: I propose: speech etiquette in the Russian Empire at the beginning of the twentieth century in everyday life and the army. From janitor to emperor.We read books, watch movies and TV series, go to theaters… We encounter “Your Excellency” and “Your Excellency”. However, it is difficult to find clear canons that regulate in detail the norms of circulation, and those works that exist are fragmentary and of little use. How is the theme?

The word "etiquette" was coined by the French king Louis XIV in the 17th century. At one of the magnificent receptions of this monarch, the invitees were given cards with the rules of conduct that guests must follow. From the French name of the cards - "labels" - the concept of "etiquette" came from - good manners, good manners, the ability to behave in society. At the courts of European monarchs, court etiquette was strictly observed, the execution of which required both the most august persons and the environment to comply with strictly regulated rules and norms of behavior, sometimes reaching the point of absurdity. So, for example, the Spanish king Philip III preferred to burn by his fireplace (his laces flared up) than to extinguish the fire himself (the person responsible for the ceremonial of the court fire was away).

Speech etiquette- “nationally specific rules of speech behavior, implemented in a system of stable formulas and expressions in situations of “polite” contact with an interlocutor accepted and prescribed by society. Such situations are: addressing the interlocutor and attracting his attention, greeting, acquaintance, farewell, apology, gratitude, etc.” (Russian language. Encyclopedia).

Thus, speech etiquette is the norms of people's social adaptation to each other, it is designed to help organize effective interaction, restrain aggression (both one's own and others'), serve as a means of creating an image of "one's own" in a given culture, in a given situation.

Speech etiquette in the narrow sense of this term is used in etiquette situations of communication when performing certain etiquette actions. These actions can have the meaning of motivation (request, advice, offer, command, order, demand), response (reactive speech acts: consent, disagreement, objection, refusal, permission), social contact in the conditions of establishing contact (apology, gratitude, congratulations) , its continuation and completion.

Accordingly, the main etiquette genres are: greeting, farewell, apology, gratitude, congratulations, request, consolation, refusal, objection ... Speech etiquette extends to oral and written communication.

At the same time, each speech genre of speech etiquette is characterized by a wealth of synonymous formulas, the choice of which is determined by the sphere of communication, the characteristics of the communicative situation and the nature of the relationship of the communicants. For example, in a greeting situation: Hello! Good morning! Good afternoon! Good evening! (Very) glad to greet (see) you! Allow me to welcome you! Welcome! My regards! Hey! What a meeting! Well, meeting! Who do I see! and etc.

Thus, a greeting helps not only to perform the appropriate etiquette speech action at a meeting, but also to set a certain framework for communication, to signal official ( Allow me to welcome you!) or informal ( Hey! What a meeting!) relationships, set a certain tone, for example, playful, if a young man answers a greeting: My regards! etc. The rest of the etiquette formulas are distributed in a similar way according to the scope of their use.

Addressing (orally or in writing) to persons with ranks was strictly regulated and was called a title. All serfs should have known these cloying words, like "OUR FATHER". OTHERWISE THERE COULD BE BIG TROUBLES!!!

The subjects of the Russian sovereign were certainly punished for registration of the royal title. The punishment also depended on the seriousness of the offence. Punishment on this issue was the prerogative of the highest authority. The measure of punishment was fixed either in the tsar's personal decree, or in the tsar's decree with a boyar verdict. The most common punishments were whipping or batogs, imprisonment for an insignificant period. Indispensable punishment was not only the fact of distorting the title of the Russian sovereign, but also the application of one or more of its formulas to a person who did not have royal dignity. Even in an allegorical sense, the subjects of the Moscow sovereign were forbidden to use the words “king”, “majesty”, etc. in relation to each other. If such a fact took place, it served as a pretext for starting a search operation, placed under the control of the highest authority. An illustrative example is the “Nominal tsar's decree “On cutting the tongue of Pronka Kazulin, if it turns out on the wanted list that he called Demka Prokofiev the tsar of Ivashka Tatarinov.” It can be said that in the period under review, an encroachment on the royal title was actually equated with an encroachment on the sovereign.

Noble etiquette.

The following title formulas were used: a respectful and official address was "dear sir, gracious sir." So they turned to strangers, or with a sudden cooling or aggravation of relations. In addition, all official documents began with such appeals.

Then the first syllable was dropped and the words appeared "sir, madam". So they began to address wealthy and educated people, as a rule, strangers.

In the official environment (civilian and military), there were such rules of treatment: from the junior in rank and rank, it was required to address the senior in title - from “Your Honor” to “Your Excellency”; to persons of the royal family - “Your Highness” and “Your Majesty”; the emperor and his wife were addressed as "Your Imperial Majesty"; the grand dukes (close relatives of the emperor and his wife) were titled "imperial highness".

Often the adjective "imperial" was omitted, and when communicating, only the words "majesty" and "highness" were used ("To his majesty on behalf of ...").

Princes who did not belong to the royal house, and counts with their wives and unmarried daughters, were titled "Your Excellency", the most illustrious princes - "Your Grace".

Superiors addressed their subordinates with the word "master" with the addition of a surname or rank (position). People equal in title addressed each other without a title formula (for example, "Listen, Count ...".

Commoners, who did not know the ranks and insignia, used such appeals as master, mistress, father, mother, sir, madam, to the girls - young lady. And the most respectful form of address to the master, regardless of his rank, was "Your Honor."

military etiquette. The system of appeals corresponded to the system of military ranks. Full generals are supposed to say Your Excellency, lieutenant generals and major generals - Your Excellency. Officers, ensigns and candidates for a class position call the chiefs and seniors of the headquarters and chief officers by rank, adding the word master, for example, Mr. Captain, Mr. Colonel, other lower ranks title staff officers and captains - Your Highness, the rest of the chief officers - Your nobility (having a count or princely title - Your Excellency).

Departmental Etiquette used largely the same system of addresses as the military.

In the Russian state in the 16th-17th centuries, there was a practice of maintaining "ranks" - discharge books, in which records were annually entered on the appointments of service people to the highest military and government positions and on royal assignments to individual officials.

The first category book was compiled in 1556 under Ivan the Terrible and covered all appointments for 80 years from 1475 (starting with the reign of Ivan III). The book was kept in the discharge order. In the order of the Grand Palace, a book of “palace ranks” was kept in parallel, in which “everyday records” were entered about appointments and assignments in the court services of service people. Class books were abolished under Peter I, who introduced a unified system of ranks, enshrined in the Table of Ranks of 1722.

"Table of ranks of all ranks of military, civil and courtiers"- the law on the order of public service in the Russian Empire (the ratio of ranks by seniority, the sequence of rank production). Approved on January 24 (February 4), 1722 by Emperor Peter I, it existed with numerous changes until the 1917 revolution.

Quote: “Table of ranks of all ranks, military, civil and courtiers, in which class ranks; and who are in the same class- Peter I January 24, 1722

The Table of Ranks established the ranks of 14 classes, each of which corresponded to a specific position in the military, naval, civil or court service.

In russian language the term "rank" means the degree of distinction, rank, rank, category, category, class. By a decree of the Soviet government of December 16, 1917, all ranks, class ranks and titles were abolished. Today, the term "rank" has been preserved in the Russian Navy (captain of the 1st, 2nd, 3rd rank), in the hierarchy of diplomats and employees of a number of other departments.

When referring to persons who had certain ranks of the "Table of Ranks", persons equal in rank or inferior were required to use the following titles (depending on the class):

"YOUR HIGHNESS" - to persons in the ranks of the 1st and 2nd classes;

"YOUR EXCELLENCY" - to persons in the ranks of the 3rd and 4th classes;

"YOUR HIGHLIGHT" - to persons in the ranks of the 5th class;

"YOUR HIGHLIGHTS" - to persons in the ranks of 6-8 classes;

"YOUR BLESSING" - to persons in the ranks of 9-14 classes.

In addition, in Russia there were titles used when referring to members of the Imperial House of the Romanovs and persons of noble origin:

"YOUR IMPERIAL MAJESTY" - to the emperor, empress and dowager empress;

"YOUR IMPERIAL HIGHNESS" - to the Grand Dukes (children and grandchildren of the emperor, and in 1797-1886, and great-grandchildren and great-great-grandchildren of the emperor);

"YOUR HIGHNESS" - to the princes of imperial blood;

"YOUR HIGHNESS" - to the younger children of the emperor's great-grandchildren and their male descendants, as well as to the most serene princes by grant;

"YOUR LORD" - to princes, counts, dukes and barons;

"YOUR BLESS" - to all the other nobles.

When addressing clerics in Russia, the following titles were used:

"YOUR HIGH PRIESTNESS" - to metropolitans and archbishops;

"YOUR HIGHNESS" - to the bishops;

"YOUR HIGH REPODITY" - to archimandrites and abbots of monasteries, archpriests and priests;

"YOUR REVEREND" - to the protodeacons and deacons.

If an official was appointed to a position that was higher than his rank, he used the general title of the position (for example, the provincial marshal of the nobility used the title of III-IV classes - “your excellency”, even if by rank or origin he had the title “your nobility"). With a written official in the appeal of lower officials to higher ones, both titles were called, and the private one was used both by position and by rank and followed the general title (for example, “His Excellency, Comrade Minister of Finance, Privy Councilor”). From Ser. 19th century private title by rank and surname began to be omitted. With a similar appeal to a lower official, only the private title of the position was retained (the last name was not indicated). Equal officials addressed each other either as inferiors or by name and patronymic, indicating the common title and surname in the margins of the document. Honorary titles (except for the title of a member of the State Council) were usually also included in the title, and in this case the private title by rank, as a rule, was omitted. Persons who did not have a rank used a common title in accordance with the classes, to which the rank belonging to them was equated (for example, chamber junkers and manufactory advisers received the right to the common title “your honor”). When speaking to higher ranks, a common title was used; to equal and inferior citizens. ranks were addressed by name and patronymic or surname; to the military ranks - by rank with or without the addition of a surname. The lower ranks were supposed to address ensigns and non-commissioned officers by rank with the addition of the word “mister” (for example, “mister sergeant major”). There were also titles by origin (according to "dignity").

A special system of private and general titles existed for the clergy. The monastic (black) clergy were divided into 5 ranks: the metropolitan and archbishop were titled - "your eminence", the bishop - "your eminence", the archimandrite and abbot - "your reverend". The three highest ranks were also called bishops, and they could be addressed with the general title of "bishop". The white clergy had 4 ranks: the archpriest and priest (priest) were titled - "your reverend", the protodeacon and deacon - "your reverend".
All persons who had ranks (military, civil, courtiers) wore uniforms, according to the type of service and class of rank. The ranks of classes I-IV had a red lining on their overcoats. Special uniforms relied on persons with honorary titles (secretary of state, chamberlain, etc.). The ranks of the imperial retinue wore shoulder straps and epaulettes with the imperial monogram and aiguillettes.

The assignment of ranks and honorary titles, as well as appointment to positions, awarding orders, etc., was formalized by orders of the tsar for military, civil. and court departments and noted in the formulary (track record) lists. The latter were introduced as early as 1771, but received their final form and began to be conducted systematically from 1798 as a mandatory document for each of the persons who were in the state. service. These lists are an important historical source for studying the official biography of these individuals. Since 1773, lists of citizens began to be published annually. ranks (including courtiers) I-VIII classes; after 1858, the publication of lists of ranks I-III and separately IV classes continued. Similar lists of generals, colonels, lieutenant colonels and army captains were also published, as well as the "List of persons who were in the naval department and the fleet to admirals, headquarters and chief officers ...".

After the February Revolution of 1917, the title system was simplified. Ranks, titles and titles were abolished by the decree of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee and the Council of People's Commissars of November 10. 1917 "On the destruction of estates and civil ranks".

In a daily business environment (business, work situation), speech etiquette formulas are also used. For example, when summing up the results of work, when determining the results of selling goods or participating in exhibitions, when organizing various events, meetings, it becomes necessary to thank someone or, conversely, to reprimand, to make a remark. In any job, in any organization, someone may need to give advice, make a suggestion, make a request, express consent, allow, prohibit, refuse someone.

Here are the speech clichés that are used in these situations.

Acknowledgment:

Allow me (permit) to express (great, huge) gratitude to Nikolai Petrovich Bystrov for the excellent (perfectly) organized exhibition.

The firm (management, administration) expresses gratitude to all employees (teaching staff) for ...

I must express my gratitude to the head of the supply department for ...

Let me (permit) express my great (huge) gratitude ...

For the provision of any service, for help, an important message, a gift, it is customary to thank with the words:

I thank you for…

- (Big, huge) thank you (you) for ...

- (I) am very (so) grateful to you!

Emotionality, expressiveness of the expression of gratitude is enhanced if you say:

There are no words to express my gratitude to you!

I am so grateful to you that it is difficult for me to find words!

You can't imagine how grateful I am to you!

– My gratitude has no (knows) no boundaries!

Note, warning:

The firm (management, board, editorial office) is forced to issue a (serious) warning (remark) ...

To (great) regret (chagrin), I must (forced) to make a remark (to reprimand) ...

Often people, especially those in positions of power, find it necessary to express their suggestions, advice in categorical form:

Everyone (you) must (should)…

You should definitely do this...

Advice, suggestions expressed in this form are similar to an order or order and do not always give rise to a desire to follow them, especially if the conversation takes place between colleagues of the same rank. An incentive to act with advice, a proposal can be expressed in a delicate, polite or neutral form:

Allow me (let me) give you advice (advise you) ...

Allow me to offer you...

- (I) want (I would like, I want) to advise (offer) you ...

I would advise (suggest) you...

I advise (suggest) you...

Appeal with the request should be delicate, extremely polite, but without excessive fawning:

Do me a favor, do (my) request...

If it's not hard for you (it won't make it hard for you)...

Do not take it for work, please take ...

-(Not) can I ask you...

- (Please), (I beg you) let me ...

The request can be expressed with some categoricalness:

I strongly (convincingly, very) ask you (you) ...

Agreement, permission is worded as follows:

- (Now, immediately) will be done (done).

Please (permission, no objection).

Agree to let you go.

I agree, do (do) as you think.

In case of failure expressions are used:

- (I) cannot (unable, unable) to help (permit, assist).

- (I) cannot (unable, unable) to fulfill your request.

At present, this (do) is not possible.

Understand, now is not the time to ask (make such a request).

I'm sorry, but we (I) cannot (can) fulfill your request.

- I have to forbid (refuse, do not allow).

Among business people of any rank, it is customary to resolve issues that are especially important to them in a semi-official setting. To do this, hunting, fishing, going out into nature are arranged, followed by an invitation to the dacha, to a restaurant, to a sauna. In accordance with the situation, speech etiquette also changes, it becomes less official, acquires a relaxed emotionally expressive character. But even in such an environment, subordination is observed, a familiar tone of expressions, speech "licentiousness" is not allowed.

An important component of speech etiquette is compliment. Tactfully and timely said, he cheers up the addressee, sets him up for a positive attitude towards the opponent. A compliment is said at the beginning of a conversation, at a meeting, acquaintance or during a conversation, at parting. A compliment is always nice. Only an insincere compliment is dangerous, a compliment for the sake of a compliment, an overly enthusiastic compliment.

The compliment refers to the appearance, indicates the excellent professional abilities of the addressee, his high morality, gives an overall positive assessment:

You look good (excellent, fine, excellent, great, young).

You do not change (have not changed, do not age).

Time spares you (does not take).

You are (so, very) charming (smart, quick-witted, resourceful, reasonable, practical).

You are a good (excellent, excellent, excellent) specialist (economist, manager, entrepreneur, companion).

You are good (excellent, excellent, excellent) in managing (your) household (business, trade, construction).

You know how to well (perfectly) lead (manage) people, organize them.

It is a pleasure (good, excellent) to do business with you (to work, to cooperate).

Communication presupposes the presence of another term, another component that manifests itself throughout the entire duration of communication, is its integral part, serves as a bridge from one remark to another. And at the same time, the norm of use and the very form of the term have not been finally established, cause controversy, and are a sore spot in Russian speech etiquette.

This is eloquently stated in a letter published in Komsomolskaya Pravda (24.01.91) for Andrew's signature. They placed a letter under the title "Superfluous people." Here it is without abbreviations:

We, probably, in the only country in the world do not have people turning to each other. We don't know how to address a person! Man, woman, girl, granny, comrade, citizen - pah! Or maybe a female face, a male face! And easier - hey! We are nobody! Not for the state, not for each other!

The author of the letter in an emotional form, quite sharply, using the data of the language, raises the question of the position of a person in our state. Thus, the syntactic unit is appeal– becomes a socially significant category.

To understand this, it is necessary to comprehend what is the peculiarity of the address in the Russian language, what is its history.

From time immemorial, conversion has performed several functions. The main one is to attract the attention of the interlocutor. This is - vocative function.

Since they are used as proper names as addresses (Anna Sergeevna, Igor, Sasha), and the names of people according to the degree of kinship (father, uncle, grandfather) by position in society, by profession, position (president, general, minister, director, accountant), by age and gender (old man, boy, girl) invocation beyond the vocative function points to the corresponding sign.

Finally, appeals can be expressively and emotionally colored, contain an assessment: Lyubochka, Marinusya, Lyubka, blockhead, dumbass, klutz, varmint, clever, beautiful. The peculiarity of such appeals lies in the fact that they characterize both the addressee and the addressee himself, the degree of his upbringing, attitude towards the interlocutor, emotional state.

The given address words are used in an informal situation, only some of them, for example, proper names (in their main form), the names of professions, positions, serve as addresses in official speech.

A distinctive feature of officially adopted appeals in Russia was the reflection of the social stratification of society, such a characteristic feature of it as veneration of rank.

Isn't that why the root in Russian rank turned out to be fruitful, giving life

Words: official, bureaucracy, dean, deanery, chinolove, chivalry, clerk, clerkship, disorderly, outrageous, rank-destroyer, chino-destroyer, clerk, thief, decorum, chivalry, obey, submission,

Phrases: not according to order, distribute according to order, order after order, big order, without disassembling the ranks, without ordering, order after order;

Proverbs: Honor the rank of rank, and sit on the edge of the smaller one; Bullet ranks do not parse; To a fool, that to a great rank, space is everywhere; As many as two ranks: a fool and a fool; And he would have been in the ranks, but it's a pity, his pockets are empty.

The formulas of dedications, appeals and signatures of the author himself, which were cultivated in the 18th century, are also indicative. For example, the work of M.V. Lomonosov "Russian Grammar" (1755) begins with a dedication:

To His Most Serene Sovereign, Grand Duke Pavel Petrovich, Duke of Holstein-Schleswig, Storman and Dietmar, Count of Oldenburg and Dolmangor and others, most gracious Sovereign ...

Then comes the call:

Most Serene Sovereign, Grand Duke, Most Gracious Sovereign!

And the signature:

Your Imperial Majesty, the most humble servant of Mikhail Lomonosov.

The social stratification of society, the inequality that existed in Russia for several centuries, was reflected in the system of official appeals.

First, there was the document "Table of Ranks", published in 1717-1721, which was then reprinted in a slightly modified form. It listed the military (army and navy), civil and court ranks. Each category of ranks was divided into 14 classes. So, to the 3rd class belonged lieutenant general, lieutenant general; vice admiral; secret adviser; the marshal, the master of ceremonies, the master of the chasseur, the chamberlain, the chief ceremonial master; to the 6th grade - colonel; captain of the 1st rank; collegiate adviser; cameras-furier; to the 12th grade - cornet, cornet; midshipman; provincial secretary.

In addition to the named ranks, which determined the system of appeals, there were your excellency, your excellency, your excellency, your highness, your majesty, most merciful (gracious) sovereign, sovereign and etc.

Secondly, the monarchical system in Russia until the 20th century preserved the division of people into estates. Class-organized society was characterized by a hierarchy of rights and duties, class inequality and privileges. Estates were distinguished: nobles, clergy, raznochintsy, merchants, philistines, peasants. Hence the appeals sir, madam in relation to people of privileged social groups; sir, sir - for the middle class or barin, lady for both, and the lack of a single appeal to representatives of the lower class. Here is what Lev Uspensky writes about this:

My father was a major official and engineer. His views were very radical, and by origin he was "from the third estate" - a commoner. But, even if a fantasy came to his mind to turn on the street: “Hey, sir, to Vyborgskaya!” or: “Mr. driver, are you free?” he would not rejoice. The driver, most likely, would have mistaken him for a spree type, or even simply become angry: “It’s a sin for you, gentleman, to break down over a simple person! Well, what kind of "sir" am I to you? You would be ashamed!" (Koms. Pr. 11/18/77).

In the languages ​​of other civilized countries, unlike Russian, there were appeals that were used both in relation to a person occupying a high position in society, and to an ordinary citizen: mr, mrs, miss(England, USA), senor, senora, senorita(Spain), signor, signora, signorina(Italy), sir, sir(Poland, Czech Republic, Slovakia).

“In France,” writes L. Uspensky, “even the concierge at the entrance to the house calls the landlady “madame”; but the mistress, albeit without any respect, will turn to her employee in the same way: “Bonjour, Madame I see!”. A millionaire who accidentally got into a taxi will call the driver "monsieur", and the taxi driver will say to him, opening the door: "Sil vu ple, monsieur!" - "Please, sir!" There and this is the norm” (ibid.).

After the October Revolution, all the old ranks and titles were abolished by a special decree. Universal equality is proclaimed. Appeals lord - madam, gentleman - mistress, sir - madam, gracious sovereign (sovereign) gradually disappear. Only diplomatic language preserves the formulas of international courtesy. So, the heads of monarchical states are addressed: Your Majesty, Your Excellency; foreign diplomats continue to be called sir - madam.

Instead of all appeals that existed in Russia, starting from 1917–1918, appeals citizen and comrade. The history of these words is remarkable and instructive.

Word citizen recorded in the monuments of the XI century. It came to the Old Russian language from the Old Slavonic language and served as a phonetic version of the word city ​​dweller. Both of them meant "resident of the city (city)". In this meaning citizen found in texts dating back to the 19th century. So A.S. Pushkin has the lines:

Not a demon - not even a gypsy,
But just a citizen of the capital.

In the XVIII century, this word acquires the meaning of "a full member of society, the state."

The most boring title was of course the emperor.

Who was called "the sovereign"?

Word sovereign in Russia in the old days they used it indifferently, instead of a gentleman, a gentleman, a landowner, a nobleman. In the 19th century, the Most Gracious Sovereign addressed the tsar, the Most Gracious Sovereign addressed the great princes, and the Gracious Sovereign (when referring to the highest), my Gracious Sovereign (to an equal), my Sovereign (to the lowest) addressed to all private individuals. The words sudar (also with an emphasis on the second syllable), sudarik (friendly) were used mainly in oral speech.

When addressing men and women at the same time, "Ladies and gentlemen!" is often said. This is an unsuccessful tracing paper from the English language (Ladies and Gentlemen). Russian word gentlemen correlates equally with singular forms mister and mistress, and "lady" is included in the number of "gentlemen".

After the October Revolution, “sir”, “madame”, “master”, “mistress” were replaced by the word "comrade". It removed differences by gender (as they addressed both a man and a woman) and by social status (since a person with a low status could not be addressed as “sir”, “madame”). The word comrade with the surname before the revolution indicated membership in a revolutionary political party, including the communists.

The words "citizen" / "citizen" were intended for those who were not yet seen as "comrades", and to this day are associated with reporting from the courtroom, and not with the French Revolution, which introduced them into the practice of speech. Well, after perestroika, some "comrades" became "masters", and the appeal remained only in the communist environment.

sources

http://www.gramota.ru/

Emysheva E.M., Mosyagina O.V. — History of etiquette. Court etiquette in Russia in the 18th century.

And I'll remind you who they are The original article is on the website InfoGlaz.rf Link to the article from which this copy is made -

As a manuscript

BURAVTSOVA Nadezhda Yurievna

NATIONAL AND CULTURAL FEATURES OF STATUS APPEALS IN THE RUSSIAN LANGUAGE:

HISTORY AND MODERNITY

dissertations for a degree

candidate of philological sciences

Moscow 2007

The work was carried out at the Department of Russian Literature and Intercultural Communication of the State Institute of the Russian Language.

Supervisor: doctor of pedagogical sciences and

Official opponents: Doctor of Philology, Professor

Candidate of Philology,

Senior Researcher

Lead organization: Voronezh State

university

The defense will take place on "____" _____________ 200__ at "____" hours in the hall of the Academic Council at a meeting of the dissertation council D 212.047.01 of the State Institute of the Russian Language. Moscow, .

The dissertation can be found in the State Library. IRA them. .

Scientific Secretary

dissertation council

doctor of pedagogical sciences,

Professor

general description of work

In the development of modern linguistics, the study of language as a verbal code of culture is becoming increasingly important. The linguistic features of the national language as a reflection of the worldview, specific for a particular people, its views and ideas, that is, the cultural background, are the subject of research in the direction in linguistics - linguoculturology (L. Weisgerber, R. Lado,). The problem of reflecting national-cultural information in the language system and in speech is successfully solved at the level of nominative lexical and phraseological units (, etc.).

On the other hand, due to the fact that only by carefully and in detail analyzing the social text of the functioning of the language, one can obtain significant results in modern linguistic research, there is an increasing interest in studying the influence of external, extralinguistic, factors on the functioning and development of the language. To show that differences in speech skills within the same language society in a certain way correlate with systemically ordered social differences is one of the most important tasks of sociolinguistics (de Courtenay, in Russia; A. Meillet in France; Ch. Bally in Switzerland; J. Vandries in Belgium; V. Mathesius in Czechoslovakia). The main lines of research should be related to "the conditionality of linguistic differences by social factors" (See: Bright 1999, p. 108).

The above defines relevance of this study, since a significant issue in sociolinguistics is the issue of expressing the social status of an individual with addresses and, more broadly, their reflection of changes in the social structure of society at different historical stages of development. The study of the social status of a person also makes it possible to reveal the essential aspects of the language as a cultural phenomenon, since the linguistic analysis of status relations by its nature cannot be separated from the national-cultural, psychological and other features reflected in the meaning of language units.

The category of a person's social status is one of the central ones in sociolinguistics. It is related to other concepts, of which the closest is a social role, along three axes: Axis A - activity / behavior - speech event / speech act (involves consideration of status in terms of human behavior), axis B - speech collective - language (involves coverage status in terms of stratification-situational variability), axis B - culture / set of values ​​- communication network (conceived as the study of status in terms of lifestyle). In the dissertation research, we consider appeals that express the social status of a person in the aspect of stratification variability.

object studies are the formulas of titles and appeals of the 18th - 21st centuries, p subject- lexical means of expressing status appeals, indicating the social status of the individual, at different historical stages of the development of the language.

Target of the research carried out - a description of the reflection of national cultural information by status addresses and the identification of the role of extralinguistic factors in the development and functioning of the category of status address in Russian in the 18th, 19th and 20th centuries, consideration of the features of the implementation of the system of status addresses in the language of the present.

To achieve this goal, the work solves a number of tasks:

· Study of external factors influencing the functioning and development of status appeals;

· Indication of social realities characteristic of each era, which are reflected in status appeals;

· Comparison of special lexical means of expressing social statuses in the 18th, 19th and 20th centuries;

· Comparative and typological description of status appeals at different stages of language development;

· Identification of the specifics of the modern functioning of status appeals;

· Consideration of indirect indices of a person's social status at different historical stages.

The tasks are solved in I - III chapters on material excerpts from works of fiction of the 19th-20th centuries, showing speech communication at the corresponding historical stage, the functioning of addresses in living speech reality, their development and their reflection of the social structure of society. The use of a literary text provides a diachronic analysis of linguistic material. In Chapter IV, devoted to the functioning of official status appeals of the 18th - early 20th centuries. in modern Russian, as part of the nominations and in the function of calls on the Internet, the research material was the titles of articles, stories, messages and logs (log is a verbatim record of communication) on forums and conferences on the Internet. The use of the latter in the text of the dissertation is due to the fact that communication on the Internet is close to oral colloquial speech. This is manifested, for example, in the reduction of words, in the intentional spelling of words according to the principle of pronunciation, so we considered it appropriate to provide a verbatim record of communication on the Web.

The total corpus of analyzed examples was 800 units, about 250 implementations are reflected in the text of the dissertation.

The specifics of the language material, the purpose and objectives of the study led to the use of the following methods research: methods and techniques of direct observation and analytical description of linguistic and speech facts; the method of diachronic and synchronous analysis, the method of contextual analysis, the method of statistical analysis, etc.

Despite a long study of addresses, they have not been sufficiently considered in the sociolinguistic aspect. Scientific novelty The study consists in a detailed analysis and description of the implementation of the function of naming the addressee's social status by an appeal. The paper reveals a system of status addresses in the modern language in comparison with past historical stages, indicates the features of the use of title formulas and official-respectful addresses of the 18th - early 20th centuries in speech communication of the present.

Theoretical significance research lies in the possibility of using its results in solving theoretical issues of sociolinguistics; in the theory of speech etiquette, culture of speech, rhetoric; in the linguistic analysis of a literary text.

Practical significance associated with the possibility of solving problems caused by the difficulties of using addresses in speech. Interpreting, interpreting and explaining the signs of social status that are typical for a certain language system becomes especially important in the context of a cultural gap (for example, when reading a text belonging to a different era, or when communicating with representatives of a different culture). In the forms of status appeals, the specificity of the expression of status relations in different cultures and languages ​​is manifested, so the results of the study can be used in solving issues of intercultural communication.

The practical material of the dissertation research is presented in the form of tables in the Appendix.

Approbation of the main provisions and results of the study carried out at international, regional and intra-university conferences: at a scientific conference in the State. IRA them. dedicated to the Day of Science (2004); "Slavic culture: origins, traditions, interaction (VI Cyril and Methodius readings)" in the State. IRA them. ; at the conference of the teaching staff at TulSU (2006); "Linguoculturological and linguocultural aspects of the theory and methodology of teaching the Russian language" in TulSU (2006); as well as in discussions of the main provisions of the dissertation research at meetings of the Russian Language Department of TulSU from 2003 to 2006. 4 articles have been published on the topic of the dissertation research.

The main provisions for defense:

1. The direct and basic, verbal and intentional way of expressing social status is the appeal. The functions of status appeals are words expressing the relative position of a person in social stratification, and words denoting a hierarchy in a particular system of social institutions (for example, army ranks, church ranks).

2. On the system of addresses in the Russian language of the XVIII - early XX centuries. the cultural and historical features of the development of society during this period had a great influence. A feature of the appeals was a reflection of the social stratification of society, its important feature - servility. Status appeals of the 18th - early 20th centuries. - the most striking examples of the expression of the social status of the individual by appeals.

3. Changes in the social and political life of Russia after the revolution of 1917 led to a change in addresses: nominations and addresses expressing social stratification, hierarchy in society were no longer used, and socially marked addresses became widespread. Citizen! and Comrade! These forms reflected fundamental changes in the structure of society and its organization, emphasizing a new system of social relations, opposed to the stratification of society at the previous historical stage.

4. In the Russian language of the present time, in connection with the state of modern society, characterized by the presence of life and cultural styles that are not reducible to estate, class forms, there is no system of status appeals in the civil sphere. The remnants of this system, firstly, can be considered an appeal Excellency!, used in the official sphere, as well as isolated cases of using an appeal to the president Excellency! Secondly, socially significant forms of nominations and addresses of the past historical stage of language development continue to be used ( Comrade!, Citizen!). Even now there is a strict hierarchy in the military and church spheres in Russia, which is manifested in the corresponding status appeals.

5. Formulas of titles and official addresses of the 18th - early 20th centuries, including those that have become obsolete, are used by native speakers of the modern Russian language as part of secondary names formed with the help of metaphor, and also continue to be used in the function of address in communication on the Internet.

The hypothesis of the study is that the address in modern Russian speech communication, compared with the XVIII - early XX centuries. reflect the social stratification of society to the least extent, which is associated with the peculiarities of the ethno- and socio-cultural stage of the development of the language. Their use has a fundamentally different meaning in modern conditions, but at the same time they do not completely lose their original sociolinguistic parameters. In this regard, the correct use of the historically established status appeals of the 18th - early 20th centuries. in modern speech communication is possible only if their socio-historical context is known.

Work structure. The dissertation consists of an introduction, four chapters, a conclusion, a list of cited sources, a bibliographic list of references and an appendix.

The main content of the dissertation

In Administered a general description of the research problem is presented, the importance of the chosen problem and research topic, its relevance and novelty are substantiated, the object of research is singled out, a hypothesis, goals and objectives are formulated.

In the first chapter of the dissertation"Appeals as a way of reflecting the social status of a person" defines the concept of "social status" of a person, indicates the distinguishing features and provides ways of expressing this sociolinguistic category. This chapter describes address as one of the main ways of expressing the social status of an individual.

Important for the analysis was the distinction between the concepts of "social role" and "social status" of the individual. The primary opposition in sociolinguistics after and we recognize the opposition of two planes of socially determined variability of language - stratification and situational. The first reflects the social class structure of society. The unit of the stratified dimension of the language is the language communities with their social and communicative resources, the situational one is the roles, which reflect the socially conditioned relations between the participants of the communicative act. The social status of a person belongs to the conceptual series associated with the stratification variability of the language, and at the same time it determines the situational dimension of the language through role relations (See: Karasik 1992, p. 17).

By "social status" we mean the relative position, the position of a person in the social system, which includes rights and obligations and the resulting mutual expectations of behavior. A “social role” is a function that a person performs as an element of society; some pattern of behavior, including speech, recognized as appropriate for people of a given status in a particular society. Individuals are involved in role relations only because they have a certain social status, which can generalize many social roles. Comparison of "role" and "status" allows you to highlight stability and vector orientation ("higher - lower") as the main characteristics of "status".

The direct and main, verbal and intentional way of expressing the social status of a person is an appeal, one of the main functions of which is the naming of the addressee. Naming the addressee, we “designate his social status, role (appeals-pointers), or our attitude towards him, both role-based and personal (appeals-indexes)” (Goldin, 1987; Formanovskaya 1998; 2002, p. 137). Status appeals are appeals, the main function of which is the expression of the social status of the individual in the stratification dimension, they indicate the main sign of social status - "vector orientation" ("higher - lower"). These are words of two types: firstly, expressing the characteristics of a status attribute (index, vector, representation), and, secondly, words denoting a hierarchy in a particular system of social institutions. We consider stratification and corresponding systems of status appeals in social institutions (in the religious, military sphere of communication; in the diplomatic environment, in the sphere of power, official, official activity) and do not touch, for example, on hierarchy and appeals functioning in prison jargon.

Second chapter dissertation research “Status Appeals of the 18th – Early 20th Centuries, Reflecting the Social Structure and Cultural and Ideological Trends of Society” is devoted to the analysis of status appeals of the specified period. Here the issue of the influence of extralinguistic factors on the development of the language is considered, and, in particular, the cultural and historical features of the development of Russia in the late 18th - early 20th centuries, which influenced the system of status appeals, are noted.

During periods of cardinal changes in society (such as war, revolution, national liberation movement, etc.), the connection between changes in the vocabulary of the language and transformations in social reality can be traced most clearly. Recognizing the importance of internal factors in the development of the language, we point out that the peculiarities of the social development of Russia in the 18th - early 20th centuries predetermined the emergence and functioning of the system official status messages, regulated in general by the law "Table of Ranks", which was of a class nature and contributed to the strengthening of the feudal serf system in Russia, and informal status appeals, also reflecting the structure of society. This division is conditional. The first one included appeals-general titles (Your Excellency! - for representatives of 1 and 2 classes, Your Excellency! - 3 and 4, Your Highness! - 5 classes, Your Highness! - 6 - 8, Your Honor! - 9 - 14 classes) and addresses indicating private titles (master + rank name, for example: Mister General!, Mister Captain!, Mister Colonel! and etc.). Informal appeals are, firstly, appeals-clan titles, which for titled nobles replaced all other forms of treatment. Princely titles complained to persons who had a count's title, and the titles of the most serene princes - to those who had a princely one. The elders called when addressing such persons Baron! (Baroness!), Count! (Countess!), Prince! (Princess!), and the younger ones called princes and counts, as well as their wives, Your Excellency, Your Grace!(general titles). The latter form was used when referring to the younger children of the emperor's great-grandchildren and to princes (since the second quarter of the 19th century), granted by the imperial decree "lordship". And the princes of imperial blood and the grand dukes should have been addressed Your (Imperial) Highness! Secondly, informal appeals include forms that reflect the division of people into estates. People who belonged to the privileged classes were addressed Mister! (Mistress!) to members of the middle class Sir! (Madam!), there was no single appeal to persons of the lower class. In the latter case, the words “dearest”, “dearest”, etc.

A special hierarchical system of addresses existed in the church environment. But the division into ranks here was also associated with 14 classes, recorded in the "Table of Ranks". The clergy were black and white. In each form, 5 private titles (degrees, ranks) were allocated. The metropolitan and archbishop should have been addressed (Your) Eminence!, to the bishop - (Your) Eminence!, archimandrite and abbot - (Your) Reverence! These are the titles of the black clergy and their corresponding appeals. The following ranks stood out in the white clergy: protopresbyter and archpriest - they should have been addressed (Your) Reverence! (Blessings!), priest (priest) and protodeacon - (Your) Reverend! (Blessing! or Priesthood!), deacon (Your) Reverend!

Compliance with the principle of seniority and rank was considered mandatory at all official and solemn ceremonies, the tsarist bureaucracy strictly monitored the strict observance of the rules of treatment. Honoring persons by rank did not apply only to those cases, as prescribed by law, “when some, like good friends and neighbors, come together” (See: Table of Ranks). The use of addresses depended, therefore, on the situation of communication: “- Excuse me, Your Excellency,” he began (Pierre was well acquainted with this senator, but considered it necessary to address him officially here) ... "(. War and Peace).

The results of the study showed that status appeals could be used “incorrectly” by misunderstanding or by ignorance. There was one example in which the analyzed form was used intentionally "incorrectly" with the aim of flatter addressee: “In conversations with these rulers, he [Chichikov] very skillfully knew how to flatter everyone.<…>In conversations with the vice-governor and the chairman of the chamber, who were still only state councilors, he even said by mistake twice: “your excellency”, which they liked very much ”(. Dead Souls). In this case, Chichikov had to apply Your highness! according to the rank of the addressee, so the appeal Your Excellency! here does not indicate the social status of the individual.

Despite other functions, status appeals of the 18th - early 20th centuries. for this purpose they existed, first of all, to indicate the social position that the addressee occupied in society, while maintaining social stratification, hierarchy, penetrating the entire society as a whole.

In the third chapter dissertation "The development and functioning of status appeals in other historical periods" describes the functioning of appeals that reflect the changing structure of society in the post-October period (after the revolution of 1917) and in the period of perestroika and post-perestroika. Also in this chapter, the changes in the social structure of civil society in Russia at the present time and the problem of addresses in modern Russian are considered, the data of the experiment are given in the form of a questionnaire; examples of the use of addresses are analyzed, which were the remnants of the system of nominations and status addresses of the 18th - early 20th centuries in modern Russian. The third chapter of the dissertation also presents the social hierarchy in the military and religious spheres in the language of the present tense and the systems of status appeals that reflect it.

Extralinguistic factors: fundamental socio-political changes in Russia after the 1917 revolution (the destruction of social stratification, the proclamation of universal equality and other factors) and, as a result, a change in the moral and cultural values ​​of society, led to the abandonment of the use of status appeals expressing social hierarchy, and to the emergence of socially significant appeals Citizen! and Comrade! reflecting, thus, fundamental changes in the structure of society. The proper names that appeared during this period also expressed the attitude of native speakers to the changes that had taken place in society. The names characterized the loyalty of parents to the Soviet government, denoted ideals, symbols of a new life: October, Dawn, Victory and etc.

Forms Comrade! and Citizen! and these proper names are perceived as social signs of the old regime and cease to be used in perestroika and post-perestroika times, which is also associated with the processes taking place in the political and social life of society, the scale and significance of which were determined, first of all, by the fact that they affected the foundation of the state - economic basis. During this period, a transition was made from a socialist planned economy to a market economy and free enterprise, from the state property that dominated society to its various forms, the revival of private property. No less significant shifts have taken place in the sphere of public consciousness.

At present, as sociologists point out, Russia has not returned to the pre-revolutionary, pre-Soviet past, but has moved (or is moving) into a social state characterized by "pluralization" and "individualization" of life and cultural styles that are absolutely not reducible to estate, class or layered definitions of life forms. Despite the fact that now, of course, there is an upper stratum of society, middle, basic and lower strata, we cannot talk about social inequality, since “the difference between people in terms of some parameter (income, education, profession, etc.) in the latter case should be fixed institutionally and become the basic principle of classifying people. The absence of social classes in today's society is also evidenced by the fact of "extreme conventionality and mobility of the professional structure (in order to support a family in modern conditions, an individual often has to master and assimilate life forms and styles that he would never turn to in a prosperous and stable situation)" . There is a relativization of life styles in the practice of a single individual (See: Ionin 2000, p. 263). These extra-linguistic factors have led to the absence of status appeals in the civil sphere in the Russian language of the present.

But people of the same profession or one narrow circle of communication often form rather closed groups that develop their own language. In the general language space, a functional variety of the language is singled out, which serves the professional sphere of communication. The thesis presents an analysis of the status appeals that function in the Russian language of the present tense in the religious and military spheres, where there is a strict hierarchy of statuses. AT environment of religion the system of status appeals has undergone few changes compared to the appeals of the 18th - early 20th centuries. This is due to its closeness from the influence of external factors. In the military sphere, the system of status appeals has changed compared to the indicated period, since in the latter case, appeals to the military were regulated in the same way as in other areas of public life - the “Table of Ranks”, and were eliminated. But at present and military environment a system of status appeals is used, which is associated with the peculiarities of the organization of the army, with the need for a clear hierarchy here. The language and vocabulary of the military-professional sphere reflect the worldview of servicemen. Compliance with the norms of communication is authorized in the official and disciplinary order. The speech behavior of speakers and the use of language in a military environment is due to the presence of a specific "sub-language" of regulations and instructions, where "the natural living environment is limited to the functional-situational approach." In the military-professional environment, the norms of communication are strictly prescribed according to certain articles of charters, instructions, and regulations.

In the diplomatic environment, in the sphere of power, service, official, official activities, the general formulas of titles and official-respectful status appeals of the 18th - early 20th centuries continue to be used. (Your) Majesty! (in the diplomatic sphere), (Your) Excellency! and less often - (Your) Excellency! The above forms can be considered the remnants of the system of status appeals of the 18th - early 20th centuries. In addition to them, as our study has shown, other general formulas of titles and official-respectful status addresses of the noted period continue to be used, which are not used in their direct meaning in everyday communication and are presented in dictionaries as words “out of use or out of use”, with marks indicating the period of use (“tsarist Russia”, “old Russia”) (See: Ozhegov, Shvedova 2003; Balakai 2005, etc.)

In the fourth chapter“Peculiarities of using official formulas of titles and status appeals of the 18th – early 20th centuries. in Modern Russian” analyzes the use of these forms in the language of the present tense as references on the Internet at forums and conferences and as part of various kinds of names on print pages and on the Internet.

General titles and official respectful status appeals of the 18th - early 20th centuries. (Your) Excellency!, (Your) Excellency!, (Your) Excellency!, (Your) Excellency! act as, first, secondary language names, formed using the technique of metaphor (the use instead of one word of another, which has a common differential or connotative seme with the first word; a statement about the properties of an object based on some similarity with the already indicated in the rethought meaning of the word). These words are used in nominations, in accordance with a stable journalistic tradition, not in a denotative, but in an expressive function.

We have identified two large groups of names, which include the words "Excellency" and "High Excellency". The first group includes names where the word "excellency" means "excellent, very good, the best." The seme of the "highest degree" of the trait is important here. In this case, the speakers associate it with the word "excellent". The word "excellency" in the indicated meaning is especially widely represented in the composition of the names of electrical computer equipment. (His Excellency P900- cell phone name Her Assembly Excellencydisreet edit 6.0. - the name of the video camera, etc.), prestigious brands of cars (His Excellency, Mercedes!; Your Excellency's Adjutant, where the adjutant is the driver of the Lexus; Little Excellency - new model V8 Vantage, we note that the latter can be translated from English as “superiority” - a noun for the word “excellent”), as well as in the names of other items (His Excellency elegant tie; His Excellency foundation; His Excellency Punch - title of practical recommendations for beginner coaches and boxers).

In the second group, as part of the names, the words "excellency" and "high excellency" indicate a "high position in some respects", a "high" status of an object, phenomenon or person. For example: Your excellencies, gentlemen beekeepers!(the title of the article, in the text of which we read: “And who is the beekeeper in his apiary, if not the head of state?”). There are isolated cases of using a common title and official respectful address of the 18th - early 20th centuries. Your Excellency. Only ironic uses are noted.

According to the structure within the second group, we noted the names formed by analogy with the title of the book and film "His Excellency's Adjutant", for example: Debutant of His Excellency(on the nomination of single candidates for elections to the State Duma from Fatherland and Yabloko), Office of His Excellency(name of Timoshenko's cabinet).

We also singled out two groups of nominations, which included a common title and an official and respectful status address of the 18th - early 20th centuries. nobility. Firstly, these are names related in structure to the song “Your Honor, Madam Luck!”, where instead of the word “luck” various nominations are used: abstract concepts (Your Honor, Mrs. Victory! – an article about Russian football, Your honor, Mrs. Ruin - about the earthquake in Kamchatka) and specific concepts Your honor, madam cigar!; Yournobility, dear dacha! - about Stalin's dachas) . With the help of the analyzed structure, faces can be named (Your honor, madam teacher!). Secondly, the word "nobility", like the other forms noted above, indicates on the scale "higher - lower" to "high" in some parameters, a position different from others ( Your Grace - the name of a private security company), as well as on the sign underlying the meaning of the word "noble" (Our restaurant nobility– title of the article about the “Festival of Noble Taste”; your honor is the title of the article on the noble gas xenon).

All analyzed common titles of the XVIII - early XX centuries. as part of secondary names on the pages of print and on the Internet in the language of the present tense, they can be used in the function of expressing irony, malicious irony or an ironic-joking attitude (His Excellency Manager Ambrosov -effective market manager;Your honor, mister ham!; Paid Christmas gifts from his nobility housing and communal services;Your honor, the main garbage collector!).

The conducted research showed that the most productive nominations, which include common titles of the XVIII - early XX centuries. Excellency and Nobility. We have not met a single case of the use of the word "nobility" in the nominative function in the composition of the names. The activity of the words "excellency" and "nobleness" in the language of the present tense, in our opinion, is associated with the popularity of the book and film "Your Excellency's Adjutant", in the first case, and the song "Your Honor, Lady Luck!" (there were a lot of variants created on the basis of this song), in the second. The titles "High Excellency" and "High Nobility", as it seems to us, are used because of the similarity of sound with the named words.

In addition, general titles and official respectful status appeals of the 18th - early 20th centuries. in the language of the present tense are used in the function of accessing the Internet at forums and conferences. These forms, first of all, indicate the position of the addressee, despite some humorous situations, the game (as evidenced, for example, by various “badges” - the “smile” sign “:)))”) according to a kind of invented “report card”. Here, the main feature is preserved in the meaning of status calls - an indication of the status of the addressee on the scale "higher - lower". Different forums and conferences develop their own hierarchy of “statuses”, which depend on the number of messages sent, so that “it is possible to distinguish the elders of the forum from newcomers”, and the corresponding forms of appeals. In addition to the latter, indicating the position of the user, the status index is the number of stars. For example, to an addressee who communicates under the name Admiral of the Armenian Navy and has 5 stars, are treated by status using the common title of the XVIII - early XX centuries, Your Excellency!, to Lieutenant Dubina - Your Honor!

Secondly, official appeals of the 18th - early 20th centuries in modern Russian on the Internet at forums and conferences, as well as secondary names with these words, can express irony, malicious irony or a playfully ironic attitude.

“Being” on the Internet, in such types of communication as forums and conferences, can be called a “carnival” in his interpretation by M. M. Bakhtin, understood as life itself, but designed in a special playful way. (Compare: Litnevskaya 2005, p. 50). The transformation of the Russian language into the Web is determined not so much by the practical needs of simplifying the code, but by the game conditions of the virtual space, or communication-game.

In custody the results of the study are summarized, and areas of their theoretical and practical application are outlined. The periods of cardinal social changes in the historical development of Russia turned out to be in the field of our attention. At these points, information about the social status of the addressee is most clearly reflected in status appeals. Such an analysis of appeals made it possible to consider the development of the system of status appeals, to conduct a comparative analysis, to indicate the direct dependence of changes in this system on socio-political transformations.

The results of the dissertation research, reflected in the fourth chapter, in our opinion, can be further used in compiling the dictionary of Russian speech etiquette of network communication. We also think that in connection with the existing problems of using addresses in the modern Russian language, further detailed research on the functioning of addresses on the Internet in the genres of communication will be relevant.

The main provisions and results of the study are presented in the following publications of the author:

1. Buravtsov's appeals in the Russian language of the 18th - 19th centuries. as carriers of national and cultural information // Slavic culture: origins, traditions, interaction: Materials of the Intern. scientific Conf., May 16-18, 2005. M.: State. IRA them. , 2005. S. 222 - 227.

2. Buravtsova of references in the modern Russian language and the possibility of its solution by using the means of the language of past historical periods // Izvestiya TulGU. Series. Language and literature in the world community. Issue. 9. - Linguistic and cultural aspects of the study of the Russian language. Tula: Publishing House of TulGU, 2006. S. 39 - 44.

3. Buravtsov's address of the late XVIII - early XX centuries in a modern reading (on the material of forums and conferences on the Internet) // Izvestiya TulGU. Series. Language and literature in the world community. Issue. 9. - Linguistic and cultural aspects of the study of the Russian language. Tula: Publishing House of TulGU, 2006. S. 44 - 49.

4. Buravtsova of formulas of titles and official appeals of the late 18th - early 20th centuries in modern Russian as part of the names on the pages of the press and on the Internet // Izvestiya TulGU. Series. Language and literature in the world community. Issue. 10. - Topical issues of linguistics. Tula: TulGU Publishing House, 2006.

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The history of people turning to each other in Russia

One of the greatest assets of man and the greatest pleasures is the opportunity to communicate with his own kind. It would seem that there is nothing more natural and easier than talking to someone. However, in everyday life there are many examples of the fact that not everyone knows how to communicate in accordance with the norms of speech etiquette.

The main function of addressing people to each other is to attract the attention of the interlocutor. The reaction of a person to an appeal to him largely determines the tone of his answer and his perception of the speaker. The appeal can be expressive and emotional, contain some assessment.

Speech etiquette covers what expresses a benevolent attitude towards the interlocutor, which can create a favorable communication climate. A rich set of linguistic means makes it possible to choose a form of communication that is appropriate in a particular situation, favorable for the addressee “you” or “you”, to establish a friendly, relaxed or, conversely, official tone of conversation.

Appeals to strangers (most commonly used these days)
to the males	to female representatives	to a group of people	abstract
		Guys! Children!	Sorry!
Young man!		Comrades!	Sorry!
Boy! Boy! - from the side of men, familiar.	Gorgeous! - from the side of men, familiar.	Young people!	Please!
Man! - colloquial	Female! - colloquial	Citizens!	I apologize!
Comrade! Comrade + profession! - in the speech of representatives of the older generation, rare.	Comrade! Comrade + profession! - on the part of people over 50 years old, rare.		I'm sorry! - somewhat not polite, tk. it is presumed that the apologetic will be forgiven.
Citizen! -official, often used by the police	Citizen! - official, more often used by the police	Brothers! Guys!-male, familiar	Be kind!
Uncle! Grandpa! - used by children	Uncle! Grandmother! -used by children		(verb) please!
Son! Son! - by the elderly	Daughter! Daughter! - from older people.
Father! Grandfather! - male, for the elderly	Mother! - rude, to older, simple women
Brother! Brother! Brother! Countryman! - masculine, familiar	Sister! Sister! Countrywoman! - more often on the part of men, familiar
Dear! Milk! -more common in older people	Dove! Cute! - more often from the elderly, or as a familiar
Friend! Buddy!	Expensive! Dear!
Chief! - masculine, more often before a request.	Madam! - in the speech of representatives of the older generation, the intelligentsia
Old man! - youthful, familiar	Lady! - more often used with a negative connotation
Sir! - more commonly used with kindness	Madam! - more commonly used with kindness

The addresses of people to each other are varied and depend on the social role of the speaker.

Sometimes, at the first meeting, the interlocutors use their own names, while in the form in which the subsequent appeal is expected. For example: “My name is Lena; My name is Elena Viktorovna; My surname is Pegova; Allow me to introduce myself - Elena Viktorovna Pegova. As you can see, the form of presentation sets the tone, the degree of formality of the subsequent conversation. In business communication, as a rule, the professional position of the interlocutor is specified.

So what is an appeal?

An address is a speech directed to someone. Consequently, the specificity of the appeal is that it attracts the attention of the interlocutor and at the same time names him. This is how people interact.

According to the results of a survey of Muscovites conducted by the Ostankino radio company in 1999, the following results were obtained.

“Comrade” is preferred by 22% of the respondents, mostly middle-aged and older people, mostly with secondary and incomplete secondary education, more often men. This treatment with the surname or title of the position, profession sounds very official, unacceptable for a relaxed atmosphere.

“Citizen, citizen” is preferred by 21% of the respondents, of approximately the same social composition. Indeed, if we hear: “Citizen!”, then this, as a rule, is an imperious appeal of a policeman. It is typical for a formal setting. For some, it offends; for others, this treatment, although strict, is polite. Better than the depersonalizing "Let's go!", "Stop" ...

"Man", "Woman" - preferred by 19% of respondents, mainly service workers. In these words, only the belonging of a person to any gender is used.

A beautiful, ancient "ma'am" has appeared - it is preferred by 17% of the respondents, highly educated people, more often women.

A similar survey was conducted in 2001. During these two years, little has changed, only Comrades and Citizens have faded into the background. The most commonly used were the appeals "girl", "woman". They are chosen by 85% of respondents.

The appeal "Girl" went beyond age boundaries and became especially common. It is an analogue of a compliment: any woman is pleased to hear about her youth or youthfulness. That is why many consider this appeal to be the most suitable for the representatives of the fair half, but, you see, how ridiculous it still sounds when applied to a woman of 50 and older.

The word "woman" is a dialect form that came from the southern regions of Russia. Generally speaking, the word "woman" is relatively new, appeared in the 16th century, was originally a designation for a woman of the lower class. The rethinking of the meaning of the word takes place in the second half of the 19th century, not without the influence of the literary language. “In the Russian folk lexicon,” noted N.V. Shchelgunov, - there is no word for a woman, but there is a woman or a girl ... All of Russia, from top to bottom, did not know another woman, except for a woman. But no matter how the attitude towards this word changes, during the entire 19th century such words as: vulgar, absurd, impudent, stupid were associated with it. Today, such expressive expressions are more often associated with the word "woman".

Thus, social and cultural changes in society are reflected in the language, as well as in the appeal of people to each other.

The history of Russia provides extremely interesting material for studying the influence of power and social change on the conversion of people to each other.

There was a document "Table of Ranks", published in 1717-1721, which was then reprinted. It listed the military (army and navy), civil and court ranks. Accordingly, the form of address depended on the rank.

The monarchical system in Russia until the 20th century kept the division of people into estates. Classes were distinguished: nobles, clergy, merchants, philistines, peasants. Hence the appeal mister / mistress in relation to people of privileged social groups; sir / madam - for the middle class; barin / lady for both, and the absence of a single appeal to representatives of the lower class.

Thus, before the Revolution of 1917 in Russia there was no universal appeal to man. Appeal mister was usually used to characterize a person by position, but without indicating his position.

After the October Revolution, all ranks and titles were abolished by a special decree. Appeals have almost disappeared from the speech sir / madam and invocations like Your Excellency. Appeals were gradually superseded sir / madam and Ladies and Gentlemen, so that the scope of their application was extremely narrowed (in Soviet times they were preserved as appeals to foreigners from non-socialist countries), the appeal of the master was recognized as “bourgeois” and degrading, therefore, it began to be actively eradicated from the sphere of public appeals; citizen, on the contrary, gained more popularity, and comrade, having come from the social democratic lexicon in the meaning of “comrade-in-arms in the political struggle”, became official, generally accepted.

In the first years of Soviet power, there was an opposition of two classes - "gentlemen" and "comrades", people who use the corresponding addresses. Appeal comrade for the former tsarist intelligentsia it was insulting, and for the proletariats who came to power, the appeal mister testified that the interlocutor belonged to ideologically hostile elements. It was during the formation of Soviet power that new meanings of the words appeared in the Russian language gentlemen and comrades. These words began to designate the corresponding classes in society.

Now let's compare the calls sir / madam and which came to replace them comrade. Pre-revolutionary addresses distinguish the gender of the addressee, imply a certain and fairly high social status of the addressee, and are usually used together with the surname, profession, etc. First of all, comrade names a person regardless of gender. Secondly, comrade can be used both in combination with the surname, and without it ( comrade Ivanov; comrade major; comrade, wait). From an ideological point of view, comrade had obvious advantages: its use as an address implied the equality of the speaker and the interlocutor (norm. fellow conductor and, impossible mister conductor).

About the word " citizen» should be mentioned separately. It recorded in the annals of the 11th century. The word came into the Russian language from the Old Slavonic language and served as a variant of the word "city dweller". In the 18th century, this word acquires the meaning of "a full member of society, the state." Later, the meaning appears: "a person who is devoted to the Motherland, serves her and the people, takes care of the public good, subordinates personal interests to the public." Why didn't such a socially significant word as a citizen become a common address of people to each other in the 20th century? In the 20-30s. it has become the norm when talking between arrested persons and law enforcement officers not to use comrade and speak citizen.

With the growth of the revolutionary movement in Russia at the beginning of the 20th century, the word comrade as the word once citizen, acquires a new socio-political meaning: a like-minded person fighting for the interests of the people.

“After the complete displacement of pre-revolutionary addresses, the noted class opposition developed into a contrast between people who used and did not use the address comrade. Its use, as it were, emphasized the inclusion of the speaker in the Soviet system” [M.A. Krongauz 2001: 119].

So the appeal comrade in Soviet speech practice it was not neutral, as it carried the color of loyalty to the authorities. “Here is an example of Voroshilov’s speech at the February-March plenum of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks in 1937: “And all these comrades - unfortunately, we have to consider them comrades until a decision is made - these comrades led a vile, counter-revolutionary, anti-people line” [A .P. Romanenko, Z.S. Sanji-Garyaeva 1993: 57].

"While a person was addressed comrade, it was a sign that he was "his"; when this title and the right to apply such treatment to others were lost, this meant that the person was excluded from the number of “friends” and could soon be arrested” [A. Vezhbitskaya 1999: 362].

It is important to emphasize the following aspect: after the abdication of Nicholas II from the throne, the language appeal citizen received the connotation "resident of a free, democratic country" (as opposed to a non-free person in a monarchical state), and the word comrade- "a like-minded person in the political struggle of the proletariat for the overthrow of the exploiters." However, the extraordinary mass use of the last word led to the fact that by the middle of the 20s, the appeal comrade began to be used not only in relation to party comrades-in-arms, but also acquired officiality and generally accepted.

After the collapse of the USSR and Soviet culture, the etiquette system was again in an unstable state. Since the end of the 80s. in an official setting, appeals began to revive sir, madam, lord, madam.

Recently, the address "sir" is perceived as the norm at meetings of the Duma, on television, among businessmen, entrepreneurs, teachers, etc.

Scientists, teachers, doctors, lawyers prefer words colleagues, friends. And the words female Male, which have recently become widespread in the role of an appeal, violate the norm of speech etiquette, testify to the insufficient culture of the speaker. In this case, it is preferable to start a conversation without calls, using depersonalized forms: please be kind... be kind... excuse me...

The appeal comrade gradually began to emerge from the daily appeal of people to each other, it continues to be used by the military, members of parties of the communist direction.

“Modern changes are not a return to the old pre-revolutionary system. Rather, there is an attempt to simply replace the call comrade(in the singular and plural in combination with a surname, profession and title, as well as in the plural when the addressee is an unnamed group of people) on sir / madam. If we rely on the pre-revolutionary norm, then the appeal sir / madam are used incorrectly. The conditions of its use are close to the conditions of the use of the word comrade in Soviet times, and the sphere of use is bureaucratic and newspaper languages. Not pre-revolutionary has returned to our speech mister and disguised comrade"[M.A. Krongauz 2001: 120].

Thus, the problem of commonly used address in an informal setting remains open. Apparently, it will be resolved only when every citizen of Russia learns to respect himself and treat others with respect, when he learns to defend his honor and dignity, when he becomes Personality when it will not matter what position he occupies, what his status is. Only then, none of the Russians will feel awkward and embarrassed if they call him or he calls someone sir, madam... or when these words again change their meaning, and become acceptable to each individual.

Bibliography

1. Vezhbitskaya A. Semantic universals and description of languages ​​/ A. Vezhbitskaya // Understanding cultures through keywords.- M., 1999

2. Krongauz M.A. Semantics / M.A. Krongauz.- M., 2001

Similar abstracts:

The concept of etiquette is the established procedure for observing certain norms of behavior. The principles of business etiquette are the most important aspect of professional conduct. Features of verbal etiquette, culture of speech and rules of negotiation. Telephone etiquette.

Appointment of speech etiquette. Factors that determine the formation of speech etiquette and its use. Business etiquette, the meaning of the rules of speech etiquette, their observance. Features of national etiquette, its speech formulas, rules of speech behavior.

Comparison of the need for communication, its goals, the characteristics of a conversation between a man and a woman. Influence on the degree of manifestation of differences in speech behavior of various social factors. Rules for conducting a conversation with a representative of the opposite sex.

The moral foundations of service in the internal affairs bodies, the protection of a person, his life and health, honor and personal dignity, inalienable rights and freedoms. Official activities of a police officer, moral goals aimed at protecting the interests of citizens.

Linguistic features of oral speech. Ethics of speech communication and etiquette formulas of speech. Greetings. Appeal. label formulas. euphemization of speech. Features of written speech. Rhetoric in Russian philological science, modern theory and practice.

Office correspondence as an important part of business etiquette. General requirements for a business letter. Rules for international correspondence. Mandatory attributes of a business letter. Typical types of business letters. Intraorganizational correspondence, letters of congratulations.

Communication presupposes the presence of another term, another component that manifests itself throughout the entire duration of communication, is its integral part, serves as a bridge from one remark to another. And at the same time, the norm of use and the very form of address have not been finally established, cause controversy, and are a sore spot in Russian speech etiquette.

The author of the letter in an emotional form, quite sharply, using the data of the language, raises the question of the position of a person in our state. Thus, the syntactic unit - appeal - becomes a socially significant category.

To understand this, it is necessary to comprehend what is the peculiarity of the address in the Russian language, what is its history.

From time immemorial, conversion has performed several functions. The main one is to attract the attention of the interlocutor. This is a vocative function.

Since both proper names are used as addresses (Anna Sergeevna, Igor, Sasha), and the names of people by degree of kinship (father, uncle, grandfather), by position in society, by profession, position (president, general, minister, director, accountant); by age and gender (old man, boy, girl), the appeal, in addition to the vocative function, indicates the corresponding sign.

Finally, appeals can be expressive and emotionally colored, contain an assessment? Lyubochka, Marinusya, Lyubka, blockhead, dumbass, klutz, varmint, clever, beautiful. The peculiarity of such appeals lies in the fact that they characterize both the addressee and the addressee himself, the degree of his upbringing, attitude towards the interlocutor, emotional state.

The given address words are used in an informal situation; only some of them, for example, proper names (in their basic form), names of professions, positions, serve as appeals in official speech.

A distinctive feature of officially adopted appeals in Russia was the reflection of the social stratification of society, such a characteristic feature of it as veneration of rank.

Isn’t that why in the Russian language the root rank turned out to be fruitful, giving life

- words: official, bureaucracy, dean, deanery, chinolyubie, veneration of rank, clerk, clerkship, disorderly, outrageous, rank-destroyer, destroyer, rank-religious, rank-stealer, decorously, chivalry, obey, submission;

- phrases: not according to rank, distribute according to rank, rank by rank, big rank, without disassembling ranks, without rank, rank by rank;

- to proverbs: Honor the rank of rank, and sit on the edge of the smaller one; Bullet ranks do not parse; To a fool, that to a great rank, space is everywhere; As many as two ranks: a fool and a fool; And he would have been in the ranks, but it's a pity, his pockets are empty.

The social stratification of society, the inequality that existed in Russia for several centuries, was reflected in the system of official appeals.

First, there was the document "Table of Ranks", published in 1717-1721, which was then republished in a slightly modified form. It listed the military (army and navy), civil and court ranks. Each category of ranks was divided into 14 classes. So, the 3rd class included a lieutenant general, lieutenant general, vice admiral, privy councilor, chamber marshal, master of the horse, master of the hunt, chamberlain, chief ceremonial master; by the 6th grade - colonel, captain of the 1st rank, collegiate adviser, camera-fourier; by the 12th grade - cornet, cornet, midshipman, provincial secretary.

In addition to the named ranks, which determined the system of appeals, there were appeals your excellency, your excellency, your excellency, your highness, your majesty, the most merciful (merciful) sovereign, sovereign, etc.

Secondly, the monarchical system in Russia until the 20th century. preserved the division of people into classes. Class-organized society was characterized by a hierarchy of rights and duties, class inequality and privileges. Estates were distinguished: nobles, clergy, raznochintsy, merchants, philistines, peasants. Hence the appeals lord, madam in relation to people of privileged social groups; sir, madam - for the middle class or master, mistress for both and the absence of a single appeal to representatives of the lower class.

In the languages ​​of other civilized countries, unlike Russian, there were appeals that were used both in relation to a person occupying a high position in society and to an ordinary citizen: Mr., Mrs., Miss (England, USA); senor, senora, senorita (Spain); signor, signora, signorina (Italy); pan, pani (Poland, Czech Republic, Slovakia).

After the October Revolution, all the old ranks and titles were abolished by a special decree, and universal equality was proclaimed. Appeals lord - madam, master - mistress, sir - madam, gracious sovereign (empress) are gradually disappearing. Only diplomatic language preserves the formulas of international courtesy. So, the heads of monarchical states are addressed: Your Majesty, Your Excellency; foreign diplomats continue to be called mister - madam. Instead of all the appeals that existed in Russia, starting from 1917-1918. Citizen and comrade receive circulation. The history of these words is remarkable and instructive,

The word citizen is recorded in the monuments of the XI century. It came to the Old Russian language from Old Slavonic and served as a phonetic version of the word city dweller. Both of them meant "resident of the city (city)". In this sense, the citizen is also found in texts dating back to the 19th century. So, A. S. Pushkin has the lines:

Not a demon - not even a gypsy,

But just a citizen of the capital.

In the XVIII century. this word acquires the meaning of "a full member of society, the state."

Why, then, such a socially significant word as a citizen did not become popular in the 20th century? commonly used way of addressing people to each other?

In the 20-30s. a custom appeared, and then it became the norm when addressing arrested, imprisoned, convicted employees of law enforcement agencies and vice versa, not to say comrade, only citizen: citizen under investigation, citizen judge, citizen prosecutor.

As a result, the word citizen for many has become associated with detention, arrest, the police, and the prosecutor's office. The negative association gradually “grown” to the word so much that it became its

an integral part; so rooted in the minds of people that it became impossible to use the word citizen as a common address.

The fate of the word comrade was somewhat different. It is recorded in the monuments of the XV century. Known in Slovene, Czech, Slovak, Polish, Upper Lusatian and Lower Lusatian. In the Slavic languages, this word came from the Turkic, in which the root tavar meant "property, livestock, goods." Probably, originally the word comrade meant "companion in trade". Then the meaning of this word is expanded: a comrade is not only a “companion”, but also a “friend”. Proverbs testify to this: On the road, the son is a friend to his father; A smart comrade is half way; To fall behind a comrade - to become without a comrade; The poor man is not a friend to the rich; The servant of the master is not a friend.

With the growth of the revolutionary movement in Russia at the beginning of the XIX century. the word comrade, like the word citizen in its time, acquires a new socio-political meaning: "a like-minded person fighting for the interests of the people."

From the end of the 19th century and at the beginning of the 20th century. Marxist circles are being created in Russia, and their members call each other comrades. In the first years after the revolution, this word becomes the main reference in the new Russia. Naturally, the nobles, the clergy, officials, especially of high rank, do not all immediately accept the appeal of a comrade.

Playwright K. Trenev skillfully showed the attitude towards conversion in the play “Love Yarovaya”. The action takes place during the Civil War. In the speech of the clergy, officers of the tsarist army, and the raznochintsy intelligentsia, appeals continue to be used: your excellency, your excellency, your honor, gentlemen officers, mister lieutenant, gentlemen.

Soviet poets in subsequent years tried to emphasize the universality and significance of the appeal, comrade, creating combinations: comrade life, comrade sun, comrade harvest (V. Mayakovsky); comrade victorious class (N. Aseev); comrade rye (A. Zharov).

There is a clear distinction: the comrades are the Bolsheviks, they are those who believe in the resolution. The rest are not comrades, which means they are enemies.

In the following years of Soviet power, the word comrade was especially popular, A. M. Gorky in the fairy tale "Comrade" writes that it has become "a bright, cheerful star, a guiding light for the future." In the novel by N. Ostrovsky “How the Steel Was Tempered” we read: “The word“ comrade ”, for which yesterday they paid with their lives, sounded now at every step. An indescribably exciting word from a comrade. One of the songs popular in Soviet times also glorified him: “Our word is a proud comrade to us more than all beautiful words.”

So even the appeal acquired an ideological meaning, became socially significant. Here is what journalist N. Andreev writes about this:

After the Great Patriotic War, the word comrade gradually began to emerge from the everyday informal appeal of people to each other.

The problem arises: how to contact a stranger? The issue is being discussed on the pages of the press, in radio broadcasts. Philologists, writers, public figures express their opinion. They propose to revive the treatment, sir, madam.

On the street, in the store, in public transport, the appeals of a man, a woman, grandfather, father, granny, boyfriend, aunt, uncle are increasingly heard.

Such appeals are not neutral. They can be perceived by the addressee as a lack of respect for him, even an insult, unacceptable familiarity. Hence, rudeness in response, an expression of resentment, a quarrel are possible.

Since the end of the 80s. in an official setting, the appeals sir, madam, sir, madam began to revive.

History repeats itself. Like in the 20s and 30s. appeals master and comrade had a social connotation, and in the 90s. they again confront each other. An illustrative example: Deputy N. Petrushenko, when discussing the law on property at the Supreme Council in 1991, said:

A remarkable parallel. Long before perestroika, the film "Deputy of the Baltic" about the first post-revolutionary years was shown. The protagonist of the picture is a deputy of the Petrograd Soviet from the Baltic sailors, Professor Polezhaev, delivering a speech to the people. He begins it like this: "Gentlemen!" The audience is unpleasantly surprised: such an appeal can only be directed to people of the privileged classes. Probably the speaker misspoke. The professor understands the audience's reaction: “I didn't make a reservation. I tell you - workers and working women, peasants and peasant women, soldiers and sailors ... You are masters and true gentlemen in a sixth of the world ... "

Recently, the appeal, sir, madam, has been perceived as the norm at meetings of the Duma, in television programs, at various symposiums and conferences. In parallel with this, at meetings of government officials, political figures with the people, as well as at rallies, Russians, fellow citizens, compatriots began to use speeches. , job title, title. Difficulties arise if the director or professor is a woman. How to address in this case: Mr. Professor or Mrs. Professor?

The appeal comrade continues to be used by the military and members of communist parties. Scientists, teachers, doctors, lawyers prefer the words of colleagues and friends. Appeal respected - respected is found in the speech of the older generation.

The words woman, man, which have recently become widespread in the role of addresses, violate the norm of speech etiquette, testify to the insufficient culture of the speaker. In this case, it is preferable to start a conversation without appeals, using etiquette formulas: be kind ..., be kind ..., sorry ..., sorry ....

Thus, the problem of commonly used address in an informal setting remains open.

It will be resolved only when every citizen of Russia learns to respect himself and treat others with respect, when he learns to defend his honor and dignity, when he becomes a person, when it doesn’t matter what position he holds, what his status is. It is important that he is a citizen of the Russian Federation. Only then, none of the Russians will feel awkward and embarrassed if they call him or he calls someone Mr., Mrs.

Vvedenskaya L.A. Culture of speech - Rostov n / D., 2001.

4. Conversational style

Theme II. Lexical and stylistic norms of the Russian literary language

2.1. Variety of word meanings. homonymy

2.2. Lexical synonymy, antonymy, paronymy

Remember!

2.3. Violations in the use of words and phraseological units: verbosity, lexical incompleteness, alogism. Stylistic evaluation of borrowed words

Stylistic evaluation of borrowed words

Correct use of phraseological units

2.4. Russian language dictionaries

Topic III. Spelling and punctuation norms of the Russian literary language

3.1. Spelling of vowels and consonants Spelling of vowels

Attention!

I. Vowels o  e (e) after hissing w, h, w, u in the root of the word

II. Vowels o  e (e) after hissing w, h, sh, u in endings and suffixes

Remember!

Remember! The letter s after c in the root of the word:

Spelling of consonants

Attention! To memorize voiceless consonants:

Remember!

Unpronounceable consonants in the root of the word:

3.2. Spelling prefixes Spelling prefixes

3.3. spelling compound words spelling compound words

3.4. Spelling parts of speech

Attention! Adjectives with the suffix -yan-: exceptions:

The window has glass pane, wooden frame and pewter latches and handles.

Remember! Hyphen in indefinite pronouns:

Attention! To correctly determine the initial form of the verb:

I conjugation II conjugation

Spelling nn and in participles and verbal adjectives Remember! n and nn in adjectives:

Attention! Questions answered by adverbs:

Remember! Sizzling adverbs - exceptions:

3.5. Punctuation marks in a simple sentence

Dash between subject and verb

Dash in an incomplete sentence

Intonation and connecting dash

Punctuation marks in sentences with homogeneous members

Punctuation marks in sentences with separate members

Punctuation marks in sentences with clarifying, explanatory and connecting members of the sentence

Punctuation marks for words not grammatically related to sentence members

3.6. Punctuation marks in a complex sentence

3.7. Punctuation marks in direct speech. Combinations of punctuation marks

Combinations of punctuation marks

Spelling minimum

Topic IV. Accentological and orthoepic norms of the Russian literary language

4.1. Features of pronunciation of unstressed vowels and consonants

Pronunciation of unstressed vowels

Pronunciation of consonants

4.2. Pronunciation of foreign words, names and patronymics Features of the pronunciation of foreign words

How do names and patronymics sound

4.3. Literary stresses

4.4. Violations of accentological and orthoepic norms of the Russian literary language and ways to overcome them

Basic spelling mistakes

Topic V. Morphological and syntactic norms of the Russian literary language

5.1. The use of word forms of different parts of speech

Fluctuations in the grammatical gender of nouns

Variation of case endings

Errors in the formation and use of forms of adjectives

Errors in the use of pronouns

Use of verb forms

5.2. Variety of syntactic constructions

5.3. Variants of the grammatical connection of the subject and the predicate. Correct construction of sentences Variants of the grammatical connection of the subject and predicate

Correct construction of sentences

5.4. Options for harmonizing definitions and applications. Management options Options for harmonizing definitions and applications

Control options

Module II. Oral and written speech communication

Theme VI. Culture of speech communication

6.1. Speech etiquette. Speech etiquette formulas

6.2. Appeal in Russian speech etiquette

6.3. Speech culture of questions and answers

Question Types

A forward-looking strategy for answering questions

6.4. Business conversation. business negotiation business conversation

Business meeting

Theme VII. Public speaking skill

7.1. Public speaking composition

7.2. Communication between the speaker and the audience

7.3. Public speaking preparation

7.4. Making a public speech

Theme VIII. Scientific style of speech

8.1. Linguistic and structural features of the scientific style of speech

8.2. Types of scientific texts. Their characteristics and design

A sample of the design of the title page of a scientific work at a university

Norms of stress in Russian

8.3. Features of course and diploma work. Bibliographic description

8.4. Presentation of the results of educational and scientific activities

Stages of preparing a presentation:

Topic ix. Official business style of speech

9.1. Business documentation. Sample Documents

Personal documents

Statement

Power of attorney

Subbotina Yulia Konstantinovna

Autobiography

Administrative documents

Structure and content of the administrative document

Administrative and organizational documents

Information and reference documents

Explanatory note

9.2. Business letter. Types of business letters

9.3. Forms of business communications

Speech self-presentation

9.4. Document language unification

Declension of numerals

Literature basic

Additional

Dictionaries and reference books

Informational resources

Teaching aids in electronic version

Donbass National Academy of Civil Engineering and Architecture

6.2. Appeal in Russian speech etiquette

Communication presupposes the presence of another term, another component that manifests itself throughout the entire duration of communication, is its integral part, serves as a bridge from one remark to another. And at the same time, the norm of use and the very form of the term have not been finally established, cause controversy, and are a sore spot in Russian speech etiquette. This is appeal . He is eloquently mentioned in a letter published in Komsomolskaya Pravda (01/24/91) signed by Andrey. They placed a letter under the title "Superfluous people." Let's quote it without abbreviations: "We, probably, in the only country in the world do not have people addressing each other. We don't know how to address a person! A man, a woman, a girl, a grandmother, a comrade, a citizen - ugh! Or maybe, a female face, a male face! And it's easier - hey! We are nobody! Not for the state, not for each other! " The author of the letter in an emotional form, quite sharply, using the data of the language, raises the question of the position of a person in our state. Thus, the syntactic unit - appeal - becomes a socially significant category.

From time immemorial, conversion has performed several functions. The main one is to attract the attention of the interlocutor. This is a vocative function. Since they are used as proper names as addresses ( Anna Sergeevna, Igor, Sasha), and the names of people according to the degree of kinship ( father, uncle, grandfather), by position in society, by profession, position ( president, general, minister, director, accountant), by age and sex ( old man, boy, girl), the appeal, in addition to the vocative function, indicates the corresponding feature. Finally, appeals can be expressive and emotionally colored, contain an assessment: Lyubochka, Lyubka, blockhead, dumbass, klutz, varmint, smart girl, beauty. The peculiarity of such appeals lies in the fact that they characterize both the addressee and the addressee himself, the degree of his upbringing, attitude towards the interlocutor, emotional state.

The given address words are used in an informal situation, only some of them, for example, proper names (in their main form), the names of professions, positions, serve as addresses in official speech.

A distinctive feature of officially adopted appeals in Russia was the reflection of the social stratification of society, such a characteristic feature of it as veneration of rank. The monarchical system in Russia until the 20th century preserved the division of people into estates. Estates were distinguished: nobles, clergy, raznochintsy, merchants, philistines, peasants. Hence the appeals sir, madam in relation to people of privileged social groups; sir, sir- for the middle class or barin, lady for both, and the lack of a single appeal to representatives of the lower class.

In the languages ​​of other civilized countries, unlike Russian, there were appeals that were used both in relation to a person occupying a high position in society, and to an ordinary citizen: mr, mrs, miss(England, USA), senor, senora, senorita(Spain), signor, signora, signorina(Italy), sir, sir(Poland, Czech Republic, Slovakia).

After the October Revolution, all the old ranks and titles were abolished by a special decree. Universal equality is proclaimed. Appeals lord - madam, gentleman - mistress, sir - madam, gracious sovereign (sovereign) gradually disappear. Only diplomatic language preserves the formulas of international courtesy. So, the heads of monarchical states are addressed: Your Majesty, Your Excellency; foreign diplomats continue to be called lord - madam.

Instead of all appeals that existed in Russia, starting from 1917–1918, appeals citizen and comrade. The history of these words is remarkable. Word citizen recorded in the monuments of the XI century. It came to the Old Russian language from the Old Slavonic language and served as a phonetic version of the word city ​​dweller. Both of them meant "resident of the city (city)". In the XVIII century, this word acquires the meaning of "a full member of society, the state." Emperor Paul in 1797 issued a decree prohibiting the use of "seditious" words freedom, society, citizen. Instead of a word citizen, according to the decree, it was necessary to write and speak inhabitant, inhabitant. But the decree was powerless. Word citizen with new content, it becomes widespread in the 19th century, as evidenced by the work of outstanding poets and writers: "You may not be a poet, But you must be a citizen!" (N. A. Nekrasov).

In the 20-30s. a custom appeared, and then it became the norm when addressing arrested, imprisoned, tried to employees of law enforcement agencies and vice versa not to speak comrade, only citizen: citizen under investigation, citizen judge, citizen prosecutor. As a result, the word citizen for many it has become associated with detention, arrest, the police, the prosecutor's office. The negative association gradually "grown" to the word so that it became its integral part, so rooted in people's minds that it became impossible to use the word citizen as a general term.

The fate of the word was somewhat different comrade. It is recorded in the monuments of the XV century. Known in Slovene, Czech, Slovak, Polish, Upper Lusatian and Lower Lusatian. In the Slavic languages, this word came from the Turkic, in which the root tavar meant " property, goods". original word comrade mattered " companion in trade". Then the meaning of this word is expanded: comrade- not only a "companion", but also a "friend". Proverbs testify to this: On the road, a son is a comrade to his father, A smart comrade is half the road; To fall behind a comrade - to become without a comrade; The poor man is not a friend to the rich; The servant of the master is not a friend. With the growth of the revolutionary movement in Russia at the beginning of the 19th century, the word comrade as the word once citizen, acquires a new socio-political meaning: "a like-minded person fighting for the interests of the people."

Since the end of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th centuries, Marxist circles have been created in Russia, their members call each other comrades. In the first years after the revolution, this word becomes the main reference in the new Russia. Naturally, the nobles, the clergy, officials, especially of high rank, do not all immediately accept the appeal comrade.

The appeal acquired an ideological meaning, became socially significant. Here is what journalist N. Andreev writes about this in Novoye Vremya (1991, No. 2): “It seemed that conversion is a matter of education, taste, culture. However, in our socialist society, one can judge about his political orientation, ideology, class affiliation. The appeal, as it were, immediately determined the status of a citizen: if a comrade, then, therefore, ours, ideologically tested, class pure. Master - here attention, this can be suspected of everything: counter-revolutionary, exploitative inclinations, anti-communism. Citizen - there is an obvious criminal implication. There was a comrade, but now he became a citizen under investigation."

After the Patriotic War the word comrade gradually begins to emerge from the everyday informal appeal of people to each other. The problem arises: how to contact a stranger?

Since the end of the 80s. in an official setting, appeals began to be revived sir, madam, lord, madam. History repeats itself. Like in the 20s and 30s. appeals mister and comrade had a social connotation, and in the 90s. they confronted each other again.

At meetings of government officials, politicians with the people, as well as at rallies, speakers began to use appeals Russians, fellow citizens, compatriots. Among civil servants, businessmen, entrepreneurs, university professors, the appeal is becoming the norm sir, madam in combination with the surname, title of position, rank. Appeal comrade continue to be used by the military, members of communist parties, as well as in many factory teams. Scientists, teachers, doctors, lawyers prefer words colleagues, friends. Appeal respected, respected found in the speech of the older generation.

The words female Male, which have recently become widespread in the role of an appeal, violate the norm of speech etiquette, indicate a lack of culture of the speaker. In this case, it is preferable to start a conversation without appeals, using etiquette formulas: be kind..., be kind..., sorry..., sorry....

Thus, the problem of commonly used address in an informal setting remains open.