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5. Culture and spiritual sphere.

I. Culture (from lat. - "culture" - "cultivation, education")

Culture Traits : functionality, quality, value, normativity, creativity (creativity).

Broadly speaking, culture- all types of transformative activity of a person and society, as well as its results.

In a general sense, culture- a set of achievements of people in the material and spiritual spheres.

material culture- is created in the process of material production (buildings, equipment, tools).

Spiritual culture -includes the process of spiritual creativity and created spiritual values ​​in the form of works of art, scientific discoveries, religion.

Structure of culture:

the form - the embodiment of cultural achievements content - Significance for the individual and society.

Culture Functions:cognitive, informative, communicative, normative, humanistic.

Types of crops: dominant (dominant) elite (for the elite), mass (for the majority, commercial, through the media), folk (on traditions, folklore, anonymous), donor (from which elements are borrowed), recipient (which borrows elements from another culture), dead (outdated content).

Subculture - the culture of social groups.

Counterculture - a subculture that is hostile to the dominant one.

Terms:

Accumulation of culture – replenishment of culture with new elements, knowledge.

cultural transmission- transmission of culture through education.

cultural diffusion- Interpenetration of cultures.

Culture acculturation- the process of mutual influence of two or more cultures.

Assimilation of culture- the absorption of a small culture by a larger one.

Culture adaptationadaptation of cultures to each other.

II. Spiritual realm.

The structure of the spiritual realm:

1. Spiritual needs- the need of society and man in the creation and development of spiritual values. Spiritual needs are not set biologically, from birth. Formed in the process of socialization.

2. Spiritual activity (production)- the activity of people to create spiritual values.

Types of spiritual activity:

1. Cognitive - scientific, religious, artistic

2. Value-oriented - attitude to the phenomena of reality

3. Prognostic - foreseeing and planning changes in reality

3. Spiritual values ​​(goods) -what is created in the process of spiritual production:works of art, teachings, scientific discoveries, etc.

Types of spiritual production: religion, morality, art, science.

Religion.

Religion - a form of social consciousness and worldview based on the belief in the existence of a supernatural principle.

Elements: faith, doctrine, religious activity, religious institutions.

Functions : worldview, compensatory, communicative, regulatory, educational.

Religions:

World: Buddhism, Christianity, Islam (large following, outside the nation)

National: Confucianism (China), Taoism (China), Judaism (Israel), Shintoism (Japan), Zoroastrianism (Iran).

Atheism - denial of the existence of God

Confessional- church, denomination - religion

Morality.

Moral - a form of social consciousness that reflects ideas about good and evil, justice and injustice and the type of social relations, a set of norms of people's behavior towards each other.

Moral functions: regulatory, educational, communicative, cognitive, worldview.

The fulfillment of moral norms is sanctioned by the norms of spiritual influence (evaluation, approval, condemnation).

Art.

Art - a form of social consciousness and a type of human activity, which is a reflection of the surrounding realityin artistic images.

Art is the core of aesthetic culture.

Theories about the origin of art: game (G. Spencer), labor (G. Plekhanov), biological(Ch. Darwin), magical.

Art Functions:aesthetic, cognitive, creative, cleansing, communicative, educational, compensatory, hedonistic (pleasure function).

Kinds of art : literature, architecture, music, cinema, theater, painting, graphics, arts and crafts, dance, sculpture, photography.

Art features:is figurative, visual; the presence of specific ways of reproduction, the huge role of imagination, fantasy.

The science.

The science - the sphere of people's cognitive activity, the system of objectively true knowledge about natural and social reality, about man.

Elements of science Keywords: scientific knowledge, scientific activity, scientific self-consciousness.

Models for the development of science:

1. Gradual development

2. Through scientific revolutions.Scientific revolution -the process of a radical, qualitative change in the dominant system of ideas and theories (paradigm), which serves as a standard of thinking in a particular historical period.

Functions of Science : cognitive, ideological, prognostic.

Functions of modern science: productive, social, cultural and ideological.

Science classification:

natural technical public (humanitarian)

Education.

Education - purposeful cognitive activity to acquire knowledge, skills and abilities and improve them.

self-educationis the process of acquiring knowledge on one's own.

Functions of education: economic, social, cultural, conservation and transfer of cultural heritage.

Education in the Russian Federation:

preschool general professional additional

Features of modern education:integration of knowledge areas, development of lifelong education, informatization (computerization), development of distance education (via the Internet), humanization (attention to the individual), humanitarization (increased attention to social sciences, internationalization (creation of a single system for different countries).

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1. Society.

Social SciencesKeywords: economics, philosophy, sociology, political science, ethics (about morality), aesthetics (about beauty).

Society:

In a narrow sense: A group of people connected by common interests and goals.

In a broad sense: Separated from nature, but closely connected with it, part of the material world, including all ways of interaction between people and forms of their unification.

Society and nature interact and influence each other. economic interaction - consumption of natural resources, ecological - protection of natural resources.

Noosphere (V. Vernadsky ) is the habitat (biosphere) controlled by the human mind.

Society - dynamic system.

Systemic qualities of society:integrity, dynamism, historicity, openness, hierarchy.

There are 4 spheres (subsystems) in the structure of society:

1. Economic - material production and industrial relations.

2. Political - politics, state, law, their relations and functioning, mass media, army.

3. Social - relations between classes, groups, nations, etc.

4. Spiritual - forms of social consciousness: religion, morality, science, art.

The spheres interact and are interconnected.

Public relations- relations and forms that arise in the process of life between social groups, classes, nations, as well as within them.

Public relations

Spiritual Material

The most important component of societysocial institution -a historically established form of organizing people, based on a set of norms and statuses that regulates their activities and satisfies fundamental human needs.

Social institutions: property, state, political parties, family, church, labor organizations, educational and upbringing institutions, science, mass media, etc.

Types of societies (according to Daniel Bell, Alvin Toffler)

Types of societies (according to O. Toffler)

social change- the transition of social systems, communities, organizations from one state to another (natural, demographic, social, spiritual changes, etc.).

Directed Development

progress stagnation regression

Progress criterion – the degree of freedom that society gives a person for its optimal development. Progress is controversial (both positive and negative processes)

Progress Forms:revolution and reform. Evolution - gradual development.

Scientific and technological progress (NTP) -a qualitative change in the productive forces of society under the influence of the scientific and technological revolution.

Scientific and technological revolution (NTR)- a leap in the development of the productive forces of society on the basis of fundamental changes in the system of scientific knowledge.

historical process- the chronological sequence of events that influence the development of society.Subjects of the historical process: individuals, social groups, masses.historical factis a social event.

Civilization - the totality of material, spiritual and moral means possessed by a given society in a given historical period.

The term was put forward by N. Danilevsky, called civilizationscultural and historical types.Civilizations were distinguished by 4 features: economic, cultural, political, religious. To characterize civilizations, the concept of mentality is also singled out.

mentality - way of thinking, worldview inherent in a certain group, individual

Two theories: the theory of stage development (study development as a single process) and the theory of local civilizations(study large historically established communities).

Approaches to the study of the historical process:

Formative approach (K. Marx)	Civilization approach (A. Toynbee)	Cultural approach (O. Spengler)
The basis of the transition from one formation to another.Socio-economic formations:primitive communal, slaveholding, feudal, capitalist, communist. There are two main components in the socio-economic formation - the basis and the superstructure. Basis - the economy of society, the components of which areproductive forces and relations of production(method of production of material goods). Superstructure - state, political, public institutions. Changes in the economic basis lead to the transition from one socio-economic formation to another. Plays a big roleclass struggle.	Civilizations - stable communities of people united by spiritual traditions, a similar way of life, geographical, historical boundaries.At the heart of the change of civilizations. The development of the whole story is built according to the "challenge - response" scheme. Each civilization in its destiny goes through four stages: origin; growth; break; disintegration, culminating in death and the complete disappearance of civilization.	The central concept of this approach is culture. Culture is the totality of religion, traditions, material and spiritual life. Culture is born, lives and dies. Civilization within the cultural approach -the highest level of cultural development,the final period of the development of culture, preceding its death.

Global problems of our time -a complex of social and natural contradictions affecting the whole world as a whole. I are an indicator of the integrity and interconnectedness of the modern world, pose a threat to humanity, and require joint efforts to solve them.

Main problems:

1. Environmental: pollution, extinction of species, "ozone holes", etc.

The term "Ecology" was introduced E. Haeckel.

2. Demographic;

3. The problem of security and prevention of world war;

4. The problem of resources;

5. North-South problem: developing and highly developed countries.

Globalization - Strengthening integration ties in various fields between states, organizations, communities.

International organizations:UN (United Nations); IAEA (International Atomic Energy Agency); UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization); WIPO (World Intellectual Property Organization); WTO (World Trade Organization); NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization); OSCE (Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe); European Union; OPEC (Organization of Petroleum Producing and Exporting Countries); CIS (Commonwealth of Independent States); SCO (Shanghai Cooperation Organization) and others.

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3. Cognition.

Cognition is a process of acquiring knowledge.

Knowledge - an objective reality given in the human mind. Knowledge is the result of cognitive activity.

Subject of knowledge- the one who knows. Object of knowledge - that to which knowledge is directed.

Epistemology - the science of knowledge.

Gnosticism (gnostics)- they believe that the world is cognizable (Plato, Socrates, K. Marx, G. Hegel).

Agnosticism (agnostics)- the world is cognizable within limited limits or unknowable (I. Kant).

Types of cognition: sensual and rational.

Forms of sensory cognition:

Feeling - a reflection of individual properties and qualities of objects and phenomena that arise when exposed to the senses.

Perception - a holistic sensual image of an object, phenomenon.

Performance - a sensual image of an object or phenomenon that arises with the help of memory without direct contact with the object.

Forms of rational knowledge:

Concept - a form of thinking in which the general and essential properties of an object are fixed.

Judgment - a form of thinking in which something is affirmed or denied.

Inference -a form of thinking in which new judgments are derived from existing judgments.

Two theories on types of cognition:

1. Empiricism (empiricists)- recognize sensory experience as a source of knowledge (T. Hobbes, D. Locke).

2. Rationalism (rationalists)– knowledge can be obtained with the help of reason (R. Descartes, I. Kant)

Intuition - a kind of cognition outside the process of sensory familiarization and without deliberation.

Features: suddenness, thoughtlessness, secrecy of the mechanism.

The purpose of knowledge is to obtain the truth.

Truth - knowledge corresponding to reflected reality.Truth is objective in content and subjective in form.

absolute truth- complete, exhaustive knowledge, not refuted by the further development of science.

Relative truth- incomplete, inaccurate knowledge, refuted by the further development of science.

Criterion of truth - a way to distinguish between true and untrue in the totality of knowledge.

The main criterion of truth is practice.

The antipodes of truth are lies, disinformation, delusion.

Lie - the deliberate erection of deliberately incorrect ideas into the truth.

Disinformation - transmission false knowledge as true or true as false.

Delusion - unintentional inconsistency of judgments or concepts with an object.

Types of knowledge.

I. Non-scientific knowledge:

Ordinary (everyday)

Practical (folk wisdom)

religious

mythological

Artistic (by means of art).

II. Scientific knowledge -knowledge aimed at obtaining objective knowledge. Target - description, explanation, prediction of the phenomena of reality. Signs: objectivity, consistency, validity, reliability, a special language, the need for special devices and specialists.

2 levels of scientific knowledge: empirical and theoretical.

Empirical level:

Observation - purposeful perception of the phenomena of objective reality.

Description - fixation by means of a natural or artificial language of information about an object.

Measurement - comparison of an object by some similar properties or sides.

Experiment - observation in specially created and controlled conditions, which allows you to restore the course of the phenomenon when the conditions are repeated.

Theoretical level:

Hypothesis - assumptions put forward in the course of scientific research.

Theory - a system of interrelated statements.

Law - conclusions about significant, recurring relationships between phenomena.

Scientific methods:

1. General : dialectic (dialectical studies phenomena in motion) and metaphysics (metaphysical studies phenomena at rest).

2. General scientific: Analysis is the real or mental division of an object into its component parts. Synthesis is the combination of constituent parts into a single whole. Induction - the movement of thought from the individual to the general. Deduction is the ascent of the process of cognition from the general to the individual. Analogy (correspondence, similarity) - the establishment of similarities in some aspects, properties and relationships between non-identical objects.

3. Private scientific: questioning, examination, interviewing, graphic method.

III. social cognition -knowledge aimed at studying the nature of social ties, social groups, the social structure of society.

Peculiarity - the subject and object of knowledge coincide, the knowledge obtained is always associated with the interests of individuals, the subjectivity of conclusions and assessments.

Target: identification of historical patterns of development of society, social forecasting.

Methods: content analysis (analysis of statistical data, documents), survey, observation, experiment.

IV. Self-knowledge - self-knowledge, self-esteem, the creation of a "I-concept" - the image of I.

Feature - the object is the subject itself.

Purpose: knowledge of one's physical, mental, spiritual capabilities, one's place among other people.

Self-knowledge is accomplished:

1. In the analysis of the results of their own activities, their behavior, relationships with others.

2. Awareness of the attitude of others towards oneself (qualities of one's personality, character traits), through the opinions of others

people and relating to others.

3. Self-observation of one's states, experiences, thoughts.

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2. Man.

Human	Individual	Individuality	Personality
The highest level of living organisms on earth, the subject of socio-historical activity and culture	The only representative of the human race	Unique, original features and qualities inherent in a person (biological, psychological, social)	A set of socially significant features that characterize a person as a member of a given society, a person as a subject of relations and conscious activity

Origin theories:religious, evolutionary(C.Darwin), Marxist (labor made man)

biosocial problem- the problem of the relationship between the biological and the social in man.

At the time of birth, a person is an individual. Personality becomes in the process of socialization.

Socialization - the process of assimilation by a person of social experience, forms of behavior acceptable for a given society.

Primary socialization: agents (relatives, teachers) and institutions of socialization (family, school).

Secondary socialization: agents (colleagues, teachers, officials) and institutions (universities, army, church).

Desocialization -the process of moving away from old values, norms, rules, roles.

Resocialization - the process of learning new values, norms, rules, roles.

Freedom of the individual- the ability to create oneself and the world of other people, to make choices, to be responsible. "Freedom is a recognized necessity" - G. Hegel.

Interpersonal relationships -relationships between different individuals on different grounds.

Interpersonal relationships

Personal worldview- a set of principles, views, beliefs and attitudes towards objective reality and a person's place in it.

Worldview:

mundane, religious, mythological, scientific, philosophical, humanistic.

Activity - human activity aimed at changing and transforming the world around us and ourselves. Subject - the one who carries out the activity. An object - what the activity is aimed at.

Activity structure:

Motive - goal - means - action - result.

Motive - a material or ideal object that prompts action.

Target - a conscious image of the expected result.

Activities:

1. According to the content: work, play, communication, study.

Work - a type of human activity aimed at achieving a practically useful result.

Communication- the process of interaction between people, which consists in perception and understanding and in the exchange of information (communication)

2. By direction: spiritual , practical , creative , managerial .

Creation - an activity that generates something new that has never existed before.

Heuristic is the science that studies creativity.

human needs- experienced or perceived need for something.

Needs:

biological, social, ideal.

Needs according to A. Maslow.

1.Physiological, 2.Existential, 3. Social, 4. Prestigious, 5. Spiritual

Primary, congenital Secondary, acquired

The needs of each level become urgent when the previous ones are satisfied.

Interest - a conscious need that characterizes the attitude of people to objects and phenomena that have important social development for them. Interests are incentives for various activities.

Capabilities - individual characteristics of a person, on which the success of various activities depends.

Abilities are biologically based.

Talent - a set of abilities that allows you to get a product of activity that is distinguished by novelty and significance.

Genius - the highest stage of talent development, which allows to make fundamental changes in a particular field of activity.

Genius is a cultural phenomenon of human nature.

"Conscious" and "Unconscious"- these are correlative concepts expressing the features of the work of the human psyche. A person thinks about situations and makes decisions. Such actions are called conscious . However, often a person acts thoughtlessly, and sometimes he himself cannot understand why he did so.Unconsciousactions suggest that a person acts on an inner impulse, without any analysis of the situation, without clarifying the possible consequences. ( Z. Freud).

Being - something that exists, existing in general (being studies the section of philosophy ontology).

Forms of being : material being, spiritual being, human being, social being.

Spiritual world of man(microcosm) - a complex system of the inner world of a person, the elements of which are spiritual needs, thoughts, feelings, worldview, emotions, values, etc.

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4. Social sphere

Sociology - the science of the laws, formation, functioning, development of society and social relations.(O.Kont).

The structure of the social sphere includes:

I. Social connections -dependence of social groups and people on each other (there are formal and informal).Social connections:

1. Social contacts -unstable connections arising on specific occasions (for example, subway passengers).

2. Social interactions- stable, regular connections based on joint activities (for example, colleagues at work).

3. Social relationships- ultra-stable, self-renewing connections that are systemic in nature (for example, friends).

II. Social groups -communities of individuals united on some basis.(T. Hobbes).

Signs:

population: small groups (differ in direct contact and informal communication), medium, large

demographic:gender, age, education, marital status

settlement criterion:townspeople, villagers

confessional:Catholics, Orthodox, Muslims

by ethnicity, professional etc.

III. Social communities-groups capable of self-reproduction.

Ethnosocial communities: clan (tribe), nationality, nation.

Genus - association of people on the basis of kinship ties, tribe - union of clans nationalities - associations of people on the basis of territorial and linguistic characteristics, nation - large groups of people united by economic space, language, culture, traditions, national identity.

IV. Social institution -see chapter Society.The main social institution is the family.

Function family as a social institution: childbirth.The family is also a small group. Family functions: educational, socialization, leisure, creating a sense of security, economic and economic. A family: matriarchal, patriarchal, partnership.Nuclear family- consisting of 2 generations.

V. Social culture- social norms and social values ​​on the basis of which social relations are formed.

VI. social values- the goals that people in society aspire to.Core Values– vital to society (health, well-being, family, etc.)

VII. social norms- rules of social behavior.

social norms(there are written and unwritten):

Moral norms, ethical norms, norms of traditions and customs, religious norms, political norms, legal norms.

Functions of social norms:regulating, unifying, educational.

Conformist behavior -in line with accepted standards.

Behavior that does not conform to social norms deviant.

Deviant Behavior:

Deviant behavior -violation that does not comply with the rules.

Deviation can be positive (heroes) and negative (drug addicts, murderers)

Delinquent behavior -committing crimes.

Compliance is ensured by the use sanctions - the reaction of society to the behavior of an individual or group. Function of sanctions - social control.

Sanctions:

positive (rewarding) and negative (punishing)

Official and unofficial.

social stratification

Social stratification (differentiation) -stratification and hierarchical organization of society.(P. Sorokin).

Differentiation criteria: income(economic), amount of power (political), education (type of activity.), also distinguish prestige - society's assessment of the social significance of a person's status. Prestige depends on the real usefulness of the activity and the value system of society.

Social layers:

castes - strictly closed layers of traditional societies.

Estates - groups of people with different rights and responsibilities.

Classes - social groups distinguished by the way they participate in social production and distribution, their place in the social division of labor.

strata - informal groups with a relatively equal social status, the criteria of which are income, access to political power, education.

Status

Status - a position in the social structure of society, associated with other positions through a system of rights and obligations.

personal status - the position that an individual occupies in a small group

social status- the position of the individual in the social group.

status set - a set of statuses of one person.

Prescribed (born) status: gender, age, nationality, kinship

Acquired (achieved) status: profession, education, position, marital status, religion.

social role - some pattern of behavior recognized for people of a certain status.

social mobility

social mobility(P. Sorokin ) - the transition of an individual or group from one position in the hierarchy of social stratification to another.

social mobility: horizontal -within one layer and vertical – transition from one layer to another. Vertical mobility can bedescending and ascending.

Channels of social mobility ("social lifts") -education, army, schools, family, property.

Marginal - an individual who has lost his former social status, unable to adapt to a new social environment (“on the edge”).

Marginality - the intermediate position of the individual between social groups, associated with his movements in the social space.

Lumpens - people who have sunk "to the bottom" of public life.

social conflict.

social conflict(G. Spencer ) - a clash of opposing interests, goals, views, ideologies between individuals, groups, classes in society.

Structure of the conflict: conflict situation--incident--active actions--completion

Types of behavior in conflict: adaptation, compromise, cooperation, ignoring, rivalry.Most scholars consider conflict to be a natural, progressive phenomenon.

Conflict types:internal, external, global, local, economic, political, family, national.

National conflictsassociated with exacerbationthe national questionabout the self-determination of peoples and overcoming ethnic inequality, as well as trends in the modern world.

Two trends in the modern world:

1. International - integration, rapprochement of nations.

2. National - differentiation, the desire for independence.

Social policy of the state- purposeful activity of the state to improve the social sphere of society. Directions: 1. improvement of the social structure of society, 2. regulation of relationships between different layers, 3. development of human potential (programs for the development of education, pensions, health care, ecology).

Social politics: active - direct influence of the state (sometimes centralized and decentralized) and passive - mediated by economic factors

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8. Right

Right

1. A system of rules and norms of behavior established and protected by the state.

2. The ability to do something, carry out, have (the right to work, education).

Signs of law (and rules of law):normativity, obligation, general character, formal certainty.

Theories of the origin of law: the theory of natural law (T. Hobbes), the liberal tradition (first the law - then the state), the statist tradition (first the state - then the law), Marxist, sociological. Statism - the theory that state the highest result and goal of social development

Functions of law - regulatory, educational, protective.

Legal culture:legal knowledge, attitude to law, law enforcement.

Differences between law and morality:

Source (form) of law- specific types of social phenomena that form the law and the result of state lawmaking.Sources (forms) of law:

1. Legal custom- patterns of behavior that have taken root in society as a result of their repetition, which have turned into rules of conduct.

2. Judicial practice.

3. Legal (judicial) precedent- a legal decision made earlier in a specific legal case and served as an example for subsequent decisions.

4. Normative contract- an agreement between the parties containing the rules of law

5. Legal act- an act of law-making by public authorities, establishing or repealing the rules of law.

Legal act: laws and regulations.

I. Laws - regulatory legal acts adopted by the highest legislative body of the state (or by referendum), fixing the most significant social relations. There areFederal Laws and Laws of the subjects of the Federation.

Laws are divided into:

1. Constitutional laws(1. Constitutions, 2. Laws amending the Constitution.

3. Laws provided by the Constitution).

2. Ordinary laws– normative-legal acts of the current legislation. They are current (valid for a specified period) andcodified(codes of laws - codes).

II. Regulations– normative-legal acts specifying the provisions of laws. - Decrees, resolutions, decrees.

Legal system (family) - association of states on the basis of legal regulation.

1. Romano-Germanic- the main source is a legal act. (Russia).

2. Anglo-Saxon– main source – legal precedent

3. Muslim - the main source is the legal custom.

The right is shared to private lawserves private interests (family, civil) andpublic law(constitutional, criminal).

Realization of the right – implementation of the law.Forms of realization of the right:

1. Exercise of the right -use of rights

2. Exercise of law- performance of duties

3. Respect for the law- not a breach of law

4. Application of law- carried out with the help of officials.

Law system - a set of interconnected norms, institutions and branches of law.

System elements -1. Legal regulation(rule of law) is a unit of the system.2. Institute of Law- a small group of rights governing one type of relationship. (For example, the institution of gift in civil law, the institution of marriage in family law). 3. Branch of law - a set of homogeneous legal norms.

Rule of law - the main element of the legal system, the rule of conduct established and protected by the state.

The structure of the rule of law:

1. Hypothesis - part of the norm, indicating the conditions for the emergence of rights and obligations.

2. Disposition - part of the norm, indicating the content of the norm

3. Sanction - part of the norm, indicating the legal consequences of the violation.

Types of rules of law

1. By function: regulatory (establish rights and obligations) and protective (measures against violators)

2. By industry:family, civil, etc.

3. By content:1. binding norms(What do we have to do)2. norms prohibiting(what not to do)3. norms authorizing(what can be done).

Branches of law.

1. Constitutional (state) law -regulates socially significant public relations, the structure of the state.

2. Family law- Regulates issues of marriage and family relations, kinship.

3. Civil law- regulates property and related non-property relations.

4. Administrative law- regulates public relations in the field of management, is associated with the activities of the executive branch.

5. Labor law- regulates the relationship between the employee and the employer

6. Criminal lawregulates relations connected with the commission of criminal acts.

legal relations– types of social relations regulated by the rule of law.

To become participants in legal relations, legal entities and individuals (subjects of public relations) must have legal capacity and capacity.

Legal capacity -the ability of subjects of legal relations to have legal rights and bear obligations. Comes from birth and ends with death.

legal capacity- the ability of subjects of legal relations to independently exercise their rights and obligations.1. Complete- from the age of 18.2. Partial- (in criminal cases from the age of 16, for some crimes from the age of 14, in the family from the age of 16, in the civil - from the age of 14, in the administrative - from the age of 16)3. Limited- by the court.

legal fact- living conditions in connection with which legal relations arise.

legal facts- 1. Law-formers. 2. Changers. 3. Terminators.

Legal Facts:1. Events(do not depend on the will of people), 2. Actions(depending on the will of the people).

Actionsthere arelegitimateandillegal(offences).

Offenses- acts that are contrary to the prescriptions of legal norms are expressed asaction, andinaction.

Offensesare divided intomisdeedsandcrimes.

Misdemeanors (torts) and legal liability.

1. Administrative(in the field of state and local regulation) –administrative responsibility (warning, fine, deprivation of rights, confiscation of the object, corrective labor, administrative arrest)

2 . Disciplinary(in the field of service relations) -disciplinary responsibility(remark, reprimand, dismissal),material liability(damage)

3. Civil(in the field of property and non-property relations) – civil liability.

crimes– socially dangerous illegal acts causing special harm or threat. Comingcriminal liability.

Signs of an offense:guilt, wrongfulness, public danger.

The legal structure of the offense:

1. The object of the offense -what the action is directed at.2. The subject of the offense -who committed

3. The objective side of the offense- a characteristic that includes signs of illegality, public danger, socially dangerous consequences.

4. Subjective side of the offense- internal characteristics of the offense (motive and purpose).

5. Motive of the offense- a conscious urge to do something.

6. Purpose of the offense- the mental result to which the subject aspired.

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What does social science study?

The object of study of social science issociety.Society is a very complex system that obeys various laws. Naturally, there is no one science that could cover all aspects of society, so several sciences study it. Each science studies any one side of the development of society: the economy, social relations, development paths, and others.

Social science -a generalizing name for the sciences that study society as a whole and social processes.

Every science hasobject and subject.

Object of science -phenomenon of objective reality, which is studied by science.

The subject of science -A person, a group of persons, cognizing an object.

The sciences are divided into three groups.

Science:

Society is studied by social sciences (humanities).

The main difference between the social sciences and the humanities:

Social (humanitarian) sciences that study society and man:

archeology, economics, history, cultural studies, linguistics, political science, psychology, sociology, law, ethnography, philosophy, ethics, aesthetics.

Archeology- a science that studies the past according to material sources.

Economy- the science of the economic activity of society.

Story- the science of the past of mankind.

Culturology- a science that studies the culture of society.

Linguistics- the science of language.

Political science- the science of politics, society, the relationship between people, society and the state.

Psychology- the science of the development and functioning of the human psyche.

Sociology- the science of the laws of formation and development of social systems, groups, individuals.

Right -a set of laws and rules of conduct in society.

Ethnography- a science that studies the life, culture of peoples and nations.

Philosophy- the science of the universal laws of the development of society.

Ethics- the science of morality.

Aesthetics -the science of beauty.

Sciences study societiesnarrow and broad sense.

Society in the narrow sense:

1. The entire population of the Earth, the totality of all peoples.

2. The historical stage in the development of mankind (feudal society, slave-owning society).

3. Country, state (French society, Russian society).

4. Association of people for any purpose (club of animal lovers, society of soldiers

mothers).

5. A circle of people united by a common position, origin, interests (high society).

6. Ways of interaction between the authorities and the population of the country (democratic society, totalitarian society)

Society in the broadest sense -part of the material world, isolated from nature, but closely connected with it, which includes the ways of interaction between people and the forms of their unification. Politics: micro level, macro level (state level), mega level (between states).

Politic system- a set of elements in which political power is realized.

The type of political system determines the political and legal regime: democratic, totalitarian, authoritarian.

Elements of the political system (spheres or subsystems):

1. Institutional:state, parties, movements (institutions)

2. Communicative- a set of relationships between groups about power

3. Regulatory– rules and regulations

4. Cultural and ideological– ideology, political culture, views, emotions.

Power– the ability to exercise their will, to have an impact.

Power structure:

1. Subjects of power– state, political leaders, parties

2. Objects of power- individuals, groups, masses

3. Foundations of power- legal, economic, power, social, information

4 . Power resources- coercion, persuasion, law, tradition, fear, encouragement, myths

5. Functions of power- domination, leadership, regulation, control, management, coordination, organization, mobilization.

Power is legal- legal authoritylegitimate authority- that which is not imposed by force is accepted by the people voluntarily.

Legitimacy or domination of power (M. Weber)

1. Traditional dominance- driven by tradition

2. Legal domination- on the recognition of legal norms

3. Charismatic dominance- based on the authority of the leader.

Political power is divided into:state and public authority.

Theories of the origin of the state:

1. Patriarchal theory - Aristotle2. Religious theory – Thomas Aquinas3. Contract theory – D. Locke, T. Hobbes4. Organic theory – G. Spencer5. Class theory – K. Marx

State- a special organization of power and administration, which has a special apparatus of coercion and is able to give its decrees binding force for the whole country.

Signs of the state

1. The presence of a special public authority

2. The presence of a special control apparatus

3. Territorial organization

4. Taxes

5. Sovereignty of power

6. Monopoly on lawmaking.

State functions – the main, socially significant areas of state activity.

Functions:

1. By objecty: internal and external

2. By content: political, economic, social, cultural and educational, legal, organizational, environmental.

3. By the nature of the impact:protective (ensuring the protection of public relations) and regulatory (development of public relations).

State shape- a set of basic ways of organizing, organizing and exercising state power, expressing its essence.

State forms:

1. Form of government -way of organizing government.

Form of government: 1. Monarchy- power is concentrated in the hands of one head and is inherited.2. RepublicPower is exercised by elected bodies elected for a fixed term.Monarchy:1 . absolute, 2. parliamentary, 3. dualistic.Republic:1. presidential, 2. parliamentary, 3. mixed.

2. Form of government – method of national and administrative-territorial structure.Forms: 1. unitary state, 2. federation, 3. confederation.

3. Political and legal regime – a set of political and legal means and ways of exercising power.Regime: 1. democratic, 2. anti-democratic (1. authoritarian, 2. totalitarian, 3. military).

Democracy – recognition of the principle of equality of all people, active participation of the people in political life.

Signs of democracy:1. recognition of the people as a source of power and sovereignty,2. the existence of rights and freedoms, 3. pluralism, 4. separation of powers(legislative, executive, judicial), 5.publicity. 6. elective power, 7. developed system of local governments.

Forms of democracy: 1. direct (direct), 2 indirect (representative).

Institutions of Direct Democracy: 1. elections, 2. referendum (popular vote).

Electoral system(includes the right to vote, the electoral process and the procedure for recalling deputies) –the procedure for the formation of elected bodies.

Suffrage- principles and conditions for the participation of citizens in elections.Suffrage: 1. active(right to vote)2. passive(the right to be elected).signs: 1. universal, 2. equal, 3. vowel, 4. open.Determination of results takes place on two systems: 1. majoritarian electoral system -The winner is the candidate who receives the most votes.2. proportional electoralsystem - voting on party lists and the distribution of mandates between parties is strictly proportional to the number of votes cast.Mandate- a document certifying the rights of a deputy.

Civil society(G. Hegel)- this is a non-state part of socio-political life, protected from direct state intervention, equality of rights and freedoms of all people;Signs of civil society:1. the presence in society of free owners of the means of production; 2. development and branching of democracy; 3. legal protection of citizens; 4. a certain level of civic culture.

Constitutional state- the state, which in its activities is subject to law.Signs of the rule of law: 1. law supremacy, 2 . observance of rights and freedoms, 3. separation of powers, 4. mutual responsibility of the state and citizens.

Political Party- an institution of the political system, a group of adherents of certain goals, uniting to fight for power.Party features: 1. power struggle, 2. programwith goals and strategy, 3.charter, 4. organizational structure, 5. the presence of governing bodies.

Party types: 1. By methods:revolutionary, reformist. 2. By the nature of membership:personnel, mass3. By ideology: conservative, liberal, social democratic, communist.4. By representation in power: ruling, opposition.5. By the nature of the actions:radical, reactionary, moderate, extremist, conservative.

Political culture (G. Almond, S. Verba) - a set of systems of opinions, positions, values ​​that prevail in a society or group.

Types of political culture:

1. Patriarchal- Orientation of citizens to local values,2. subject- passive attitude of citizens in the political system.3. political culture of participation (activist) - active participation of citizens in political life.Absenteeism- non-participation, avoidance of political life.

Political ideology- system of ideas. Types of ideologies:

1. Conservatism- maintaining order. 2.liberalism- freedom of individuality, entrepreneurship, rights. 3.Socialism- a fair structure of society. four.anarchism- elimination of the state 5.nationalism- superiority of the nation 6.extremism- Violent methods.

Constitution of Russia– 1918 (first), 1925, 1937, 1978,1993 (12 December). The first in the world1787 - US Constitution.December 10, 1948- "Universal Declaration of Human Rights", 1966 - "International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights" and "International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights".1959 – "Declaration of the Rights of the Child"1989 – "Convention on the Rights of the Child".

The exam in social studies is very popular among schoolchildren. The exam is considered easy: no need to do calculations, no need for laborious calculations. This ease is deceptive, and passing the exam can be difficult for two reasons. Firstly, the social studies course consists of several sections that are only conditionally related to each other, so it can be difficult to structure the acquired knowledge. Secondly, during the test, you will have to quickly switch between different sections, which will require composure, the ability to concentrate.

Item Features

Social science is a discipline that includes a complex of sciences, one way or another related to society. These are sociology, psychology, social philosophy, history, history, cultural studies, political science, economics, jurisprudence, ethics, etc.

The course is divided into several topics:

• Man and society
• Right
• Politics
• Economy
• social relations

The exam will ask you questions on all of these topics. Coping with tasks without preparation will be very difficult even for those who received good grades in social studies classes from the fifth to the eleventh grade. It is necessary to refresh knowledge, remember definitions, systematize what has been covered. This requires the study of theory in social science.

Exam

Each exam ticket contains four types of tasks:

• with the need to select one or more correct answers;
• to identify the structural elements of concepts;
• on knowledge of terminology, definition of concepts;
• to match positions.

For 20 tasks it is required to give a short answer, for 9 - a detailed one. Graduates will also have to write an essay. When passing an exam, it is impossible to do without knowing the theory.

Preparation for the exam in social studies

Start preparing early. The subject only at first glance seems easy: getting the highest score is not so easy.
• In the process of preparation, you will have to learn by heart many terms and definitions. You should not just mechanically cram the wordings, facts, events, names proposed in the textbook. Try to understand the essence, and then it will be easier for you to remember the material.
• Everything that you need to learn by heart, write out in a special notebook.
• Start with tasks that seem easy to you. You should not skip them - even if you are confident in yourself, it does not hurt to refresh your knowledge.
• After that, move on to more complex topics. Study the theory, repeat the definitions several times, and then proceed to the practical exercises. Finally, again make sure you remember the terminology accurately.
• When doing trial options, practice reading the questions carefully. Practice shows that misunderstanding of questions is one of the common causes of errors.
• Experienced tutors recommend starting training in December-January with the study of economics. This section is small.
• After that, you should take on the most difficult thing - the right. Practice shows that it is this section of social science that causes the greatest difficulties for graduates. Spend more time studying the law.
• Social relations, man and society are relatively simple sections. They can be taken as a last resort.
• Ideally, the study of theory should be completed in April. After that, give yourself a little rest and do the repetition. Make sure you remember all the wording and definitions, you can repeat all the legal acts by heart.

Man is the highest stage in the development of living organisms on Earth.

Origin theories:

1) Religious. divine origin.

2) Man is an unearthly creature, aliens from space, having visited the Earth, left human beings on it.

3) Man appeared as a result of evolution (Ch. Darwin)

Man is a biosocial being:

1) Biological in man: anatomy, physiology, possesses circulatory, muscular systems. Adapts to the conditions of existence.

2) Social in a person: inextricably linked with society, capable and ready for socially useful work, has consciousness and reason.

The main differences between humans and animals:

1) Possesses thinking and articulate speech.

2) Capable of conscious purposeful creative activity.

3) Not only adapts, but also transforms the surrounding reality.

4) Able to make tools and use them as a means of producing material goods.

5) There are spiritual needs.

Need - this is the need of a person for what constitutes a necessary condition for his existence.

Types of needs:

1) Biological (primary, congenital):

A) physiological (food, sleep, rest)

B) Existential (safety of existence)

2) Secondary (acquired)

* social (communication, social activities, public recognition)

* spiritual (in knowledge, creativity)

Capabilities is a set of properties of a person, thanks to which his activity is ensured.

Ability Development Levels:

• Capabilities

  giftedness

• Genius

human activities

Activity - a way of man's relationship to the outside world, which consists in transforming and subordinating it to the goals of man.

Activity Components: Subject (the one who carries out the activity)

Object (what the activity is aimed at)

Activity structure:

Goal - means to achieve goals - actions - result

Types of activities in which each person is included in the development process:

The game - the goal is not the result, but the process (entertainment), takes place in a conditional situation (imaginary environment), which is rapidly changing, substitute objects are used, aimed at satisfying the interests of the participants, contributes to the development of the individual.

Communication – exchange of information, emotions and ideas. Promotes socialization of a person (learning the norms accepted in society), has an impact on the mental state, helps to carry out joint activities.

Doctrine - the acquisition of knowledge, skills and abilities by a person. It can be carried out in an organized way (in educational institutions) and unorganized (as an additional result), it can have the character of self-education.

Work - aimed at achieving a practically useful, pre-expected result is carried out with certain knowledge, intelligence

Activities (by objects and results):

Material (creation of wealth)

Material and production (transformation of nature)

Socially transformative (transformation of society)

Spiritual (creation of cultural values)

Cognitive

Value-indicative (the formation of a positive or negative attitude of people to the phenomena of the surrounding world)

Prognostic (planning or anticipation of possible changes in reality)

Creation - this is a type of activity that generates something qualitatively new, which has never existed before (for example, a new goal, a new result, or new means of achieving the goal). It can be a component of any activity, or an independent activity (for example, the activity of scientists, inventors, writers, artists).

Human cognitive activity

Cognition - human activity. The result of which is the acquisition of new knowledge about the world around.

Knowledge has two levels:

1) Sensory cognition - is carried out by the senses (sight, hearing, smell, touch, taste)

2) Rational knowledge - inherent only to man, carried out through thinking

Types of knowledge:

1) Scientific (reliable generalization of facts)

2) Unscientific:

* mythology * life experience * folk wisdom * parascience (near-scientific knowledge)

True - correspondence of our knowledge about the subject to the subject itself

Absolute (exhaustive reliable knowledge)

Relative (incomplete, inaccurate knowledge)

Individual. Individuality. Personality.

Individual - a single representative of the human race.

Individuality - the uniqueness of a person.

Personality - a subject of conscious activity, possessing a set of socially significant features that he implements in public life.

The formation of personality is influenced by: family (upbringing), environment (communication), society, historical era, a person’s personal desire for self-improvement.

The personality has the following features: an active life position, willpower, responsibility, realistic self-esteem (neither low nor high).

Personality is formed in the process of socialization. Socialization - the process of assimilation of norms accepted in society and the development of social roles. Socialization is primary (childhood) and secondary (lasts a lifetime).

self-knowledge - a process during which each person comprehends his abilities, desires, opportunities, interests.

Self-realization - the process of the most complete identification and implementation by the individual of his abilities to achieve the intended goals in solving personally significant problems, which allows the fullest possible realization of the creative potential of the individual.

Spiritual world of man

The structure of the human spiritual world:

1) Cognition (based on intelligence)

2) Emotions - short-term experiences about situations and phenomena of reality (surprise, joy, anger, fear)

3) Feelings - emotional states that last longer than emotions (friendship, love, longing, patriotism)

4) Worldview - a system of general views on the world. Worldview can be: religious, ordinary, scientific.

Freedom and responsibility

freedom - the ability to act on the basis of choice, realizing responsibility for it.

The freedom of a person in society is limited by the freedom of other people. Freedom is manifested in the ability to control one's behavior. The regulator of such behavior is conscience.

In a broad sense - part of the world isolated from nature.

In a narrow sense - a circle of people united by a common goal, interests, origin; - historical periods of development of society.

Main areas of public life

Activities of people and relationships between them

Institutions

(organizations)

Economic

(provides satisfaction of material needs)

Production, distribution, exchange and consumption of material goods, and related relations

Factories, firms, exchanges, banks.

Social

(provides satisfaction of the needs for communication, collectivity)

Relations between classes, estates, nations, professional and age groups; state activities to ensure social guarantees

Health systems, social welfare, utilities

Political

(ensures the satisfaction of the need for organization, discipline, peace, law and order)

Organization of state power, relations between civil society and the state, between the state and political parties

Parliament, government, parties, public organizations

Spiritual

(provides satisfaction of the need for self-realization, moral improvement, knowledge)

Relations arising in the process of creating spiritual values, their preservation, distribution, consumption

Schools, universities, theaters, museums, libraries, archives, churches.

Society- a complexly organized, self-developing system (the system includes individuals and social groups, there are coordinated connections between them), which is characterized by dynamism, alternativeness and incompleteness of development. Society is characterized by unpredictability, non-linearity of development.

Nature:

In a broad sense - the whole world.

In a narrow sense -the entire material world, with the exception of society.

The relationship of nature and society:

Society

1) with the help of tools, it affects nature, changing it, i.e. purposefully

2) the development of science enhances the influence of society on nature

3) the impact can be improving (creation of nature reserves, tightening environmental legislation) or worsening (depletion of natural resources)

Nature: 1) creates the conditions for the existence of society

2) natural conditions affect the economy and lifestyle of society

3) in response to human actions, nature can also “deteriorate”

community life (natural disasters)

Typology of societies

comparisons

Agricultural

(traditional)

Industrial

post-industrial

(informational)

Economy

The main value is land, 75% of the population is engaged in agriculture

The main value is capital, 85% of the population is employed in industry, mass industrial production

The main value is knowledge, 66% of the population is employed in the service sector, automation of production, computerization of society

social structure

Society is divided into estates, estates are closed (difficulty of transition)

Society is divided into classes, they are open and mobile

The division of society into classes in accordance with the level of knowledge, qualifications, the growth of the middle class

Politics

Monarchies prevail, human rights and freedoms are absent

Political rights and freedoms, equality before the law, elective power

Political rights and freedoms, equality before the law, elective power,

Strong civil society

Spiritual life

Traditional values ​​prevail (family, religion), a small number of educated people

Values ​​of progress, personal success, science is developing, mass culture is spreading

High level of education (and its continuation throughout life), the special role of science, the leading role of information

Society can develop in the following ways:

1) Evolution- gradual development, reforms are the way of transformation.

2) Revolution- a radical, qualitative change in all or several aspects of public life (a scientific and technological revolution leads to a transformation in the production sphere, a revolution in politics leads to a change in the form of government).

Progress- the direction of development, which is characterized by a transition from the lower to the higher, moving forward to a more perfect one. (Regress - reverse movement)

A distinctive feature of the development of modern society is globalization.

Globalization- a process during which the mutual influence and interdependence of peoples and states in different fields of activity (economy, culture ...)

Global problems of mankind:

1) Caused by the activities of people around the world.

2) Create a threat to the continued existence of mankind

3) Can be solved by joint efforts

Global problems:

Environmental (depletion of natural resources, environmental pollution)

Uneven development of individual regions (backwardness of developing countries)

Demographic (population growth)

The problem of peace and disarmament, preventing a new world war

The threat of international terrorism

RIGHT

A set of generally binding, formally defined rules of conduct established by the state and provided by its coercive force

Public Law - area of ​​public affairs (constitutional, administrative, criminal, financial)

Private right– the sphere of private affairs (civil, family, labor)

Law system- the internal structure of law. Includes:

1) Branches of law 2) Sub-branches of law 3) Institutions of law 4) Legal norms

The main branches of the Russian law system:

1 ) Constitutional (fixes the form of government, state-territorial structure, rights and obligations of citizens)

2 ) Administrative (regulates public relations in the field of public administration, organization and activities of executive authorities)

3 ) Civil (regulates property, as well as related personal non-property relations)

4 ) Family (regulates relations between spouses, as well as between parents and children)

5 ) Labor (regulates labor relations)

6 ) Criminal (determines the criminality and punishability of acts)

Sources of law:

1) Laws and regulations ( differ in legal force, has the highest legal power Constitution)

2) Legal custom

3) Legal precedent

4) An agreement with a normative content (based on the mutual will of the parties)

Offenses: crimes and misdemeanors

The main types of legal liability:

1 ) Disciplinary (violation of labor, academic discipline)

2 ) Civil law (causing property damage)

3 ) Administrative (for administrative offenses)

4 ) Criminal (for crimes)

5 ) Material (for damage caused to an enterprise, institution, organization)

The legal culture of an individual is a set of legal knowledge, values, legal behavior of an individual.

PROTECTION OF HUMAN RIGHTS

The way to protect the rights, freedoms and legitimate interests is judicial protection

In case of violation of rights, a person turns to the “main link” – general courts jurisdiction- district courts, which hear the majority of court cases. Judicial power is exercised through civil, administrative and criminal proceedings.

Sentences in criminal justice and solutions in civil proceedings are taken on behalf of Russian Federation. If a person is not satisfied with the decision of a court of general jurisdiction, he can apply to the Supreme Court of Russia, in case of disagreement with its decision - to a supranational court - the European Court of Human Rights, which is the last instance. The decision of this Court is binding on all member states of the Council of Europe.

Directly aimed at protecting the individual in armed conflicts of an international and internal nature INTERNATIONAL HUMANITARIAN LAW, War crimes against humanity in accordance with international law have no statute of limitations.

.

Social sphere of society covers the relationship between people, groups, associations. Society has a social structure - an internal structure.

Elements of the social structure of society:

I. Social groups- stable populations of people who have distinctive, only inherent features (social status, interests, value orientations).

Types of social groups:

by number:

small group(from 2 to 30 people). In a small group, people know each other well (personally know each other), are engaged in some common business. The presence of emotionally colored interpersonal relationships, stability and constancy of the composition. For example - a family, a school class, an airplane crew.

Big group. A large set of people occupying the same position in the structure of society and having, as a result, common interests. For example - nation, class.

for interaction:

Formal(official). Its activities are determined through regulatory documents (school class, football team "Zenith")

informal(unofficial). Its activities are determined by the personal interests of its participants (poetry circle, organization of fans of the Zenit football team, a group of friends)

A family- a small social group based on marriage or consanguinity, whose members are connected by a common life, moral and legal responsibility.

Family Functions:

1) Reproductive (biological reproduction of the population)

2) Socialization (upbringing of children, formation of the individual as a person)

3) Economic and economic (material support for minors and disabled members of society, housekeeping)

4) Emotional (psychological support)

5) Spiritual and moral (personality development)

Family types:

according to the nature of the distribution of household duties:

Traditional (patriarchal) - household duties are performed by a woman, a man earns money and is the head of the family.

Partnership - duties are not shared, they are performed jointly or in turn, the most important issues of family life are resolved together.

related structure:

Nuclear, small (married couple with children)

Extended, multigenerational (married couple with children and one of the relatives living with them)

Incomplete (single parent with child or children)

by number of children

*Large * Few * Childless

II. Social communities- sets of people characterized by relative integrity and acting as independent subjects of historical and social action.

ethnic communities- exist in a certain territory, have a common historical experience, historical memory, language and cultural traditions. Varieties: tribe, nationality, nation

Classes- differ in place in the system of social production, in relation to the means of production, role in the social organization of labor, methods and amounts of wealth received. For example: the bourgeoisie, the working class, or the upper class, the middle class, the lower class.

socially-demographic communities (elderly people, teenagers)

Youth- a group of people from 16 to 25 years old, problems - it is difficult to find a place in life, get interesting job offers due to lack of life experience.

Socio-territorial(townspeople, rural population, Siberians)

Professional(miners, teachers, doctors)

Different social groups and communities occupy different social positions.

In society since primitive times there has been inequality- uneven distribution of scarce resources (money, power, education and prestige) between different segments of the population.

Indicators of social status can be: wealth, income power, profession, education, prestige, lifestyle.

social status- the position of a person in society, which he occupies in accordance with his age, gender, origin, profession, marital status. (A person can have many statuses, this will be called a status set. Among them, there may be basic and non-basic)

Prescribed status - does not depend on the merits of the individual (sex, nationality)

Achievable status - acquired as a result of free choice, personal effort and is under the control of a person

social role- the behavior of a person expected by society, associated with his position in society and typical of his social group. (One person can have many roles, collectively they are called a role set. For example: at work - an employee, at home - a husband, visiting parents - a son, in a company of friends - a friend, on election day - a voter, etc. )

It is customary to distinguish between two main forms of social interaction:

1) Cooperation - mutual interest, the benefits of interaction for both parties, the interaction is aimed at achieving joint goals. Relationships of friendship, partnership, support.

2) Rivalry - the absence of a common goal, but the presence of a similar goal with respect to an indivisible object (economic, political competition). Relationships of envy, hostility, anger.

When incompatible views, positions and interests collide, rivalry can develop into conflict.

Conflict- a clash of two people or social groups for the possession of something that is equally highly valued by both parties.

Types of social conflicts:

1) Economic 2) Interethnic 3) Political 4) Family and household

Experts identify the following solutions social conflicts:

Negotiations (peaceful conversation of the parties to solve the problem)

Compromise (solving a problem through mutual concessions)

Mediation (using a third party to resolve a problem)

Use of force, authority, law (unilateral use by the side that considers itself stronger)

Social conflicts have both negative consequences (stress, unrest, victims) and positive consequences (removal of social tension, stimulation of social changes).

Human behavior in society can be:

1) Relevant norms (conformist)

2) Deviant (does not meet the standards - deviant)

Social Studies Exam – this is a hard test even for the best students. The fact is that excellent students make mistakes in testing, because they inattentively read tasks, omit information in the answer that they think is already known to everyone, violate the logic of the story. Therefore, when preparing for testing, graduates must learn to structure the material, see the relationships and correctly express their opinion. Only in this way will they be able to get high scores on the exam and enter prestigious universities.

When a student begins to prepare on his own, he often thinks that he is already well versed in subjects, so he enough to take a short course in social studies for . But at the exam, it becomes clear that there is too little such preparation, because the teenager missed a lot of nuances, which is why he made mistakes in assignments.

Therefore, instead of self-study, he recommends enrolling in social studies training courses and repeating the program with experienced teachers. All teachers who teach at Hodograph are the best specialists in Moscow. Many of them defended scientific works and trained in the most prestigious domestic and international universities. Working with them, children will not only pass the test successfully, but also acquire many useful skills.

Teachers know how to find an individual approach to teenagers, set the right goals, and motivate them. They constantly communicate with eleventh-graders, get them interested in real examples, and tell them why knowledge of the subject is useful in everyday life. Therefore, at the end of the course students are not only well versed in economics, sociology, cultural studies, law, but also love these sciences.

Benefits of studying at Hodograph

The training center has created conditions to get super results at an adequate price:

• small groups of 2-7 people;
• division of children according to the level of knowledge;
• specially designed methodology;
• the presence of a curator assigned to each group;
• cozy classrooms equipped with everything you need;
• communication with teachers via Telegram;
• constant teamwork, discussions, discussions, analysis of complex issues.

Due to the fact that at each lesson the children perform 20-30 tasks from the tests, they learn to carefully read and understand the text. And the discussion of questions gives them skills in oratory and the ability to clearly express their thoughts. Therefore, "Hodograph" guarantees each of its graduates admission to the most prestigious specialties.