of certain factors that may be associated with the needs of the individual and (or) the consequences of his actions. Managers have the opportunity to use two main ways to motivate employees: 1) demonstrating that certain actions will increase the degree of satisfaction of the needs of a subordinate; 2) the threat of a decrease in the level of satisfaction of needs in cases where the individual performs incorrect, from the point of view of management, actions.
The value of the individual. Each employee of the organization would like an attentive and respectful attitude towards himself from the management.
3. THE NATURE OF ORGANIZATIONS
The foundation of the organizational concept is formed by three main “stones”: organizations are social systems (1), which are formed on the basis of common interests (2), and the relationship between management and employees is based on certain ethical principles (3).
1. social systems. Organizations are social systems whose activities are governed by both the laws of society and psychological laws. Social roles and status are the same attribute of the human personality as psychological needs. People's behavior is shaped by their individual desires, as well as by the groups of which they are members. In fact, there are two social systems in the organization: formal (official) and informal.
The social system assumes that the environment of the organization is subject to dynamic changes, all its elements are interdependent and each of them is subject to the influence of any other element.
2. community of interests. Each organization has certain social goals, is formed and operates on the basis of a certain commonality of interests of its members. In its absence, there is also no common base on which something valuable for society is created. The community of interests determines the most important task of the organization, which is solved only by the combined efforts of employees and employers.
3. Ethical principles. In order to attract and retain valuable employees (for whom demand is constantly increasing), organizations strive to comply with ethical principles in the course of their activities. More and more firms are recognizing this need and are developing various programs to help ensure high moral standards for both managers and employees. Managers realize that since OP always affects people, ethical philosophy is inevitably the basis of everything they do.
The ethics of the goals and actions of the organization is the main prerequisite for the emergence of the system triple reward, i.e. achieving the goals of individuals, organizations and society. Collaboration and teamwork increase the degree of satisfaction of individuals with the nature of work, as they get the opportunity to learn and personal growth, feel that they are making a valuable contribution to the achievement of common goals. In turn, the efficiency of the organization as a whole increases: product quality improves, service improves, costs are reduced.
4. MAIN APPROACHES OF THE OP
The main theoretical approaches on which the EP is based are the focus on human resources, the situation, the results and the systematic approach.
Human Resource Oriented the approach involves the analysis of personal growth and development of individuals, their achievement of ever higher levels of competence, creative activity and diligence. It is assumed that the task of management is to provide opportunities for improving the skills of employees, increasing their sense of responsibility, creating an atmosphere conducive to increasing their contribution to the achievement of the organization's goals. Thus, developing the abilities of workers and providing them with opportunities for self-realization directly leads to an increase in their productivity and degree of job satisfaction.
situational approach to EP - achieving efficiency in various situations - involves the use of specific patterns of behavior.
A thorough analysis of the situation that has arisen allows us to identify its significant factors and determine the most effective methods of EP in the given circumstances. The advantage of the situational approach: it encourages the analysis of the prevailing conditions in the organization, the conclusions of which become the basis for decisions. This concept encourages management to abandon assumptions about the possibility of universal behavior of employees. The use of a situational approach implies an appeal to an extended range of scientific disciplines, a systematic approach and a focus on research.
The dominant goal for many is to perform their function, i.e. the basis of organizational behavior is results orientation. Performance, at its simplest, is the ratio of what is output to what is put in (usually according to some predetermined standard).
Systematic approach of the organization suggests that it is seen as a complex of interacting elements. An event that seems to affect one employee or department can play an important role for other subsystems or the organization as a whole. Therefore, when making decisions, managers are obliged to evaluate their long-term consequences for other elements of the organization, subsystems and the system as a whole.
The system approach assumes that managers have a holistic view of the subject of management. Holistic (holistic) OP interprets the relationship "individuals - organization" at the level of the individual as a whole, the group as a whole, the organization as a whole and the social system as a whole.
5. OP SYSTEM
Achieving the goals set for the organization involves the creation and implementation of the EP management system. Such systems exist in every organization, but in various forms. The most effective systems are consciously created and regularly monitored and improved.
Main a task EP systems - identification of the most important human and organizational factors that affect the achievement of the organization's goals, and the creation of conditions for their effective management.
Foundation The organization's EP systems form the basic beliefs and intentions of the individuals who join forces to create it (for example, the owners of the company), as well as the managers who currently manage its activities.
Philosophy(theoretical model) Organizational management EP includes a set of assumptions and beliefs of its leaders and managers regarding the real state of affairs of the company, the tasks of its production activities and a possible ideal system. Based on factual and value premises. Actual background- a descriptive view of being, based on research in the behavioral sciences, on our personal experience (essential points, in the validity of which we are sure). Value premises- the desirability of certain goals and activities. Value assumptions are variable beliefs, which means they are entirely under our control: we can choose them, change them, abandon them. Many organizations are looking for opportunities to identify and establish their own values.
The EP system also includes visions, missions and goals. AT and denie is a vision of a possible (and desirable) future for the organization and its members.
The organization should also formulate mission determining the direction of its activities, the market segments and niches that it seeks to occupy, the types of customers with whom it wants to maintain sustainable relationships. The mission statement includes a concise list of the organization's competitive advantages or strengths. Unlike in and In addition, the mission statement is more descriptive and forward-looking. Further concretization of the tasks of the organization involves setting its goals on the basis of the stated mission.
Goals- these are specific indicators that the organization strives for in a certain period of time (for example, during the year, in the next five years). Goal setting is a complex process, and the goals of senior management must be linked to the goals of employees. Therefore, the creation of an effective social system involves the real integration of individual, group and organizational goals.
6. PRINCIPLES OF CONSTRUCTION OF THE OP SYSTEM
1. The principle of optimality of the ratio of intra- and infra-functions of the OP: determines the proportions between the functions aimed at organizing the EP system (intrafunctions) and the EP functions (infrafunctions), i.e. the orientation of the system to a task or people.
2. The principle of potential imitations: temporary departure of individual employees should not interrupt the process of exercising any management functions. To do this, each employee of the system must be able to imitate the functions of a superior, subordinate employee and one or two employees of his level.
3. Economy principle: the most efficient and economical organization of the EP system, reducing the share of costs for the management system in total costs per unit of output, increasing production efficiency.
4. Progressive principle: compliance of the EP system with advanced foreign and domestic analogues.
5. Perspective principle: when forming the EP system, the prospects for the development of the organization should be taken into account.
6. The principle of complexity: when forming the system, it is necessary to take into account all the factors affecting the management system of the organization.
7. Efficiency principle: timely decision-making on the analysis and improvement of the EP system, preventing or actively eliminating deviations.
8. The principle of simplicity: the simpler the system, the better it works. Of course, this excludes the simplification of the system to the detriment of production.
9. The principle of hierarchy: in any vertical sections of the EP system, hierarchical interaction between the control links should be ensured.
10. The principle of autonomy: in any horizontal and vertical sections of the system, rational autonomy of structural units or individual managers should be ensured.
11. The principle of consistency.
12. Sustainability principle: To ensure the sustainable functioning of the EP system, it is necessary to provide for special “local regulators” that, if the organization deviates from the set goal, put this or that employee or department at a disadvantage and encourage them to regulate the system.
13. The principle of system.
14. The principle of transparency.
15. Comfort principle: the system should provide maximum convenience for the creative processes of substantiation, development, adoption and implementation of decisions by a person.
7. BEHAVIOR AS A CATEGORY
Behavior - a set of actions performed over a relatively long period in constant or changing conditions. Behavior covers all actions as a whole and allows them to give a moral assessment, regardless of such local indicators as intentions, motivations, etc., i.e., behavior provides more grounds for a person’s moral assessment than an act, motive, means, goal, since behavior is a system, it is a relatively stable phenomenon.
Regulators of the behavior of individuals and groups are the legal norms and decrees of the state (political regulators), production and administrative regulations, organizational charters and instructions (organizational regulators), customs, traditions, public opinion (public regulators), morality (system of moral norms).
Organization Behavior regulate macroeconomic, political, scientific and technical components (objective in relation to the organization), as well as the situation on the market in which the organization operates, the features of its current state, development prospects, its culture (traditions, customs, leadership style, relations vertical and horizontal, etc.) and the potential of its leadership (the result and experience of previous activities, the manifestation of the level of competence and morality).
In organizations that understand the value of a person, the regulation of his behavior is carried out on the basis of stimulating directions that correspond to the motives of the employee’s behavior and their underlying needs, interests, value orientations, which allows for adequate external influence, i.e. stimulation.
Personality as an element of the system "organization" should be considered as an independent system with its own internal structure.
Group can be considered as an independent system, the elements of which are the subjects of professional activity. The nature of the connections between them determines the internal structure of the group and the degree of lack of freedom of the individual.
Each individual, entering voluntarily into a group engaged in professional activities, agrees to certain restrictions. In turn, the group guarantees the person a certain status.
social behavior can be understood as a process of purposeful activity in accordance with the significant interests and needs of a person.
A variety of social behavior is labor activity and labor behavior.
Labor activity- this is a rational series of operations and functions, rigidly fixed in time and space, performed by people united in an organization.
8. SCHOOL OF SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT (1885–1920)
The school of scientific management is most closely associated with the names of F. W. Taylor, F. Gilbreth, and G. Gantt.
The first major step towards considering management as a science was made F. Taylor(1856–1915), who led the scientific management movement. Taylor's teaching is based on a mechanistic understanding of man, his place in the organization and the essence of his activity. He was interested in the effectiveness of the activities of not an individual, but an organization, which marked the beginning of the development of the school of scientific management.
The main merit of F. Taylor is the development of a number of methods for the scientific organization of labor, based on the study of the movements of the worker with the help of timekeeping, the standardization of methods and tools of labor.
Scientific management is closely connected with the work F. Gilbreth, who conducted research in the field of labor movements, improved timing techniques, developed scientific principles for organizing the workplace.
Scientific management did not neglect the human factor. The merit of this school was the systematic use of incentives in order to create the interest of employees in increasing labor productivity and increasing production volume. Representatives of this direction recognized the importance of selecting people who must physically and intellectually correspond to the work they perform, and also emphasized the great importance of training. It was F. Taylor who introduced into practice scientific approaches to the selection, placement and stimulation of the work of workers.
The concept of scientific management was a major turning point, thanks to which management became universally recognized as an independent field of scientific research. For the first time, practitioners and scientists saw that the methods and approaches applied in science and technology can be effectively used to achieve the goals of the organization.
9. ADMINISTRATIVE SCHOOL (1920–1950)
With the advent of the administrative school, attention began to be paid to improving the management of the organization as a whole.
The founders of the administrative school (better known as classical school of management), in particular, A. Fayol (1841–1925), had experience as senior managers in big business. Subject A. Fayol's scientific studies were management issues at the level of higher administration.
A. Fayol determined that any business organization is characterized by the presence of certain types of activities, or basic functions, which are still used in the management of the organization: planning, organization, selection and placement of personnel, leadership (motivation) and control.
aim The administrative school was the creation of universal principles of management, which affected two main aspects: the development of a rational system for managing an organization and building the structure of an organization and managing employees.
A. Fayol developed the following 14 management principles, which he followed in practice and on which, in his opinion, the success of management depended: 1) division of labor (improves qualifications and the level of work performance); 2) power (the right to give commands and be responsible for the results); 3) discipline; 4) unity of management (order from only one leader and accountability to only one leader); 5) unity of leadership; 6) subordination of individual interests to common interests; 7) staff remuneration (payment should reflect the state of the organization and encourage workers to work with full dedication); 8) centralization (the level of centralization and decentralization should depend on the situation and be chosen in such a way as to give the best results); 9) interaction chains (clear construction of chains of following commands from management to subordinates); 10) order (everyone should know their place in the organization); 11) equality (workers should be treated fairly and kindly); 12) staff stability; 13) initiative (managers should encourage subordinates to come up with ideas); 14) corporate spirit (it is necessary to create a spirit of unity and joint action, develop a team form of work).
Outstanding representatives of the administrative school were also M. Bloomfield(the concept of "personnel management", or workforce management (1917)) and M. Weber, who proposed the concept of "rational bureaucracy" (1921), characterized the ideal types of domination and put forward the position according to which bureaucracy - the order established by the rules - is the most effective form of human organization.
In the concept of organization put forward by M. Weber, there was no personality as such. Procedures and rules determined all the main activities, the careers of employees, specific decisions and activities of management.
Having perfectly studied the technical side of the production process, the administrative school has largely exhausted its possibilities.
10. SCHOOL OF HUMAN RELATIONS (1930-1950)
The founder of the school of human relations is considered to be a professor at the School of Business at Harvard University. E. Mayo(1880–1949). He found that a group of workers is social system, which has its own control systems, and by influencing such a system in a certain way, it is possible to improve the results of labor.
As a result of the research, it turned out that the human aspect has a greater impact on labor productivity than changes in technical and physical conditions. This study showed the importance of behavioral factors.
As a result, the School of Human Relations became a counterbalance to the whole scientific movement, as the emphasis shifted to people, and not to concern for production, as in the School of Scientific Management. The idea was that simply paying attention to people has a very large impact on productivity, that is, it was about increasing the efficiency of the organization by increasing the efficiency of the use of its human resources.
The transfer of the center of gravity in management to the person gave rise to the development of various behavioral theories of management.
Behaviorism(from English. behavior- behavior; behaviorism can be translated as behavioral psychology) is one of the directions in American psychology that arose at the beginning of the 20th century. Its founder is J. Watson(1878-1958), who argued that the subject of psychology, unlike other theories, is behavior, and not consciousness or thinking.
From the point of view of behaviorism, a person’s personality is a set of behavioral reactions inherent in a given person, i.e. skills, socially regulated instincts, socialized emotions, plus the ability to be plastic in order to form new skills, as well as the ability to retain and save skills. Thus, personality is an organized and relatively stable skill system. Skills form the basis of relatively stable behavior, adaptability to life situations. Changing the situation leads to the formation of new skills. By changing incentives and reinforcements, a person can be programmed for the desired behavior.
Apart from D. Rotter and A. Maslow from other representatives of the school of human relations, one can note the well-known management theorist M. P. Follet(1868–1933), who analyzed leadership styles and developed leadership theory. She was the first to define management as "getting things done with the help of others". Her interpretation of management as “the art of achieving results through the actions of others” put flexibility and harmony in the relationship between managers and workers in the first place.
11. D. ROTTER'S SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
In the 70s. In the 20th century, behaviorism presented its concepts in a new light - in the theory of social learning. According to social learning theory D. Rotter each person has a certain set of actions, behavioral reactions that have been formed during life - behavioral potential.
Behavioral potential, according to D. Rotter, includes five main blocks of behavioral reactions, "existence technique":
1) behavioral responses aimed at achieving success, results - serve as the basis for social recognition;
2) behavioral reactions of adaptation, adaptation - this is a technique for coordinating with the requirements of other people, social norms, etc.;
3) protective behavioral reactions - used in situations whose requirements exceed the capabilities of a person at the moment (these are such reactions as denial, suppression of desires, depreciation, obscuration, etc.);
4) avoidance technique - behavioral reactions aimed at "getting out of the field of tension", leaving, running away, resting, etc.;
5) aggressive behavioral reactions - this can be real physical aggression, and symbolic forms of aggression: irony, criticism of another, ridicule, intrigue, etc.
12. THE THEORY OF NEEDS A. MASLOW
The development of the school of human relations in the 40-60s. 20th century contributed to the development of several theories of motivation by behavioral scientists. One of them is hierarchical A. Maslow's theory of needs(1908-1970) - "pyramid of needs".
According to this theory, a person has a complex structure next hierarchical needs, according to which management should take place:
1) physiological- lower needs - food, water, air, shelter and other needs that a person must satisfy in order to survive. People who work mainly due to the need to satisfy these needs have little interest in the content of the work, concentrating their attention on pay, working conditions, convenience of the workplace, etc. To manage such people, it is necessary that the minimum wage ensures their survival and working conditions did not burden their existence too much;
2) the security of one's existence- the desire and desire of people to be in a stable and safe state, protecting from fear, disease and other suffering. They evaluate their work primarily in terms of ensuring their stable existence in the future (job security, pensions, medical care). To manage such people, a clear and reliable system of social insurance should be created, simple and fair rules for regulating their activities should be applied, wages above the subsistence level, they should not be involved in risky decisions and actions associated with risk and change;
3) social(belonging to a team, communication, attention to oneself, caring for others, etc.). In relation to such employees, management should be in the form of a friendly partnership, for them it is necessary to create conditions conducive to communication at work;
4) need for recognition and respect. This group of needs reflects the desire of people to be competent, strong, capable, self-confident, to experience recognition and respect from others. When managing these people, it is necessary to use various forms of recognition of their merits;
5) self-expression, self-realization, full use of their capabilities. This is the highest group of human needs, which, to a much greater extent than the needs of other groups, are individual in nature. They realize a person's desire for creativity in the broadest sense of the word. When managing such people, it is necessary to give them original tasks, to provide greater freedom in choosing the means of solving problems, and to involve them in work that requires ingenuity and creativity.
13. PERSONALITY STRUCTURE
The individuality of a person is determined by his life experience, refracted through personality traits and manifested through his attitude to surrounding phenomena and the uniqueness of his internal mental functions.
Personality- a systemic quality acquired by an individual in a specific activity and communication, characterizing him from the side of involvement in social relations.
A person is not born as a person, but becomes one as he actively enters the life of society, mastering the accumulated social experience. The formation of personality occurs in the process of a person's entire life. The formation of personality in a team occurs both by involuntary imitation of generally accepted group norms, and by conscious assimilation of the requirements of the team.
Each person is the bearer of that which is common, which is characteristic of the whole society, and at the same time is special, typical of a particular group. But personality has individual characteristics, which are determined by hereditary characteristics, natural inclinations, etc.
Conventionally, one can speak of the internal, socio-psychological structure of the personality and its external structure as belonging to social groups.
The internal structure of personality includes a number of substructures:
a) the psychological environment that has developed in the mind of the individual: the system of needs, interests, claims, value orientations, ideals, beliefs, worldview;
b) mental properties: character, intellect, emotions, will, thinking, memory, imagination, etc.
c) psychological properties, the possibility of realization (abilities) of the individual: experience, skills, abilities;
d) physiological, hereditary qualities: temperament, etc.
External social structure of personality characterized by belonging to different social groups. Such groups can be, for example, socio-demographic (men and women, young and elderly workers, family and non-family), professional and qualification (belonging to different professions, differences in qualifications, job status, etc.), etc.).
People can also belong to other groups that differ in their psychology of behavior - party, national, territorial, religious, various formal and informal associations.
A leader who takes into account the personal qualities of a subordinate can find an individual approach to each employee, which means that he can activate internal reserves for activating his activities.
14. NEEDS AND MOTIVES OF THE PERSON
Need can be defined as a person's need for something, prompting him to take action to realize this need. The need is always associated with activity and determines the activity of the individual.
From the objective side
a) a specific item of need (need);
b) objective environment - the situation of satisfaction of the need, conducive to the satisfaction of the need;
c) objective means of satisfying a need;
d) the objective value of satisfying a need and the effort required to satisfy it.
From the subjective side The need is characterized by the following factors:
a) the image of the object of need (need) in the mind of the individual;
b) subjective environment: the internal system of human needs, the level of its development and the current state;
c) subjective means: the ability (ability) of the individual to satisfy the need;
d) the subjective value of satisfying a need.
The needs determined by production, in turn, actively influence its development.
The needs of people are realized through their abilities. To satisfy some need, it is necessary to apply the ability to create material and spiritual values. Needs develop along with the development of society, never reaching the limit.
It is the constant reproduction of such an unsatisfied need, due to the constant increase in needs, that serves as an important incentive to human activity and the development of production.
In the psychological mechanism of personality behavior, an important role is played by value orientations, i.e., relatively stable, socially conditioned relations of the individual to material and spiritual goods, which are for her the goal or means of satisfying her needs.
Closely related to value orientations social attitudes people - their attitude to certain phenomena. Social attitudes affect the emotional reaction, the attitude of people, for example, to various changes in work, require psychological preparation for innovations.
Knowing the expectations of the individual, the leader can find the most appropriate forms of regulation of her behavior.
15. MENTAL PROPERTIES OF THE PERSON
Mental properties of personality- this is character, intellect, emotions, thinking, memory, imagination, etc.
Character- an individual warehouse of a person's personality, manifested in the peculiarities of his behavior and attitude towards people and surrounding activities, in particular towards work, his duties and duty.
Character is not given to a person from birth, but is formed in the process of active socially useful activity.
The ability to objectively evaluate oneself helps to develop such character traits as modesty and integrity. Increased conceit, arrogance are negative character traits that cause conflict situations.
Attitude towards people is characterized by such positive character traits as politeness, sociability, goodwill, or, conversely, negative ones - isolation, rudeness, tactlessness, etc.
A person's diligence, conscientiousness, accuracy, diligence characterize a person's attitude to public duty, work; they are opposed by passivity, laziness, negligence, etc.
Among the many qualities of a personality that make up its individuality, the qualities intelligence: curiosity, depth of mind, flexibility and mobility of the mind, logic, etc.
Will represents the regulating side of consciousness, expressed in the ability of a person to perform purposeful actions and deeds that require overcoming difficulties. The level of development of the will is manifested in the following basic volitional properties of the individual: purposefulness, determination, perseverance, endurance, independence.
In psychology, moral, intellectual and aesthetic feelings of the individual are distinguished.
moral sense called the emotional attitude of the individual to the behavior of people and his own; intellectual feelings- these are experiences that arise in the process of mental activity; aesthetic feelings arise and develop when a person perceives and creates beauty.
The conditions for the implementation of a particular type of activity are human abilities, determined by natural data, as well as experience, skills, abilities. Abilities can be developed in the process of training and education, active social activities.
The skillful use of human abilities largely depends on the leader.
16. PHYSIOLOGICAL PROPERTIES OF THE PERSON
Human behavior depends not only on social conditions, but also on his natural features.
Such features are determined by temperament, which determines the nature of the flow of emotions and thinking, the volitional action of the individual.
Depending on the temperament which is given to man by nature, there are choleric, sanguine, phlegmatic and melancholic.
Cholerics They are distinguished by great working capacity, energetic, active. They can work with enthusiasm, they know how to overcome difficulties. But a wave of uplift can quickly give way to a period of downturn. Choleric is easily excited, quick-tempered, speaks quickly, intonation fluctuates. Choleric enthusiastically gives himself to his favorite work, charges other people with his energy, but in work he is characterized by cyclicity. It is difficult for him to restrain the manifestation of his emotions, he is often unnecessarily straightforward and harsh.
sanguine cheerful, easily converges with people, quickly switches from one type of work to another, does not like monotonous work. Emotions are subject to him, he controls himself well, quickly masters in a new environment, is optimistic. Speaks loudly, clearly, with expressive gestures. A sanguine person easily grasps new things, is flexible in communicating with people around him.
Phlegmatic person characterized by a slow reaction: slowly switches from one job to another, is inactive, adapts to a new environment for a long time. To induce him to action, he needs a certain impulse, a push. He is restrained, reasonable, slow and stress-resistant. But he does not adapt well to the changed environment, he is characterized by the poverty of emotions, so he hardly converges with people.
melancholic impressionable, easily vulnerable, emotional, he often has a panic mood, despondency, melancholy, painfully endures failures, indecisive, cautious. This is, as a rule, a shy person who has difficulty finding contact with other people. To achieve effective work from a melancholic, constant energetic pressure and control from the leader is needed.
People with a pronounced certain type of temperament are rare, however, each person gravitates towards one or another type of temperament.
17. BASIS OF BEHAVIOR OF THE PERSON. PERCEPTION
The three fundamental principles of human behavior are perception, criteria basis and motivation.
Perception, i.e., the process of obtaining information from the environment and processing it, is an important source of explanation of behavior. By changing the perception of the life situation in which a person is, you can change his behavior.
By itself, this process of obtaining information is the same for everyone: at the input - obtaining information from the external environment, processing it and putting it in a certain order, and at the output - systematized information that contains a person's idea of the environment and forms the basis of his actions, i.e., information that is the source material for human behavior.
However, people in the same situation may perceive it differently. Moreover, perception may be distorted. Perception factors include an object and subject of observation in the context of the situation in which the perception takes place.
The attempt of the individual (subject) to interpret what he sees is largely influenced by personal perception.
To the most common personal characteristics(the so-called criteria basis) that affect perception include:
location. This is a different interpretation of the same situation - mainly due to different locations relative to any objects, phenomena, etc.;
motives. Unsatisfied needs or motives stimulate individuals and can have a strong influence on their perception;
interests. Since the personal interests of people differ to a large extent, their perception of the same situations is not the same;
an experience, like personal interests, narrows the focus of perception. People perceive those things with which something connects them. However, in many cases experience can annul interest in an object;
expectations can distort the perception of a person, since he often sees what he expects to see.
The perception is also influenced by the personal characteristics of a person.
Movement, sounds, object size and other attributes also affect perception.
18. FEATURES OF HUMAN PERCEPTION
Our perception of people differs from our perception of inanimate objects: observing people, we try to explain why they behave this way and not otherwise, that is, to evaluate their internal state.
Explaining the behavior of people depending on from their characteristics- the essence of the theory of the same name. According to this theory, by observing the behavior of an individual, we are trying to determine whether it is caused by internal or external causes. This, in turn, largely depends on certain factors - specificity, consistency, consistency.
Internal regulators of behavior are under the personal control of the individual. External regulators of behavior are carried out under the influence of external causes, in connection with a certain situation. So, if one of the employees was late for work, then the reason for this delay can be regarded as internal (overslept) and as external (got caught in a traffic jam).
specificity determines to what extent this or that behavior of an individual in various situations is characteristic, how unusual this behavior is. If this is an isolated case, then, most likely, this behavior is due to external causes; if this behavior is repeated, then it can be assessed as an internal manifestation.
If everyone in a similar situation behaves in a similar way, we can talk about consistency behavior.
Finally, we evaluate consistency person's actions. How will the person behave next?
The person receives information selectively, that is, it passes through a kind of psychological filter. Any characteristic that makes a person, object, or event stand out increases the likelihood that it will be perceived.
Projection. This is a tendency for a person to attribute his own feelings, moods, experiences, fears and motives of activity to other people.
Stereotypes. These are forms of existence that are stable and closed from the influence of new experience. In the structure of a stereotype, the main role is played by its emotional charge, which clearly indicates what is accepted and what is unacceptable, what is “good” or “bad” in relation to any object.
Gallo effect. It occurs when an impression of an individual is made on the basis of single characteristics - intelligence, sociability or appearance.
Opinion of others can form an attitude towards a partner, which will not allow a sufficiently critical assessment of the partner's behavior.
Simplification close to the halo effect, but slightly different from it. The essence of simplification is the formation of a fairly “complete” idea of \u200b\u200ba partner based on very fragmentary information obtained on the basis of a first impression, to which some people attach too much importance.
Communication incompetence: low level of culture, inability to listen and adequately understand your partner, inability to competently and, no less important, clearly express your thoughts.
19. PERSONALITY
Settings- these are sensations, feelings and beliefs, which largely determine the perception of the external environment by employees, prompting them to plan certain actions and deeds.
Employee attitudes are of great importance to the organization. Negative attitudes are a symptom of problems that have arisen and at the same time the cause of future difficulties. The consequences of such attitudes are sudden strikes, reduced work intensity, absenteeism and high employee turnover, etc. Favorable attitudes of employees, on the contrary, have a positive impact on the results of the organization.
concept "social setting" is used to denote a one-way psychological connection of a person - with people, any animate and inanimate objects and phenomena. In social psychology, the definition given by G. Allport is more often used: "social attitude- this is a state of psychological readiness of a person to behave in a certain way in relation to an object, determined by her past experience.
The attitude as a holistic phenomenon is formed on the basis of not only the individual's own experience, but also the experience received from other people, therefore the main form of transmission of attitudes is verbal(verbal).
Installations of this type, when in his personal experience a person deals with a separate, single object, are called private(partial). generalized settings, i.e., attitudes towards a set of homogeneous objects owe their origin to interpersonal and mass communication. They serve as a factor in strengthening the attitudes of the individual, since listening to opinions that are consistent with the views of the individual strengthens him in the correctness of his own attitudes and encourages him to turn to the same source for information.
Main installation properties- stability or volatility. If an individual in all situations implements a habitual and natural way of behavior in relation to an object, then this indicates the stability of his attitude. One factor in changing attitudes is the impact of mass media. The attitude manifests its influence on behavior and activity as a practical determinant of things and phenomena to which a person's vital interests are directed and which are undesirable, unpleasant for him. Distinguish types of installations according to their modality: 1) positive (“for” the object); 2) negative (“against” the object); 3) neutral.
Main installation function- regulation of the social behavior of the individual. The system of individual attitudes provides the possibility of his orientation in social reality.
"The La Pierre Paradox": systematic discrepancy between the declared attitudes towards the object and the behavior dictated by the situation.
Protective function of social attitude is achieved by striving for uniformity of attitudes in the immediate social environment, for example, between members of the same family or work collective. Asocial the attitude protects the self-esteem of the subject in the group if he acts in a certain way and refrains from other, unauthorized behavior.
20. ROLE BEHAVIOR IN ORGANIZATION
Each employee performs a certain role, and how successfully he performs it and how satisfied he is with the nature, content and results of his activities in the organization and his interaction with the organizational environment, will depend on the degree of likelihood of conflict contradictions that disrupt the interaction between a person and an organization.
Necessary conditions successful role behavior are clarity and acceptability of the role.
Under certain circumstances, the performance of a certain role can be hampered by contradictions generated by the role itself.
At the same time, in some situations, the uncertainty of roles can be considered as a positive characteristic of relations in the organization, as it contributes to the development of independence, training of employees, expands the scope of decision-making and develops a sense of responsibility and obligation in relation to the organization among members of the organization.
The main reasons leading to conflicts are:
Performance by the employee of several roles, mutually exclusive at certain moments;
The presence of a conflicting order or a conflicting task;
Contradictions between the values of the individual and the nature of the role performed by him;
Change in the content of the role, accompanied by a discrepancy in remuneration;
Role overloading when an employee's tasks go beyond the scope of the role.
Contradictions and conflicts that arise in the performance of roles can be eliminated by:
1) changes in work (content and method of performing the role);
2) human development (training, etc.);
3) role shifts of employees.
Distinguish between formal and informal role status.
Formal status reflects the location of the role in the hierarchical structure of the organization, shows what power rights its performer has, what is his position in the formal hierarchy of distribution, influence on the activities of the organization.
Informal the status of the role is determined by the surrounding people and is set either by the personal characteristics of its performer, or by the informally defined meanings and influence of the role in the organization.
When studying role behavior, when building interaction between a person and an organization, it is possible to determine the entire set of actions that are carried out by the organization in the process of its functioning.
21. METHODS OF STUDYING THE PERSONALITY OF THE WORKER
In order to successfully collaborate with an employee in achieving common goals, The manager must know:
1) vocational training the employee, his ability to perform a certain type of work, the "power" of incentives for this particular activity;
2) socio-psychological qualities, in particular, the ability of a person to interact with other people in the process of joint work;
3) business qualities, that is, the ability, without fussiness and extra effort, to achieve certain practical results in a short time;
4) intellectual and psychological capabilities: flexibility of intellect and willpower, creativity and ability to take risks, initiative and sober calculation;
5) the conditions under which personality traits are manifested, and the limits beyond which they begin to falter. It is necessary to be able to operate with this knowledge in order to obtain a reliable forecast of the business (and sometimes everyday) behavior of an employee.
observation method. The object of observation and the purpose for which it is conducted must be determined, the mode (order, algorithm) of observation should be chosen.
Observation is effective from the moment when the signs of the effectiveness of a person’s work and the signs of the features of the process of his activity are clearly defined, presented in the form of a single system and can be recorded in a standard way.
Business game method. These games actually display all the main points of managerial activity, which is why many of them can be used as a means of testing managerial abilities.
Trial move method: a person is checked in natural or specially organized conditions by appointing him to a position previously not occupied by him. A classic example is the replacement of the first head for the duration of the vacation by one of his deputies. The transfer method will be effective if the time to fill the position is long enough for the auditee to make independent decisions.
Method for solving educational management problems. Instead of real tasks, it is possible to offer a system of training tasks that are adequate or similar to real ones in terms of solution structures and level of complexity. This method allows, by varying the content of tasks, to determine more accurately than other methods whether a person has the ability to solve not only today's real problems, but also problems of the future.
22. GROUP CONCEPT
In the system of different scientific disciplines, the concept "Group" interpreted differently. So, G. M. Andreeva gives the definition conditional groups: these are associations of people according to some common feature that is necessary in a given system of analysis for the purposes of statistical accounting and scientific research.
Real groups are associations of people in which there is a unity of activity, conditions, circumstances, signs. Groups are large and small (contact), in which there is the possibility of direct contact of each with each.
Small groups- these are two or more persons interacting with each other in such a way that each person influences the others and at the same time is influenced by other persons.
Groups are divided into formal and informal.
Formal groups have a legal status and are created by management to consolidate the division of labor and improve its organization; the role and place of these groups in the overall labor process are defined in the regulatory document "Regulations on the subdivision". Among the formal groups, there are teams- subordinate groups of the head and his employees, workers(target) groups created for the purpose and for the duration of a specific task, committees- special and permanent groups, which are delegated certain powers for management, coordination of activities, etc. (board of the bank, board of directors).
On the basis of the performance of socially significant work by a formal group, the concept is distinguished "labor collective"- a working group that has reached a high level of cohesion, acting as a new system, a single community that combines the advantages of formal and informal groups.
informal groups are formed spontaneously to meet the individual needs of workers who, for one reason or another (incompetent leadership, authoritarian methods of leadership, etc.) are not satisfied within the framework of a formal group. The behavior of members of informal groups led by an informal leader can either help or hinder the achievement of the goals of the organization.
23. MAIN CHARACTERISTICS OF THE GROUP
The main characteristics of the group include:
Group members- depends on its type and can be designated by a set of certain characteristics, parameters;
group structure depending on the objectives of the study and the conditions defined as essential, it can be designated from the standpoint of the implementation of the relations "power - subordination", preferences, interpersonal relations, division of labor, communications, material and documentary flows in the group in the process of joint work, etc. .;
group processes- these are the processes of communication, interaction (status, role, position of group members and their changes), perceptions (perception by group members of other members and other groups), attraction (attractiveness, attraction), as well as organizational processes: group formation, formation, increase in cohesion , pressure in the group, leadership, organization of joint activities, decision-making;
group norms- these are elements of group culture, rules of proper behavior from the point of view of the group for each status level, and often for each member of the group. The Group expects the proper implementation of the standards and rules of conduct established by it and, in appropriate behavior, applies sanctions, aimed at adjustment (encouragement and punishment).
The composition of the group, the processes occurring in it and group norms determine group potential. Identifying the potential of the group and the degree of its use, as well as determining and creating conditions in which the positive orientation of the potential is used more efficiently, and the negative one ceases to manifest itself, is a serious problem for the head of the organization, the leader of the group and its members.
24. FACTORS OF GROUP BEHAVIOR
Studies have shown that the group performance rate can increase several times if the performance of each influences the success of the others and depends on their overall success.
There are the following main group behavior factors:
1) professional harmony of the group, which is formed as a result of joint work in a team and manifests itself in the norms of interchangeability, complementarity, mutual responsibility, etc.;
2) moral and psychological cohesion: the presence of norms of mutual assistance and mutual support based on the common ideas about themselves:
3) interpersonal compatibility: psychological readiness of workers to cooperate with each other;
4) purposefulness and democracy- Basically, these factors are set by the leader and depend on his position in relation to the group. For example, a goal setting can be imposed by management or developed jointly by all employees;
5) productivity and job satisfaction. This factor is an indicator of professional group efforts, which shows how much the human potential of the group has been embodied in specific deeds, how much the labor efforts of the professional group are recognized, if the remuneration of its employees is accrued according to the final results.
The successful work of a professional group also depends on other factors, which can be called variables:
Group level of claims, i.e., the mood of employees to achieve results;
Qualification potential;
Requirements for the final result, which determines the quality of group work;
Degree of interaction with other professional groups;
Gender and age composition of the group;
Intra-group interpersonal communications, the violation of which can bring down the working rhythm, the pace of work and reduce the quality;
Positions that can be individual or variable, when one of the employees turns out to be the leader in certain situations;
The permanence of a professional group or the temporary nature of its work.
The group performance rate is the most important variable factor in the work of the group, the axis of all intra-group relations.
25. DIFFERENTIAL FEATURES OF SMALL GROUPS
In a small (primary) labor collective, the processes of achieving production and educational goals are concretized, the connection between personal, group (collective) and state interests is expressed directly, the most frequent and stable interpersonal contacts are made, collectivist relations are formed.
The primary labor collective is characterized by appropriate structures and performs certain functions. Its development occurs in accordance with socio-psychological group dynamics processes, the main ones are:
Communication of employees;
Team cohesion;
Labor conflicts;
Guidance and leadership, etc.
Members of the primary labor collective work in direct contact and interaction, direct contact with each of the subordinates and the head of this team.
In the primary labor collective, the socio-psychological characteristics of this collective are formed: value orientations, norms, attitudes, moods, traditions, moral and psychological climate.
Value Orientation groups - a socially conditioned orientation of the consciousness and behavior of a group, which has a social and group significance, expressed in the preference of relations to certain objects.
social attitude- the readiness of the team for a certain assessment of the situation and the way of working in it, predisposition to certain events, people, objects.
Tradition- a way to implement sustainable social relations, supported by the power of public opinion, collective habits and beliefs.
Moral and psychological climate- a relatively stable emotional mood prevailing in the team, which includes the moods of people, their emotional experiences and unrest, attitudes towards each other, surrounding events.
26. FORMING A CLOSED GROUP
Cohesion- one of the most important qualities that determine the effectiveness of group activities. The determinants of cohesion are:
1) group time: too short a period does not allow achieving a high level of cohesion, and too long can lead to a decrease in the achieved level;
2) group size: an increase in the number of group members (more than nine people) may lead to a decrease in cohesion;
3) Age of group members: collectives are considered more cohesive, whose members are peers;
4) external threat: the leader often does not take into account that the disappearance of an external threat often leads to a violation of cohesion;
5) previous success: Pride in joint achievements increases cohesion, while failure, on the contrary, reduces it. Common attitudes and value orientations (for example, religion and ethics) also contribute to group cohesion.
Efficiency joint activities are related to:
With the emotional closeness of the participants in joint activities;
With the participation of group members in setting the goals of joint activities;
With interdependence, which involves mutual assistance, mutual compensation for shortcomings;
With timely and skillful resolution of the conflict;
With the refusal to hide conflicts, the search for solutions of true consent;
With the characteristics of group leadership;
With group cohesion.
High requirements for joining the group, complex rituals and prestige of the group make it more cohesive. Isolation from other people increases the interaction and interdependence of group members. The growth of cohesion is facilitated by the democratic nature of procedures, the participation of group members in decision-making.
Each team develops its own norms, attitudes, values, traditions, so managing a team is a special and more difficult task than managing each subordinate individually.
One of the most important areas for improving the efficiency of an organization is the correct selection of its composition: the higher the qualifications, education, professional culture of the members of the team, the higher the social needs, activity, level of development of the team as a whole, the more developed the desire of each member of the organization to actively influence the affairs of his team.
The cohesion and compatibility of people in a team, the moral and psychological climate are also determined by the correct approach to the formation of a team, taking into account socio-psychological factors: number, age, gender, level of education, type of temperament, etc.
27. STAGES OF TEAM DEVELOPMENT
As teams develop, they usually go through certain stages:
1) "lapping". At first glance, the new team looks businesslike and organized, but in fact people look at each other and try to determine their degree of interest in creating it.
Genuine feelings are often hidden, one person raises his authority, and the interaction takes place in familiar forms. There is almost no discussion of goals and methods of work. People are often not interested in colleagues and almost do not listen to each other, in fact, without engaging in creative and inspired teamwork;
2) "close combat". Many collectives go through a period of upheaval, when the contribution of the leader is evaluated, clans are formed, factions are formed and differences are expressed more openly. Personal relationships are of great importance, the strengths and weaknesses of individual individuals are manifested. The team begins to discuss how to reach an agreement, tries to improve relationships. Sometimes there is a power struggle for leadership;
3) "experimentation". The potential of the collective increases, and it begins to decide how to use the abilities and resources now available. Often the team works in jerks, but it has energy and a desire to understand how it can work better. Working methods are reviewed, there is a desire to experiment, measures are taken to increase productivity;
4) "efficiency". The team gains experience in successfully solving problems and using resources. Emphasis is placed on the proper use of resources, time and clarification of tasks. Employees begin to take pride in being part of the “winning team,” and approach problems realistically and solve them creatively. Management functions are smoothly transferred from one employee to another depending on the specific task;
5) "maturity". In a developed team, there are strong ties between its members. People are judged by their merits, not by their claims. Relationships are informal but satisfying. Personal differences are quickly resolved. The team turns into a prosperous cell of society - a team and is admired by outsiders. He is capable of delivering superior results and sets high standards of achievement.
The leader of the team must be able to anticipate the onset of the next stage in the development of the team and lead the group forward. With the improvement of the quality of the work of the team, the possibilities for introducing innovations in the management process are expanding. Delegation of authority is expanding, and more people are involved in planning and decision-making. The leader helps the team go through all stages of development and reach its full potential, using both personal example and authority for this.
28. ESSENCE OF ORGANIZATIONAL AND MANAGEMENT METHODS OF MANAGEMENT
When it comes to the ways in which the control system influences the objects of control or the ways in which some links of the control system influence others, we are dealing with management methods. When it comes to the methods of influence of the leader himself, we mean leadership methods.
Management methods and management methods are interconnected, they realize interrelated goals and objectives, but at the same time they have specific goals and features.
Management methods are, on the one hand, more fundamental than management methods; on the other hand, the use of management methods is largely carried out through the specific activities of the leader, that is, through management methods.
Leadership Methods are diverse, among them are: methods organizational impact- rely primarily on power, the right to dispose, the official authority of the leader, and economic and socio-psychological- on the use of the material and spiritual interests of workers, their psychological characteristics.
organize It means bringing people together to work together. The word "organization" has a double meaning: firstly, as the function of a leader to organize people; secondly, as a system that unites people and resources.
Organization as a function of leadership consists of components:
a) have a clear plan;
b) the ability of the organization to achieve and fulfill the requirements of the plan;
c) the availability of people, money, materials, other resources to complete the task;
d) the presence of competent leaders who would be able to make the organization achieve its goals and consolidate what has been achieved.
Seven main elements of the organization(P. M. Kerzhentsev):
1) purpose (what is the purpose of the work?);
2) type of organization (what form of organization is most appropriate for the intended work?);
3) methods (what organizational methods will it be possible to achieve the intended goal?);
4) people (with the help of what people and how many of them will the work be done?);
5) material resources;
7) control (how to keep records of work and organize real control over its implementation?).
The work of the leader is closely related to the organizational function. Leadership is a chain of organizational actions. You can manage the entire course of the life of the team, and you can organize the performance of a specific task by specific people. The organizational function is one of the most important functions of a leader.
29. RULES FOR EFFECTIVE REQUESTS
The main rules, following which the leader can hope for the effective execution of his orders:
1) any assignment must be objectively necessary;
2) do not give instructions if there is no certainty that it is real and can be carried out;
3) before giving an order, consult with a subordinate;
4) provide the subordinate with the conditions necessary to perform the work;
5) when giving instructions, take into account the individual characteristics of subordinates;
6) instructions should educate and develop independence and initiative among subordinates;
7) it is better to give instructions in the form of a request, not an order;
8) give instructions in a calm, friendly, firm and confident tone;
9) under any circumstances, remember the need to be polite and to preserve the subordinate's self-esteem;
10) teach more than command;
11) interest the subordinate in the social significance of the task, its immediate practical benefit for the team and for him personally;
12) organize an atmosphere of competition, arouse in the employee a desire to excel, to show his abilities, emphasize his special role, the importance of his efforts;
13) do not entrust the contractor with several tasks at the same time;
14) make sure that the subordinate clearly understands the essence of the assignment and his tasks;
15) indicate the exact date of completion of the work and the form of its submission;
16) require the subordinate to perform the work entrusted to him;
17) do not allow a subordinate to shift his task to you;
18) do not allow unauthorized assignments;
19) when giving a subordinate responsibility for the execution of the assignment, remember that your personal responsibility as a leader does not decrease.
30. ORGANIZATIONAL AND FUNCTIONAL STRUCTURE OF ORGANIZATION MANAGEMENT
The purpose of organizational activity is the creation of a good organizational and functional management structure and the correct selection of performers.
For the effective operation of the organization, it is important to clearly and clearly define the functional responsibilities and powers of the staff, as well as their relationship in the process of work.
Duties and powers of employees are established by:
job descriptions(set the scope of powers and measures of responsibility of a person holding a certain position);
Organizational-functional organizational charts(displays the interactions (relationships) between the individual links in the control system).
1) the principle of division into groups of equal size;
2) a functional feature - the creation of departments for production, marketing, personnel, financial issues, etc.;
3) territorial sign - if the enterprise operates in territories remote from each other;
4) type of manufactured products;
5) the interests of consumers - this is especially true for the service department.
In addition to creating an organizational structure and selecting performers, the organizational function includes the provision of materials, tools, and workspaces.
The head, starting to develop and implement the organizational structure scheme, must provide for the following necessary conditions and principles:
1. Proper selection of performers, their training.
2. The employee undertakes to comply with all reasonable instructions of his superiors, and the enterprise undertakes to pay for his services; Anyone dissatisfied with their job has the right to quit.
3. Work should be divided into parts so that each worker can quickly and easily master his area of work.
4. Clear job descriptions should be created.
5. Each employee should have only one direct supervisor.
6. Creation of conditions for the performance of departments and employees of their tasks and duties.
There are no standard constructions of the organizational structure, since each company has its own characteristics.
The scheme should reflect the real structure of the company and not be a theoretical model. If there are difficulties in drawing up the organizational and functional diagram of the enterprise, this may mean that the organization itself is defective.
31. CONTENT OF THE ORGANIZATIONAL MANAGEMENT STRUCTURE
Organizational management structures can be different in complexity and detail, but any of them contains three blocks:
Linear;
Functional;
Providing.
Line block provides the main production functions of the enterprise (at the plant these are workshops, in the army - combat units, at the construction site - sections, brigades, etc.). As the volume and complexity of production grows, departments need more and more to provide conditions for the performance of their functions.
Function block organizational structure provides assistance with its recommendations to line and support services.
Functional services can also make decisions on functional issues - on labor and wages, production, technological development, etc.
providing block, i.e., the support service, is designed to free the linear links from non-production functions. The accounting department, the personnel department, the planning department and other departments, in addition to the support functions, also perform advisory functions under the head.
The problems of ensuring a clear interaction of line, functional and supporting services can be minimized with a clear interaction of these services.
32. DIVISIONAL MANAGEMENT STRUCTURE OF THE ORGANIZATION
One of the varieties of organizational management structures is divisional structure. The first developments of its concept date back to the 20s, and the peak of its industrial use - to the 60s-70s. 20th century
The key figures in the management of organizations with a divisional structure are not the heads of functional units, but managers(managers) heading production departments.
Structuring organizations by departments are usually made according to one of three criteria: by products or services provided (product specialization); by consumer orientation (consumer specialization); serviced territories (regional specialization).
Some businesses produce a wide range of products or services that meet the needs of several large consumer groups or markets. Each group or market has well-defined needs. If two or more of these needs become particularly important to an enterprise, it may use a customer-facing organizational structure.
An example of the active use of a consumer-oriented organizational structure is commercial banks; the main groups of consumers using their services are individual clients (individuals), pension funds, trust companies, international financial organizations.
Flaw. Divisional management structures led to an increase in hierarchy, i.e., the vertical of management, required the formation of intermediate levels of management to coordinate the work of departments, groups, etc. The duplication of management functions at different levels ultimately contributed to an increase in the cost of maintaining the administrative apparatus.
Positive points- the concentration of management functions in only one production manager; clearer consolidation of authority and responsibility for key results; more efficient control system; freedom of behavior of the individual. Different types of divisional structure have the same goal - to ensure a more effective response of the enterprise to a particular environmental factor.
The heads of production departments, within the framework of the product or territory assigned to them, coordinate activities not only “along the line”, but also “by functions”, thereby developing the required qualities of general management in themselves. This creates a good talent pool for the strategic level of the organization. The division of decisions into levels speeds up their adoption and improves their quality.
33. CLASSIFICATION OF MANAGEMENT STYLES
Leadership style is a set of techniques and methods of management inherent in a certain type of leader.
Comparative characteristics of traditional and "modern" leadership styles
traditional head: Applies criticism
Modern leader: Applies praise
traditional head: Gives orders and instructions
Modern leader: Defines goals oriented to the consciousness of subordinates
traditional head: Takes the efforts of subordinates for granted
Modern leader: Praises for effort and results
traditional head: Emphasizes a job order
Modern leader: Emphasizes reward
traditional head: The main thing for him is that the subordinate must be at his workplace all the time
Modern leader: Stimulates the improvement of the efficiency and quality of work of subordinates, focuses on trust and final results
traditional head: Behavior - purely official
Modern leader: Behavior - friendly, democratic, relaxed
Even the most progressive leader must master both the latest methods of influencing subordinates and traditional ones in order to be able to act depending on the nature of the subordinate and the current situation.
Depending on the degree of manifestation of collegiality and unity of command, three main leadership styles can be distinguished: authoritarian (autocratic), democratic and liberal, which are rarely found in their “pure form”.
Authoritarian style- this is the use of orders, instructions, instructions that do not involve objections from subordinates. The leader himself determines who, what, when, how to do it, gives commands and requires reports on their execution. It is used in emergency situations - in a military situation, in the event of various kinds of natural or man-made disasters.
Negative The qualities of an autocrat are especially evident when the leader lacks organizational skills, general culture, and professional training. In these circumstances, such a leader can turn into a petty tyrant. Advantages: lightning-fast reaction, vigor, decisiveness, speed of decision-making, perseverance.
Democratic style management implies benevolent advice, instructions in the form of requests, active participation of subordinates in the development of managerial decisions. This is the most effective leadership style, because it instills initiative in subordinates, a creative attitude to work, a sense of responsibility, and ownership.
liberal style leadership is the non-interference of the leader in the work of subordinates, at least until the subordinates themselves ask the leader for advice. This style is acceptable only in those limited cases when the subordinates are higher or equal to the leader in terms of their qualifications and at the same time they know the main production tasks of the team no worse than him.
34. FORMATION OF INDIVIDUAL STYLE OF LEADERSHIP
individual leadership style, based on a democratic style, which turns into an authoritarian one in acute situations, and into a liberal one in relation to creative individuals of high qualification, can be considered the optimal leadership style.
When evaluating the individual leadership style, special importance is attached to the ability of the manager to achieve mutual understanding with employees of different ages, gender, different professions, different education, marital status, temperament, and qualifications. The ability of a leader to convince people, to inspire them to carry out even unpleasant tasks for them, to help them replace their usual way of acting with a new, more rational, more efficient one is also valued.
Effective leadership is not to limit yourself to the rigid framework of any one style: all styles fit into the framework of the general theory of management, all of them can be useful and even necessary in one situation or another.
Formation of the right individual style will promote adherence to the following principles.
Feedback. Subordinates, as a rule, seek to know the assessment of their work directly from their supervisor. The leader must be able to timely and accurately evaluate the work of subordinates.
Determining the freedom of action of a subordinate. Knowing the nature of his subordinates, the manager must decide in each individual case how to make the work of the employee more efficient.
Consider the attitude of the subordinate to work. The manager helps his subordinates develop the correct psychological orientation, establish a scale of life values, and clearly define the place of work in their lives.
Orientation to the final results of the work.
Promotion. The leader must inspire subordinates that the best way to make a career is to do their daily duties well, supplementing this with hints of the desirability of a promotion.
leader's personal behavior. The leader cannot afford to express personal likes and dislikes.
Repeat and repeat. A leader should not expect people to understand his orders the first time.
Don't be overly gloomy and serious. The manager must understand that humor helps to soften the most stressful situations.
35. AUTHORITY OF THE LEADER
True leader's authority represents a well-deserved respect for him and is based on such components as knowledge, experience, the mind of the leader, his trust in subordinates and his exactingness towards them, caring for them, high personal qualities.
An ineptly formed individual leadership style contributes to the emergence of a manager's false authority, which reduces the effectiveness of leadership; subordinates often flatter the leader, in fact, without respecting him.
The high authority of a manager in a subordinate group or organization is the basis of his high reputation, which is a broader concept than the authority of the leader. The positive reputation of the manager inspires trust and respect of the staff, increases his own self-esteem.
If the authority of a manager is determined by his assessment by members of a group or organization, then reputation is formed from communication and interaction in all areas of his interaction with society - in the organization, family, politics, region, everyday life.
In general constituents formation positive reputation manager can be his professional competence, leadership qualities and personal authority in the organization, leadership style, image, performance and healthy lifestyle, his assessment by society in different areas and situations.
The psychological preparedness of a leader is, first of all, a management culture, good manners, the ability to manage one's feelings and emotions, a sense of responsibility, and collectivism.
Of great importance for a leader is his ability to speak simply, clearly, expressively, emotionally, clearly and concisely.
The quiet and calm tone of the leader gives weight and business character to his words.
The leader should not show familiarity.
The leader must be able not only to speak, but, no less important, to listen, and also to call the subordinate to a conversation in order to understand him.
Both the appearance of the leader and his ability to behave in society have a psychological impact on the subordinate.
36. TYPES AND CULTURE OF COMMUNICATION
Communication is a form of human activity that ensures the emergence of psychological contact, manifested in the exchange of information, mutual influence, mutual experience and understanding.
Communication can be written, oral, telephone, e-mail, etc. Each type of communication has its own techniques and methods.
Types of communication:
“contact of masks” - formal communication, in which there is no desire to understand and take into account the personality of the interlocutor, the usual masks are used (politeness, severity, indifference, etc.), i.e. a set of gestures, standard phrases that allow you to hide true emotions, relationship with the interlocutor. In some situations, "mask contact" is necessary;
Primitive communication, when a person is assessed as a necessary or interfering object: in the first case, they actively make contact, in the second, they use aggressive, rude remarks. Having received what they want from the interlocutor, they lose interest in him, without hiding it;
Formal-role communication, in which both the content and means of communication are regulated, and instead of knowing the personality of the interlocutor, knowledge of his social role is dispensed with;
Business communication, when the characteristics of the personality, character, age, mood of the interlocutor are taken into account, but the interests of the case are more significant than possible personal differences;
spiritual fellowship of friends, when you can touch on any topic without necessarily resorting to words, a friend will understand you by facial expressions, gestures, and intonation. Such communication is possible when each participant can anticipate the interlocutor's reactions, knows his interests, beliefs, etc.;
manipulative communication, aimed at extracting benefits from the interlocutor using various techniques (flattery, intimidation, deceit, demonstration of kindness, etc.), depending on the characteristics of the interlocutor;
secular communication, in which people say not what they think, but what is supposed to be said in such cases; this communication is closed, because people's points of view on a particular issue do not matter and do not determine the nature of this kind of communication.
basis communication culture constitute its moral norms: contracts must be fulfilled, a person is the highest value, the need to imagine oneself in the place of another.
The quality of his work, the emotional mood of employees, the stability of the staff, the socio-psychological climate in the organization, the presence or absence of conflict situations, the development of business contacts that affect the economic situation in the organization depend on the art of business communication of the head.
37. MECHANISM OF STAFF PARTICIPATION IN MANAGEMENT
Empowering Employees is any process that provides workers with greater autonomy by increasing their access to information and providing control over the factors that determine the performance of work tasks. Giving power helps to eliminate the feeling of powerlessness among employees, strengthening the sense of self-worth. Main ways to give employees power:
1) help employees achieve a high level of working knowledge and skills:
2) expanding the functions of employee control (providing greater freedom of action in the labor process, accompanied by increased responsibility for results);
3) familiarizing employees with examples of successful role models (observing the actions of highly effective employees);
4) the practice of social encouragement and persuasion;
5) emotional support.
Various methods are used to empower employees. behavioral tools(joint goal setting, performance feedback, modeling, various reward systems), but the main ones are various participation programs in management. The implementation of such programs contributes to the formation of a sense of ownership among employees, their participation in decision-making processes and a sense of the possibility of choosing a working environment.
Participation in management implies that in order to achieve the goals of the organization, employees get the opportunity to realize their abilities, take initiative and be creative. In accordance with the "path-goal" management method, participation in the decision-making process is associated with a high sense of responsibility of employees, an increase in their degree of motivation to achieve goals.
Participation in management causes a change in the motivation of employees who get the opportunity to influence the situation, an increase in self-esteem, the degree of job satisfaction, and an improvement in interactions with managers. In addition, the likelihood of conflicts and stress is reduced, the susceptibility of workers to change is increased, employee turnover and absenteeism are reduced, and communication is improved.
A critical element in the effectiveness of any participatory management program is the degree to which employees involved take responsibility for the opportunities provided to them.
38. THE ESSENCE OF CONFLICTS
Conflict- this is a contradiction that arises between people in the process of solving certain issues.
One of the parties to the conflict requires a change in the behavior of the other side. However, not every contradiction can be called a conflict: the fact that people have different views, judgments about any problem does not interfere with their well-coordinated work. The emergence of a conflict is facilitated by contradictions affecting the interests, status, moral dignity of an individual or group. Conflicts create tense relations in the team, switch the attention of employees from direct work to “showing things off”, and have a severe effect on their neuro-psychological state.
The conflict is a multidimensional, dynamic, developing process, which has not only forms of manifestation, but also the following development stages:
1) conflict situation;
2) the actual conflict (incident);
3) conflict resolution.
A large role in creating conflicts is played by deliberate, deliberate intrigue, the purpose of which is to force people to act according to the planned scenario. You can reduce the possibility of intrigue development by:
Formation of stable personal ideas about phenomena and processes;
Creation of acceptable information transparency at all levels of activity;
Formation of the organizational culture of the team and the company;
Creation of cohesive purposeful teams.
39. TYPES OF CONFLICTS
Conflicts are divided into natural and artificial. natural- arise spontaneously when there is a large discrepancy between someone's idea of a person, organization or activity and the person's own idea of himself, organization or activity. artificial conflicts are created by people to achieve certain goals, including to relieve accumulated stress.
depending on the degree of involvement of employees in them conflicts are:
On the horizontal(employees who are not subordinate to each other are involved);
vertical(they involve subordinate employees);
mixed(employees are involved, both those who are not subordinate to each other, and those who are subordinate).
emotional conflicts: their source is distrust, suspiciousness, based not on objective, but on subjective reasons.
The socio-psychological typology of conflicts is based on the relationship of people within their relationships in a team.
Motivational conflicts. The most pronounced motives are security, belonging to a certain community, prestige, self-esteem, self-realization.
Communication conflicts. There is a communication conflict when no one dares to establish feedback with the leader, that is, no one pays the attention of the boss to his mistakes. A similar situation is when an employee does not hear the words of recognition, as a result of which he loses self-confidence.
Conflicts of power and anarchy: when the leader is opposed by the opposition, which is joined by the majority of employees.
intrapersonal conflict. One of its most common forms is role-playing conflict, when a person is presented with conflicting demands as to what the result of his work should be.
interpersonal conflict The most common. Most often, this is the struggle of managers for limited resources, capital, labor, equipment use time, or project approval.
Such conflict also manifests itself as a clash of personalities: people with different character traits, attitudes and values are sometimes unable to get along with each other.
Conflict between the individual and the group. If the expectations of the group conflict with the expectations of the individual, conflict may arise.
Intergroup conflict. Intergroup conflicts can arise between the trade union and the administration, between formal and informal groups.
40. A CONFLICT SITUATION AND ITS GROWTH INTO A CONFLICT
The basic concept of conflict is conflict situation, which implies the presence of two main components - the participants in the conflict (opponents) and the subject of the conflict.
Participants in the conflict due to the complexity of their structures, they are not identical among themselves "in strength", i.e., in rank. If a participant in the conflict acts in it only on his own behalf and pursues only his personal interests and goals, then he is referred to as an opponent of the first rank. If a group of individuals pursuing a common group goal enters into a conflict, then we are talking about an opponent of the second rank. The opponent of the third rank is a structure consisting of simple groups of the second rank directly interacting with each other. An opponent of zero rank is a person who, in contradiction with himself, develops his own position.
The underlying cause of the conflict situation is the subject of the conflict. Its definition is the most difficult, but the main task, which is solved simultaneously with the identification of the causes of the conflict.
For a conflict to arise, in addition to the participants (opponents) and the subject of the conflict, certain actions are required on the part of opponents, called incident.
In this way, conflict- this is a conflict situation plus an incident (actions of the participants in the conflict). Conflict situation can exist long before a direct collision of opponents, it can pass to new opponents even when the causes of the conflict have already disappeared. Incident can arise both at the initiative of opponents (or one of them), and for objective reasons (for example, the failure of an important task or a manager’s mistake).
The conflict situation and the incident are relatively independent of each other. Thus, a conflict situation may be based on objective circumstances, and an incident may arise unexpectedly. On the other hand, a conflict situation (like an incident) can be created intentionally by the opponent in order to achieve certain goals. The situation can also be generated by him without a purpose or even to his own detriment for reasons of a psychological nature.
41. CAUSES OF CONFLICTS
In socio-psychological terms, a conflict situation is a sharp discrepancy between the expected and specific actions of employees that has arisen in the field of communication.
The occurrence of conflict is result of interaction the following three components:
Situation (a set of objective prerequisites that provoke the emergence of a conflict);
The identity of the participant in the conflict (her awareness of the situation of entry into the conflict);
The attitude of the individual to the situation (the presence of her motives for entering into a conflict).
In a conflict situation, it is very important for a leader to determine the true cause of the conflict in time, since the main thing for eliminating conflicts is to eliminate their prerequisites.
The reasons conflicts occur:
1. Inability to correctly formulate the goal and setting the wrong goal by the leader.
2. Inability to take into account the individual characteristics of people.
3. Innovative changes in the structure of the organization - a change of leaders, the emergence of new professional groups, promotions, pay cuts, etc.
4. Improper stimulation of subordinates with rewards and punishments.
5. Wrong attitude towards criticism.
6. Tactlessness, and sometimes rudeness on the part of the leader.
A special place is occupied by the so-called response aggression, when people begin to look for the culprit of all troubles and misfortunes in their close circle, in their environment.
The main condition for the conflict to develop into a quarrel and squabble is the dissatisfaction of the team members with each other, the subjective emotional attitude of one conflicting party to another. Negative emotions are the main cause of the conflict, while business disagreements in this case are just an excuse to express hostility towards a person.
The cause of the conflict can also be an accidental coincidence of circumstances - a kind of "force majeure". Such a conflict is difficult to foresee, and in this case, the leader has to act quickly on the results, and not to prevent the conflict.
42. WAYS TO RESOLVE CONFLICTS
The leader is obliged to intervene in the conflict, while clearly delimiting his legal and moral rights.
To resolve the conflict the leader must:
1) objectively assess the situation and recognize the existence of a conflict, which will remove many negative points (omissions, "behind-the-scenes" actions, etc.) and bring its resolution closer;
2) distinguish the cause of the conflict from its subject - the immediate cause, which is often masked;
3) determine the type of conflict, its stage, the subject of the conflict, the goals of the main participants (opponents) of the conflict;
4) find out the motives for entering into a conflict of each opponent, which can be both positive and negative;
5) before starting actions, present and analyze possible solutions.
Ways to get out of conflict based on the direct actions of the leader:
1) negotiations with opponents - when a compromise is reached, the basis of the conflict may disappear;
2) change the subject of the conflict, and therefore, change the attitude towards the conflict;
3) separate the disputes between the conflicting parties from the problem to be solved, analyze a number of possible ways to solve the problem and choose the best one, mutually acceptable to all parties to the conflict;
4) strive to create ideal jobs;
5) use an integrated approach to minimizing conflict situations, which includes:
Prevention of conflict situations by increasing the reliability of the personnel management system;
Development of algorithms for resolving conflicts on a scientific basis and a clear scheme of actions of the administration in specific situations;
Creation of an adequate system of mental self-regulation and high emotional stability of the staff; the use of psychotechnologies for a positive impact on staff;
Conflict-free procedures for the movement (redistribution), part-time employment and dismissal (reduction) of personnel.
If the conflict is based on objective conditions, then simply interrupting it without taking effective measures to overcome the causes can create an even more acute situation, since after the conflict is interrupted, the conflict situation persists.
43. CONCEPT OF LEADERSHIP
Every group has a leader. He may be appointed officially, or may not occupy any official position, but actually lead the team by virtue of his organizational abilities. The head is appointed officially, from the outside, and the leader is put forward "from below". The process of influencing people from the position of a leadership position in an organization is called formal leadership. However, a person in a high position cannot automatically become a leader in an organization, since leadership is largely informal.
informal leader is a member of the collective who collects a relatively large number of votes in any choice situation. Functions informal leader are reduced to two main ones:
Establishes benevolence, responsibility, mutual understanding, or, conversely, contributes to the emergence of aggressiveness and isolation of the group, acquisitiveness, etc.
Having established the norms, goals, customs and traditions of the group, the informal leader motivates the behavior of each of its members, forcing him to follow the standards of group behavior. The leader carries out motivation by evaluating the actions of a group member with a glance, gesture or word; the majority of group members voluntarily and not always consciously join this assessment.
Social psychology distinguishes, but does not oppose, the concepts of management and leadership. Management- this is the process of managing the labor activity of the team, carried out by the leader - an intermediary of social control and power on the basis of administrative and legal powers and social norms. Leadership- the process of internal socio-psychological self-organization and self-management of the relationships and activities of the members of the team due to the individual initiative of the participants.
The phenomenon of leadership arises in problem situations. However, in terms of group goals, leadership can be both positive and negative.
Psychological qualities of a leader:
Self confidence;
Sharp and flexible mind;
Competence as a thorough knowledge of one's business;
Strong will;
Ability to understand the peculiarities of human psychology;
Organizational skills.
Sometimes a leader becomes a person who does not have the listed qualities; on the other hand, a person may have these qualities, but not be a leader. According to situational leadership theory the leader becomes the person who, when a situation arises in a group, has the qualities, properties, abilities, experience necessary for the optimal solution of this situation for this group.
44. TYPES OF LEADERSHIP
There are two polar types of leadership - instrumental and emotional.
Instrumental(business) leader is a group member who takes the initiative in solving a problem situation in accordance with group goals and has the appropriate knowledge, information, skills and methods.
Emotional Leader- this is a member of the group who takes on the function of regulating group mood (expressive functions) in problem situations. Sometimes the position of an emotional leader is called the epicenter of emotional contacts.
Main functions, carried out by the leader:
Distribution of roles, responsibilities, tasks;
Control the behavior of each member of the group;
Planning the actions and means by which the group achieves its goals;
Representation of collective interests, will, desires;
Function of the arbiter;
Reference function;
Group symbol function;
The function of the bearer of responsibility;
The function of the "father" (the true leader is the focus of all the positive emotions of the group members, the ideal object of identification and feelings of devotion);
The function of the bearer of group guilt.
Strength and coercion in leadership are often replaced by motivation and inspiration. The impact is based on people's acceptance of the requirements of the leader, who does not use an explicit or direct manifestation of power.
Studies show that the knowledge and abilities of a leader are valued higher than the corresponding qualities of the rest of the group members.
45. LEADERSHIP AND POWER IN ORGANIZATION
From the point of view of the efficiency of the team, it is most expedient if the leader is at the same time its leader.
However, no matter how much a person strives to become a leader, he will never become one if others do not perceive him as a leader.
The leader is often appointed to his post, regardless of whether his subordinates believe that he fits this role. In other words, leadership is a social phenomenon in its essence, and leadership is psychological.
Leadership is not management. Management focuses on getting people to do things right, while leadership focuses on getting people to do the right things. An effective manager is not necessarily an effective leader, and vice versa.
Manager is a person who directs the work of others and is personally responsible for its results. A good manager establishes the order and sequence of the work to be done. He builds his interaction with subordinates more on facts and within the framework of established goals. Leader inspires people and instills enthusiasm in employees, conveying their vision of the future to them and helping them adapt to the new, go through the stage of change.
Managers most often, out of necessity, they are guided by someone set goals. Leaders they themselves set their own goals and use them to change people's attitudes to business.
Managers tend to develop their actions in detail and in time. Leaders achieve the effectiveness of the organization by developing a vision for the future and ways to achieve it, without delving into the operational details and routine.
Using their professionalism, various abilities and skills, managers concentrate their efforts in decision-making. They try to narrow down the set of ways to solve a problem. Decisions are often made on the basis of past experience. leaders, on the contrary, they are constantly trying to develop new and ambiguous solutions to the problem. Most importantly, once they solve a problem, leaders take on the risk and burden of identifying new problems, especially when there are significant opportunities to receive appropriate rewards.
It is obvious that in practice there is no perfect observance of these two types of relations in management.
46. EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP
In modern conditions, effective leadership is not an “iron” or “firm hand”, but a high sensitivity to the needs of its followers, which is manifested in the development of employees, in including them in group work, in helping them achieve personal goals.
An effective leader who meets the new management philosophy is a person who realizes that his authority directly depends on the respect of his subordinates, and not on his formal status.
Effective leader:
Available to any employee, and when discussing any problems, he is invariably friendly;
Deeply involved in the process of personnel management, constantly pays attention to incentive systems, personally knows many employees;
He does not tolerate office style, prefers to appear more often among ordinary workers and discuss problems on the ground, knows how to listen and hear, is resolute and persistent, is not reputed to be cunning;
We tolerate the expression of open disagreement, delegate authority to performers, build relationships on trust;
In difficult moments, does not seek to find someone to blame, prefers oral rather than written information;
Features of the leader's behavior:
1) instructions and orders give way to persuasion, strict control - to trust; transition to cooperation relations;
2) leaders-leaders strive to develop collective forms of work as a single team, which dramatically increases the mutual exchange of information between members of working groups;
3) leaders-leaders are always open to new ideas coming from colleagues, subordinates, clients. For such leaders, the free expression of ideas and the exchange of opinions become a natural form of relationship;
4) the leader strives to create and maintain a good psychological climate in the team, not to infringe on the interests of some employees at the expense of others, and readily and publicly recognizes the merits of employees.
Today we need leaders who can bring the organization out of crisis situations.
Characteristic features of activity Crisis leader:
Desire to become a leader in difficult situations and find pleasure in the performance of this role;
Striving for competitiveness in everything and always;
High adaptive ability;
Propensity to innovate;
Lack of fear of failures, using them as new starting points for development.
47. FORMING A MANAGER TEAM
In its general sense team is a single whole, a group of like-minded people united by a common goal. It is the commonality of goals that is the main condition for the formation of a team. A team has the potential to achieve much more than the sum of the accomplishments of individual workers.
The team can achieve its goals more or less effectively depending on the size and composition of the team, group norms, cohesion, conflict, status, functional role of its members and the work of the manager in managing his team.
Number. The ideal group should consist of 3-9 people. As the size of the group increases, communication between its members becomes more difficult and it becomes more difficult to reach agreement.
Compound(the degree of similarity of personalities, their points of view and approaches in solving problems). It is recommended that the group be made up of people with different points of view.
Group norms(group norms) have a strong influence on the behavior of each individual and on the direction in which the group will work, whether to achieve the goals of the organization or to resist them.
Cohesion- a measure of the attraction of group members to each other and to the group. In highly cohesive groups, there are usually fewer communication problems. A potential negative consequence of a high degree of cohesion is group like-mindedness.
Group consensus. This is a tendency for an individual to suppress his views on a phenomenon in order not to disturb the cohesion of the group. As a result, the decisions made by such a team are not always effective: the team tries to make an average decision that will not hurt anyone.
Conflict. Differences in opinion increase the likelihood of conflict. While an active exchange of opinions is beneficial, it can lead to intra-group disputes and other manifestations of open conflict, which are always detrimental.
It is the personal responsibility of all members of a good team to create an environment in which the potential of the team can flourish.
Team formation stages (B. Bass)
1) acceptance by members of the group of each other;
2) development of communications and development of a mechanism for making group decisions;
3) formation of group solidarity;
4) the desire to maximize group success through the rational use of individual abilities, opportunities and mutual assistance.
48. DISTRIBUTION OF THE ROLES OF THE MANAGER TEAM
A critical factor in determining the effectiveness of the manager's team is the distribution of functions among its members, i.e., the distribution of roles in the team. Target roles - development and implementation of the main team tasks. The activities of people playing target roles are aimed directly at achieving the goals of the group. Supportive roles contribute to the maintenance and revitalization of the life and activities of the team.
Target Roles
Chairman is the main role. This person performs a very specific role functional task.
Coordinator realizes and controls the process of activity and the goals of the team, pays attention to everyone, takes into account the feelings, interests and motives of the people in the team, summarizes incoming proposals. The main task is to create conditions conducive to ensuring that each member of the team makes his or her assigned role contribution.
Idea's generator develops new ideas, solutions, approaches.
Informant. His task is to find and provide the group with all the necessary information.
Expert expresses opinions or beliefs regarding a proposal.
Developer explains, gives examples, develops the idea, predicts the future fate of the proposal, if it is accepted.
Finisher generalizes, summarizes all proposals, sums up, formulates the final decision.
Each target role carries a huge functional load, so it is undesirable for one person to perform several roles at the same time. Given the specifics of production, the target roles may change, their list may be supplemented with new ones or, conversely, reduced.
The presence of players playing supportive roles is not necessary - these roles can be combined with other functions.
Key supporting roles
Promoter. His task is to be friendly, praise others for their ideas, agree with them and positively evaluate their contribution to solving the problem; resolve conflicts between team members.
Shaping. This person does not control or coordinate the process, but monitors its dynamics and supports it. It creates an environment in which each member of the team tries to work most effectively.
Executor should follow the decisions of the team, thinking thoughtfully about the ideas of other people.
setting criteria is obliged to establish the criteria by which the group should be guided when choosing substantive (or procedural) points (or evaluating the decision of the team).
Responsible for external contacts. His task is to connect the team with the outside world.
Many people combine different roles. In a combination of roles, the functions and abilities of the people included in the manager's team are balanced.
49. SELF-GOVERNED TEAMS
Self-managed teams These are working groups that have been given substantial autonomy. Such teams are fully responsible for the behavior of their members and the results of production activities. Members of a self-managed team may have several professions, i.e. they are multiprofessionals. This allows them to move from one task to another depending on the needs of the group.
Team meetings take up a significant amount of time as team members gradually take on more and more managerial responsibilities. As more experience emerges, self-managed teams are able to propose changes to pay or production organization.
There are no problems with the adaptation of a newcomer to the team, as the “veterans” are always ready to provide him with all possible assistance and pass on knowledge about organizational behavior and culture to him.
To benefits self-managed commands include:
Increasing flexibility and developing the potential of human capital within the boundaries of human capabilities;
Increasing productivity and reducing the need for narrow specialists;
The emergence of a powerful synergistic effect;
Reduction in absenteeism and tardiness rates;
High team loyalty, increased work satisfaction.
Self-managing teams are a brilliant example of the application of organizational behavior and participatory management practices. Their growing popularity is largely due to the fact that, as formal groups, they enjoy the support of the organization, allow them to cover a significant proportion of the company's employees, and are developing models of organizational behavior.
50. LIFE CYCLE OF ORGANIZATION
The concept is widespread life cycle organization - its changes with a certain sequence of states when interacting with the environment. There are certain stages that organizations go through, and transitions from one stage to another are predictable, not random.
There are four main stages organization life cycle: 1) the firm expands its operations and accumulates resources; the organization is built on a functional principle, leadership is autocratic; 2) rationalization of resources occurs, further growth becomes selective as there is a need for increased efficiency; 3) expansion into new markets begins in order to optimize the use of resources; 4) new structures are being created to optimize work and rational planning; at this stage of evolution, decentralization of the company takes place.
The division of the organization's life cycle into appropriate time periods provides for the following stages.
1. Entrepreneurial stage. The organization is in its infancy, the life cycle of products is being formed. The goals of the organization are still unclear, moving to the next stage requires a stable supply of resources.
2. Collective stage. Innovative processes of the previous stage are developing, the mission of the organization is being formed. Communication and structure within the organization remain informal. Members of the organization spend a lot of time developing contacts and demonstrate high commitment.
3. The stage of formalization and management. The structure of the organization is stabilized, rules are introduced, procedures are defined. The emphasis is on innovation efficiency and stability. The role of the top management of the organization is growing, the decision-making process is becoming more balanced and conservative.
4. Structure development stage. The organization increases output and expands the market for the provision of services. Leaders identify new development opportunities. The organizational structure is becoming more complex and mature. The decision-making mechanism is decentralized.
5. Decline stage. As a result of competition, a shrinking market, the demand for an organization's products or services decreases. Leaders are looking for ways to hold markets and seize new opportunities. The need for workers, especially the most valuable specialties, is increasing. The number of conflicts is often on the rise. New people are coming to leadership in an attempt to curb the downward trend. The mechanism for developing and making decisions is centralized.
51. TYPES OF ORGANIZATION MANAGEMENT
Turning to the creation of conditions for economic growth, high quality goods and services, the organization must choose the type of management that corresponds to the characteristics and objectives of this stage, guided by its goals.
Choice of organizational behavior
Organization characteristics: Main purpose
Control type – operational: Profit maximization
Control type – strategic: Profit maximization taking into account the interests of society
Organization characteristics: The main way to achieve goals
Control type – operational: Optimizing the use of internal resources
Control type – strategic: Establishing a dynamic balance with an uncertain and unstable environment
Organization characteristics: Importance of the time factor
Control type – operational: Not the most important factor in competition
Control type – strategic: The most important competitive factor
Organization characteristics: Short term evaluation of effectiveness
Control type – operational: Profitability
Control type – strategic: Accuracy of predicting changes in the internal environment and adaptation time to changes in the external environment, the quality of goods and services
Organization characteristics: Attitude towards staff
Control type – operational: Employees are one of the resources of the organization
Control type – strategic: Employees are the most important resource of an organization
The main criterion in choosing the type of management of the organization should be the implementation of effective activities while planning for the future. Organization Maturity manifests itself in the fact that the main attention is paid to the effectiveness of innovation and stability, the output of products is increasing and the market for the provision of services is expanding, managers are identifying new opportunities for organizational development. All this is aimed at ensuring the strategic viability of the organization, maintaining and strengthening its sustainable position in the market. At the stage of maturity, it is especially important to periodically and timely adjust the management structure of the organization, abolish bodies that have completed their task, introduce new divisions into the structure in a timely manner, create temporary target structural units to solve certain problems, allocate specialists to analyze the state of affairs and develop development prospects, etc. . P.
52. ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE AND ITS TYPES
In concept "organizational culture" includes ideas, beliefs, traditions and values that are expressed in the dominant management style, in the methods of motivating employees, the image of the organization, etc.
Properties of organizational culture:
Forms employees' ideas about organizational values and ways to follow these values;
Commonality: knowledge, values, attitudes, customs are used by the group to meet the needs of its members;
The core elements of an organization's culture don't require proof - they go without saying;
Hierarchy and priority: any culture involves the ranking of values; often absolute values are put at the forefront, the priority of which is unconditional;
Consistency: organizational culture is a complex system that combines individual elements into a single whole.
Among the functions of organizational culture are:
1. General functions are divided into regulatory and reproduction functions. Regulation functions provide adaptive (external) and integrative (internal) tasks of the organization's activities.
2. K specific include the following functions:
Security: culture serves as a kind of barrier to the emergence of undesirable tendencies and negative values characteristic of the external environment;
Integrating: by instilling a certain system of values that synthesizes the interests of all levels of the organization, organizational culture creates a sense of the identity of the interests of individuals and individual groups;
Regulatory: organizational culture includes informal, unwritten rules that indicate how people should behave in the process of work;
Substitute, or function of a substitute for formal relations;
Educational and developing;
Quality management function;
The function of adapting an economic organization to the needs of society;
The function of legitimizing organizational activity.
Organizations with strong culture have an agreed set of values and norms that bind their members closely to each other and promote their involvement in the process of achieving organizational goals. Weak Culture gives vague advice on how employees should behave. In organizations with a weak culture, values and norms are not primarily applied to coordinate organizational behavior, but a formal organizational structure is used.
53. THE SIGNIFICANCE OF ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGES
Organizational changes- this is the development of new ideas or behaviors by the company. The activity of the organization is a constant response to the need for changes coming from both the internal and external environment. Managing change requires directed and long-term development of both leaders and the organization. Change is not an end in itself, it is ongoing process.
The drivers of organizational change exist both within and outside the organization. Outside forces are formed in all sectors of the external environment (consumers, competitors, technologies, national economy, international sphere). Internal the drivers of change arise from the activities of the organization itself and the management decisions made in it (growth strategy, demands from workers, unions, low performance).
When making decisions about the reorientation of the internal activities of the organization, management must be proactive and reactive, that is, either be active itself or respond to the requirements of the situation. To be proactive means to anticipate events, to initiate change, to strive to control the very destiny of the organization. Behavior reactive character is a response to current events, adaptation to changes, mitigation of their consequences.
Changes may relate to any aspect or activity factor companies that include:
Basic structure. The nature and level of business activity, the legal structure, ownership, sources of financing, the nature of international operations are changing, mergers, divisions, joint ventures or projects are being created;
Goals and objectives of the activity. Goal modification is necessary even for the most successful organizations, if only because the current goals have already been achieved;
Applied technology. Equipment, materials and energy, technological and information processes are changing;
Management processes and structures. The internal structure of the organization, the content of labor processes, decision-making processes, and information systems are changing. Structural change is one of the most common and visible forms of change in an organization. This is a real need when there are significant changes in goals or strategy;
Organizational culture. Values, traditions, informal relationships, motives and processes, leadership style are changing. The most common and effective tool for changing the culture of an organization is training;
Human factor. Management and subordinates are changing, their level of competence, motivation, behavior and labor efficiency;
The efficiency of the organization. The financial, economic and social aspects of its activities are changing, its business prestige is changing in the eyes of the public and business circles.
54. RESISTANCE TO ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE AND ITS TYPES
Resistance to change are any actions of employees aimed at discrediting, delaying or opposing the implementation of changes in the labor process.
Often employees resist change for no apparent reason. Effective change management requires management to identify resistance factors and be able to apply methods to involve employees in the change process.
The reaction of employees to changes in the work process is complex and prevents them from directly adapting to changes. First of all, changes affect the attitudes of each worker and cause certain attitude-related reactions to change. One of the types of psychological protective mechanisms are stereotypes, hindering the correct perception of innovations.
Often, in an effort to maintain a balance, the group makes an attempt, regardless of the changes taking place, by any means to keep the attitudes and assessments intact. Therefore, every external influence causes a reaction within the group. Thus, each group is a self-correcting mechanism, the task of which is to restore balance at the slightest threat of change. This characteristic of organizations is called homeostasis.
There are three main type of resistance to change influencing the formation of a negative attitude of employees to change.
Logic resistance- means disagreement of employees with facts, rational arguments, logic. Arises on the basis of real time and effort required to adapt to changes, including the development of new job responsibilities. These are the real costs that employees bear, even though in the long run we are talking about changes that are favorable for them, which means that management needs to compensate them in one way or another.
Psychological resistance- based on emotions, feelings and attitudes; internally "logical" in terms of the employee's attitudes and feelings about change. Employees may be afraid of the unknown, distrust managers, feel threatened by their safety. Even if the manager considers such feelings unjustified, he must take them into account.
Sociological resistance- the result of the challenge that changes throw to group interests, norms, values. Since public interests (political coalitions, the values of trade unions and various communities) are a very significant factor in the external environment, management must carefully consider the attitude of various coalitions and groups to change. At the small group level, change jeopardizes the value of friendships and the status of team members.
55. REASONS FOR RESISTANCE TO CHANGE ON THE PART OF STAFF OF THE ORGANIZATION
Reasons for resistance to change:
The feeling of discomfort caused by the very nature of the change by employees, when employees show uncertainty about the correctness of the technical decisions made, negatively perceive the uncertainty that has come;
Fear of the unknown, a threat to the safety of their work;
Change methods, when employees are dissatisfied with the limitation of information, do not accept an authoritarian approach that does not involve their participation in the implementation of changes;
Feelings of unfairness among employees, caused by the fact that someone else is benefiting from the changes they make;
Feeling that change will lead to personal loss;
The belief that change is neither necessary nor desirable for the organization.
Experience shows that most often the resistance of employees to innovation occurs in cases where:
The purpose of change is not explained to people;
Employees themselves did not participate in the planning of these changes;
The traditions of the team and the style familiar to it, the mode of operation are ignored. Formal and informal groups will stubbornly resist innovations that threaten their familiar relationships;
It seems to subordinates that a mistake has been made in the preparation of reforms; especially if people suspect that there is a threat of a pay cut, demotion, or loss of the leader's favor;
Restructuring threatens subordinates with a sharp increase in the amount of work. A similar threat arises if the leader has not bothered to plan the change far enough in advance;
People think that everything is fine anyway;
The initiator of reforms is not respected, has no authority;
When planning reforms, the team does not see the final result;
The worker does not know what his personal benefit will be;
The subordinate does not feel confidence, the conviction of the leader;
Reforms are proposed and implemented in a categorical manner, using administrative methods;
The innovation may entail layoffs;
The team does not know what it will cost (costs, efforts);
The reform does not bring quick results;
Reforms will bring benefits to a narrow circle of people;
The progress of the reform is rarely discussed in the team;
There is no trusting atmosphere in the team, etc.
56. METHODS OF OVERCOMING RESISTANCE
Methods by which you can reduce or completely eliminate resistance:
transmission of information- open discussion of ideas and activities will help employees to be convinced in advance of the need for change;
involvement of subordinates in decision making. This allows employees who may be resistant to freely express their attitude to these innovations, potential problems and changes;
relief and support- the means by which employees more easily fit into the new environment. For example, a manager can provide emotional support, that is, listen carefully to employees or give them some time to relax after a stressful period. There may be a need for additional training to improve the skills of staff;
negotiations to secure approval of innovations. It is understood that the consent of those who resist is obtained with the help of material incentives. For example, management may offer the union higher pay or a commitment not to lay off workers; or the manager is offered a more interesting job if he recognizes the need for change;
co-optation- giving a person who can or is resisting change a leading role in making decisions about the introduction of innovations and in their implementation. For example, a worker or a group of employees who are skeptical about future innovations may be included in the composition of the commission, which analyzes the technology used and determines which machines should be purchased;
maneuvering in order to reduce resistance to change - selective use of information or drawing up a clear schedule of activities and activities in order to have the desired impact on subordinates;
compulsion- the use of formal power by management aimed at accepting changes by personnel, when opponents of change are confronted with a choice between transformations and deprivation of part of the remuneration or work. Coercion should be resorted to in critical situations, when the very fate of the organization depends on the achievement of the result;
top management support- indicates that the changes are of great importance for the organization. Such support is especially needed when changes affect several departments or when their implementation involves the reallocation of resource flows.
57. THE ROLE OF THE MANAGER IN IMPLEMENTING CHANGE IN THE ORGANIZATION
Leaders play a critical role in initiating and implementing change, as they are responsible for developing a strategy for change and planning activities to implement it.
A huge role in the process of implementing changes belongs to the leaders-transformers, that is, managers who initiate strategic changes aimed at strengthening and developing the position of the organization. It is they who formulate the vision and “show the product face”, help employees see the big picture, strive to create a continuously learning organization and employees, preparing them to solve complex problems.
Qualities of a leader-transformer
1. Creative in and denie. Transformative leaders create and promote their vision of the organization, that is, a long-term image of the company, expressed in some form, or an idea of what the company can and should become. AT and The change makes employees distract from momentary problems, take a more active part in the activities of the organization, form common beliefs and values, which are the basis for changing the organizational culture.
2. The presence of communicative charisma. The transformational leader needs to convince employees that the proposed and making the future of the company realistically achievable, and motivate them to turn the future into the present. Charisma- one of the characteristics of leadership, the ability of a leader to influence employees, to induce them to take constant actions desired by the leader. Charismatic leaders take the risk of change by demonstrating a high degree of competence and reasonable self-confidence. Employees treat such leaders with great respect and trust, tend to express their emotional commitment to and Denia. But charismatic leaders (like all managers) need to be aware of employees' emotional vulnerability during change and take action to reduce employees' fears while encouraging them to implement change.
3. Ability to provide stimulating training. The most important task of transformation (and leaders) is to develop the potential abilities of employees for creative perception, learning from the experience of change. Double learning loop: the information obtained during the implementation of the change (the first cycle) allows you to more effectively manage future transformations (the second cycle). Such training develops employees' skills of forecasting, overcoming their own paradigms. This is the difference from single learning loop, when workers solve current problems, adapting to changes imposed on them from above.
58. ESSENCE OF THE STRATEGY OF CHANGE
Consider a model of the process of successful organizational change management, consisting of several stages and developed by L. Greiner.
1. pressure and urge. Management must recognize the need for change.
2. Mediation and redirection of attention. Although management may feel the need for change, it may not be able to make an accurate analysis of the problems. You may need the services of an external consultant who can objectively assess the situation. You can also involve your employees as intermediaries, but on the condition that they can be considered impartial and express an opinion that is unlikely to please top management. For mediation to be effective, it must result in a change of orientation, and this implies the acceptance of new points of view.
3. Diagnosis and awareness. Management collects relevant information, determines the true causes of problems that require a change in the existing situation.
4. Finding a new solution and obligations to fulfill it. After recognizing the existence of a problem, management looks for a way to correct the situation.
5. Experiment and discovery. An organization rarely takes the risk of making major changes in one fell swoop. It is more likely to start testing planned changes, identifying hidden difficulties, before innovating on a large scale.
6. Reinforcement and consent. The last step is to motivate people to accept the change by convincing them that the change is beneficial both to the organization and to them personally. Possible ways to reinforce agreement to innovate are praise, promotions, increased pay for higher performance, permission to participate in discussions about the innovation process, problems, corrections that need to be made, etc.
Participation in organizational development, that is, the participation of an organization, division or production group in various planned activities during the implementation of an organizational development program, involves improving the functioning of the organization, enabling its members to more effectively manage the culture of the group and organization.
1. Question #1 Define organizational behavior.
Organizational behavior is the study of the behavior of people (individuals and groups) in organizations and the practical use of the knowledge gained. EP studies allow us to determine ways to improve the efficiency of human labor activity. Organizational behavior is a scientific discipline in which the results of new research and conceptual developments are constantly added to the main body of knowledge. And at the same time, EP is an applied science, thanks to which information about the successes and failures of companies is distributed to other organizations.
The science of organizational behavior provides a set of tools used at various levels of analysis. For example, it allows managers to analyze the behavior of individuals in the organization, promotes understanding of the problems of interpersonal relations in the interaction of two individuals (colleagues or a pair of "bosses - subordinates"). In addition, knowledge of OP is extremely useful when considering the dynamics of relationships within small groups (both formal and informal). In situations where it is necessary to coordinate the efforts of two or more groups (for example, technical services and the sales department), managers are interested in emerging intergroup relationships. Finally, organizations can be viewed and managed as whole systems based on intra-organizational relationships (for example, strategic alliances and joint ventures).
enterprises).
Most scientific disciplines (and OP is no exception) pursue four goals - description, awareness, prediction and control over certain phenomena.
Our first task is a systematic description of the behavior of people in various situations that arise in the process of work. The second goal of our scientific discipline is to explain the causes of the actions of individuals under certain conditions.
It is unlikely that any of the managers will be satisfied with the situation when he, having the opportunity to discuss the behavior of his employees, does not understand the reasons underlying their actions. Predicting employee behavior in the future is another goal of the OP.
Ideally, managers wouldn't mind being able to know exactly which employees would be enthusiastic and productive today, and who wouldn't show up, be late, or stare out the window all day (so managers can take preventive action).
The ultimate goal of studying the EP is to master the skills of managing people's behavior in the labor process and their improvement. The manager is responsible for the results of the performance of work tasks, which means that the ability to influence the behavior of employees and the activities of teams is of vital importance to him.
Some researchers express concern that EP tools can be used to restrict the freedom of employees of organizations and infringe on their rights. Indeed, such a scenario of the development of events is possible, but, from our point of view, it is unlikely, since the actions of most managers are under the close control of society. Managers should remember that OP is a vehicle for mutual benefit of individuals and organizations.
The nature of the organization is formed in the process of interaction of various forces, the diversity of which can be classified in four areas - people, organizational structures, technologies and the external environment in which the organization operates (Figure 1).
The performance of work tasks by employees of the organization involves the coordination of their efforts, which means that a certain structure of formal relations must be created in the company. Since production equipment is usually used in the labor process, people, organizational structures and technologies interact in the work process. In addition, the elements we have considered are subject to the influence of the external environment and, in turn, have an impact on it.
PEOPLE. Employees of the organization form its internal social system, which includes individuals and groups (large and small, formal and informal). One of the main characteristics of groups is their high dynamics (formation, development and disintegration). People (employees) are living, thinking, feeling beings whose activities are aimed at achieving the goals set for the organization. We must remember that organizations exist to serve people and not vice versa.
Organizations today are very different from their predecessors. In particular, the labor force is acquiring a qualitatively different, more diverse character (high personal abilities and level of education, vision of prospects).
Managers face increasingly complex challenges. Some of the workers express their individuality through a constant change of clothes and jewelry, others - through abuse and drunkenness, others believe in their exclusivity and put personal goals above obligations to the organization. Managers must not only be aware of the inevitability of different patterns of employee behavior, but also be prepared to adapt to them.
ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE. The organizational structure defines the formal relationships between people and allows them to be used to achieve the goals of the company. The implementation of various activities implies that the organization employs representatives of various professions, occupying various positions - managers and workers, accountants and cleaners. Effective coordination of their efforts presupposes the development of some structural scheme. The relations of individuals within this structure create complex schemes of cooperation - coordination, adoption and implementation of decisions.
Some time ago, the tendency to simplify many organizational structures prevailed, mainly due to the reduction of middle management positions, caused by the need to reduce costs while maintaining the competitiveness of the company. In addition, the process of consolidation of organizations (mainly in the form of mergers and acquisitions) is gaining momentum. Individual organizations are experimenting with hiring temporary (so-called situational) employees to perform specific tasks. Finally, many firms are moving from a traditional organizational structure to a team-oriented structure.
TECHNOLOGY. Technological support is the material resources involved in the process of management and production. It is quite difficult to assemble computers with bare hands in the open air, so we build buildings, design equipment, develop schemes of work and select resources. The level of engineering and technology has a significant impact on labor relations.
Work on the assembly line differs significantly from work in a research laboratory, the duties of a university teacher - from the job descriptions of a nurse. Technology allows you to do more and work better, but it also imposes restrictions (in terms of the skill level of employees), that is, its use is associated with both benefits and costs. Increasing the role of robotics and computerization of production, the redistribution of labor from the sphere of production to the sphere
services, the widespread introduction of computers and the development of user-oriented software, the rapid development of the capabilities of the Internet - all these factors are putting increasing pressure on the OP, complicating the problems of ensuring a conflict-free balance of technical and social systems.
ENVIRONMENT. The “life” of an organization proceeds within the “framework” of the internal and external environment. Each organization does not exist on its own, but is part of a larger system containing many elements - the state, the family and other institutions. All the new requirements for modern organizations give rise to numerous changes in the environment - citizens are increasingly demanding from management to conduct socially responsible policies; new goods quickly "cross" the boundaries of a single city or state and spread throughout the globe; the direct influence of trade unions is weakening; the level of education is growing... All these and many other factors influence each other in the most unpredictable way, causing a high variability of the environment.
None of the organizations, be it a factory or a school, has the ability to avoid the influence of the external environment, which affects both the position of individuals and working conditions, which gives rise to fierce competition for access to resources and energy. Therefore, when studying human behavior in organizations, it is necessary to take into account the influence of numerous environmental factors.
One of the main distinguishing features of the science of organizational behavior is its interdisciplinary nature. The EP combines behavioral (behavioral) sciences (systematized knowledge about the nature and causes of people's actions) with other disciplines - management, economic theory, economic and mathematical methods, cybernetics (from which any ideas that contribute to improving relationships between people and organizations are borrowed).
Another distinguishing feature of the EP is a systematic approach based on research results and conceptual developments. OP theories offer explanations for the way people think, feel, and act. Theoretical constructions are designed to identify essential variables and, on their basis, put forward hypotheses, the validity of which can be verified in the course of experiments. A good theory necessarily finds practical application, because it deals with important elements
human behavior, makes a valuable contribution to our understanding of the subject and outlines the main lines of thought and action of managers.
Study
is the process of collecting and interpreting data that confirms or refutes theoretical constructs. Scientific hypotheses are verifiable statements that relate the variables of a theory and determine the direction of data collection. Data can be obtained from various research methods (case studies, field or laboratory experiments). Research is a continuous process through which we are constantly expanding our knowledge of human behavior at work. Analyzing the flow of research is like studying a large river - from a small stream to a powerful stream flowing into the sea. Just as traveling down a river allows us to appreciate its length, its "character", a review of research helps us to imagine the development over time of the most important concepts of OP. That is why we have included in our book a description of various scientific studies that you will meet in its respective parts.
Note that isolated studies or speculative theories do not make sense. Managers use theoretical models to structure their thinking; they apply the results of research as basic principles of behavior in
real life situations. Thus, a natural and viable flow is formed from theory and research to the practice of EP, i.e. the conscious application of conceptual models and research results in an organization in order to improve the performance of individuals and the company as a whole.
It should be noted the special role of managers in the development of the theory of EP and research. Feedback (from practice to theory) allows you to determine whether the developed theories and models are simple or complex, realistic or far-fetched, they will be useful or useless. It is organizations that serve as the venue for research and predetermine its subject matter. There is a bidirectional interaction between each pair of considered pro! processes, and all these processes are vital for the development of the EP system.
The third feature of EP is the ever-increasing popularity of theories and research among practicing managers. Modern managers are very receptive to new ideas, they support EP research, test new models in practice.
Organizational behavior actually includes two problems: organization problem(team of employees) and behavior problem.
Organization is a set of people united by certain rules and procedures to achieve the goals of its creators and employees.
Behavior- this is a way of life and actions (S.I. Ozhegov). A broader formulation is given in the Soviet Encyclopedic Dictionary: "Behavior is a system of interrelated reactions carried out by living organisms to adapt to the environment."
As already mentioned, there is no single generally accepted definition of the subject of the EP. Let's compare several OP definitions:
- EP is a science that studies the influence of individuals, groups and structures on the atmosphere and behavior within organizations in order to apply the knowledge gained to improve the efficiency of their functioning (S. Robbins, USA)
- The study of EP consists in studying the structure, functioning and activities of organizations, as well as the behavior of groups and individuals in it. (A. Huchinski and D. Buchman, UK)
- OP is a field of knowledge that seeks to understand and learn how to predict and manage the behavior of people in an organization. (F. Lutens, USA)
That. as an area of management, EP is the understanding, anticipation and management of people's behavior within organizations(according to F. Lutens)
That. tasks of managers within the EP:
* diagnostics
* explanation
* forecasting
* correction (influence)
Despite the difference in wording, the following common keywords can be distinguished in them:
- individuals
- Groups
- Organization
- Control
- Efficiency
Organizational behavior is a two-way process of mutual influence of the organization on people and people on the organization = the behavior of people in the organization, determined by organizational factors and influencing organizational processes
Basic provisions of organizational behavior as a science:
- Probabilistic approach. This science recognizes that human behavior can constantly change depending on the nature of circumstances and personality characteristics.
- situational approach. The OP considers problems in relation to each other, does not put forward the only correct and specific proposal or solution. This science offers an approach that, when applied to a specific situation, offers a range of solutions, leaving the manager to choose the best.
- Performance orientation. The main provisions of this science are aimed at helping people achieve high results and acquire the necessary skills.
- Practice orientation. EP is an applied science, since it applies the knowledge gained regarding the behavior of individual social objects to improve their joint work to achieve the goals of the organization.
Organizational Behavior Method
Organizational behavior as a science has its own scientific foundations and scientific method.
scientific method organizational behavior consists of 4 stages or steps:
1. Observation behind real events or incidents.
2. Explanation these events
3. Formulation of working hypotheses, assumptions and conclusions that would allow predicting future behavior = forecasting
4. Checking findings in practice through experimental research. If the experiments confirm the hypothesis, it is accepted as a solution. If the results do not support the hypothesis, then a new one is put forward.
Levels of Organizational Behavior Analysis
This is an academic discipline that helps the manager make effective decisions when working with people. It brings together concepts and theories related to individuals, groups, organizations as a whole. Accordingly, there are 3 levels of analysis of organizational behavior.
Organizational
- Organizational structure
- Organizational culture
- Organizational communications
- Phases of an organization's life
Each organization is formed on the basis of certain positions. Their interdependence is an organizational structure that, one way or another, streamlines the behavior of employees in terms of the distribution of powers and responsibilities.
The highest level of organization of behavior is cooperation. It develops as a result of managerial interaction in the environment of higher administration and in small professional groups - to structures.
Group
The next analytical level is contact groups (where people communicate "face to face").
In groups and teams, members of an organization meet, interact, argue, gain friends or affections. Their personal and acquired qualities, which are not just individual characteristics, change.
Personalities influence the life of a group or team, but they themselves change under the influence of changes and evolution of contact groups.
Groups and teams are central to the coordination and control of organizational processes. They are important in both formal and informal organizational structures.
Leadership can either encourage or discourage the formation of groups and teams, depending on the environment, perceptions and politics.
- Working groups in the organization
- Intergroup interaction
- Teams in the organization
- Organizational subcultures
Individual
At the lowest level, the level of individual workers, we find that organizational behavior is the study and explanation of work attitudes, motivation and job satisfaction, the recognition or perception of roles in and out of the workplace. In part, a person brings properties with him when he enters an organization, but they also develop as he gains experience under the influence or assistance of the organization. Individual characteristics interact with the environment in which the person finds himself, she begins to socialize and tries to adapt the situation so that it is more in line with personal tastes and requirements. Aligning the individual and work context is the main task of human resource or personnel management.
- Motivation
- job satisfaction
- Loyalty
- Career orientations (career planning)
- Education
- Interpersonal relationships
- Stress
In fact, our course will be devoted to a more detailed consideration of the various elements of organizational behavior at these three levels.
Similar information.
For modern management systems, it is characteristic that the core of any organization is primarily people, which is why the starting point in studying an organization should be a person. Therefore, the greatest attention should be paid to the consideration of issues related to human behavior in the organization.
Most people spend almost their entire conscious life in organizations, therefore, consciously or unconsciously, voluntarily or under duress, they join the life of the organization, live by its laws, interact with other participants, giving something to the organization and receiving something from it in return. In this regard, the concept of "organizational behavior" arose.
Organizational behavior is:
1. A complex applied science of psychological, social, organizational and economic aspects and factors that influence and largely determine the behavior and interaction of the subjects of the organization (people, groups, teams) with each other and with the external environment.
2. Academic discipline.
Organizational behavior reflects the ways in which subjects and the organization itself, as a subject of activity, respond to ongoing internal and external changes. Experiencing the constant impact of factors of the external and internal environment, the organization seeks to improve the mechanisms that ensure its sustainable, balanced state and development.
Organizational behavior that is effective for the organization is manifested in the fact that people reliably and conscientiously perform their duties; ready in the name of the interests of the cause in a changing situation to go beyond their immediate duties; making additional efforts, being active, find opportunities for cooperation.
The following main factors influence the effectiveness of organizational behavior:
. internal (organizational): group size, composition and number of roles, group status, internal communication, activity goals, cohesion and leadership in the group;
. environmental factors: natural location, the role of the group in the organization, communication with a larger organization.
The behavior of people in an organization is determined by their own (personal) traits, the influence of the conditions for the formation of their activities - the characteristics of the group in which they are included, the conditions for joint activities, the originality of the organization and the country in which they work. Accordingly, the ability to successfully include people in the organizational environment, to teach them how to behave, depends equally on the characteristics of both this environment and personalities.
Personality traits are formed under the influence of natural properties (the physiological state of the body, features of higher nervous activity, memory, emotions, feelings, perception), as well as social factors (education, experience, habits, social circle, etc.).
Any personality is characterized by:
. general qualities;
. specific properties;
. readiness for a certain type of activity;
. a certain warehouse of character;
. orientation (orientation of social activity);
. biologically determined features;
. psychological characteristics: range of activities, work style and mental dynamics;
. mental state.
Personal traits greatly affect the quality of the performance of the functions assigned to a person, the style of his work, and relationships with others.
As the fundamental principles of human behavior in an organization, three components are distinguished:
. motivation;
. perception;
. criteria basis.
Labor behavior is based on motives, internal aspirations that determine the direction of a person's labor behavior and its forms. The same behavior can have a different motivational basis.
Motivation is the key to understanding human behavior and the possibilities of influencing it.
Perception is the process of receiving and interpreting ideas about the world around us. As a result of perception, various kinds of subjective reactions to the perceived object can arise: acceptance, rejection, "ostrich behavior". Perception is influenced by circumstances of both an objective and subjective nature:
. the situation in which information is received or acquaintance occurs;
. depth of vision of the real situation;
. personal and social characteristics of the perceived object;
. stereotypes and prejudices inherent in man.
Perception is also influenced by its selectivity (not all information about a person is perceived), globality (an object is perceived as a single whole), lack of structure (everything except the main one is perceived as a background, similar is perceived as a single one, similar objects are distinguished and combined, everything correlates with old experience).
The criteria basis of a person's behavior in an organization includes those stable characteristics of his personality that determine the choice, decision-making about his behavior. This foundation is made up of the following elements:
. disposition to people, events, processes;
. a set of values shared by a given person;
. beliefs held by a person;
. principles that a person follows in his behavior.
The need to study the individual characteristics of the members of the organization is beyond doubt. However, it should be remembered that the behavior of a person in an organization depends not only on his personal traits, but also on the situation in which his actions are carried out. So, the behavior of employees of the organization is influenced by external factors, primarily:
. the circle of communication, which can be personal, including emotional connections, and official, determined by official duties;
. a role characterized by a set of actions expected from a person in accordance with his individual psychological characteristics and place in the management hierarchy;
. status - an assessment by others of the personality of a given subject and the role he plays, which determines his real or expected place in the system of social ties, the rank of the individual.
