1 roa division. Magazine "Russia in colors"

Introduction

1. Public thought

2. Artistic culture of Western Europe

3. XIX century as a cultural and historical era

3.1. Literature

3.2. Architecture

3.4. Painting

3.5. Music

Conclusion

Literature

Introduction

The culture of the 19th century is the culture of established bourgeois relations. By the end of the XVIII century. capitalism as a system is fully formed. It covered all branches of material production, which led to corresponding transformations in the non-productive sphere (politics, science, philosophy, art, education, everyday life, social consciousness).

The spiritual culture of the 19th century developed and functioned under the influence of two most important factors: successes in the field of philosophy and natural science. Science was the leading dominant culture of the 19th century.

Various value orientations were based on two initial positions: the establishment and approval of the values of the bourgeois way of life, on the one hand, and the critical rejection of bourgeois society, on the other. Hence the emergence of such dissimilar phenomena in the culture of the 19th century: romanticism, critical realism, symbolism, naturalism, positivism, and so on.

1. public thought

An important shift in the culture of Western Europe was the establishment of the principle of realism in ideology, art, and philosophy. The mythological and religious worldview is replaced by the recognition of reality, which requires consideration of circumstances and overcoming illusions. Utilitarian thinking was asserted, closely tied to the needs of real life. In social life, the autonomy of the church and state-political power was formed, stable bourgeois relations were established in every social stratum.

During the XIX - XX centuries. in bourgeois society, there is a development of specialized value orientations and the introduction of the high prestige of entrepreneurship into the public consciousness. The image of a prosperous person, who embodies the spirit of enterprise, determination, the desire for risk, combined with precise calculation, is affirmed in the ideological attitudes, and the combination of the spirit of entrepreneurship with the national spirit is an important means of social cohesion. The assertion of national unity meant smoothing out internal differences, barriers and borders. At the state level, various programs are being implemented aimed at mitigating the consequences of social stratification, at ensuring the survival and preservation of the status of low-income strata of the population.

Interstate relations of European countries strove for socio-cultural pluralism, although the struggle for independence and autonomous rights led to long and bloody wars. Sometimes the rivalry was transferred to the colonial spaces.

The level of centralization, political and spiritual monopoly gradually decreased, which ultimately contributed to the strengthening of pluralism. The interaction of various centers of influence created such a pluralistic system in which the regulation of relations was developed on the basis of the mutual correlation of rights and obligations. Such a system contributed to the destruction of anarchy, authoritarianism and the formation of a mechanism for the legal regulation of relations.

The principles of democracy were carried out primarily in public life, spreading to other spheres of society.

The complex mechanism of an industrialized system requires, in order to maintain not only an appropriate social structure, divided primarily into various categories, but also the priority of values inherent in a bourgeois industrial society, such as: achievement and success, private property, individualism, law, activity and labor, consumerism , universalism, faith in progress, respect for science and technology.

These values are actively affirmed by the entire system of spiritual influence on the masses of the population.

The formation of new principles for the regulation of socio-cultural life corresponded to the changes in Western European society that accompany it at a late stage of development, usually called modernization.

Alienation has become one of the most important characteristics of industrial society. From the sphere of production relations, alienation spread to social norms.

The subjugation of the more backward countries in order to exploit their resources was not limited to the establishment of political and economic dominance, but was accompanied by the suppression of local cultures in the name of the universalism of Western industrial civilization. This sparked a national liberation movement that took on a large scale.

2. Artistic culture of Western Europe

For the culture of the XIX century. multi-style, the struggle of various directions, the beginning of crisis phenomena are characteristic. The nature of human interaction with the surrounding reality is fundamentally changing: a contemplative worldview appears, a desire for sensual contact with the world, and this is carried out in different ways in different currents. In naturalism - through the fixation of the fleeting, through the individual impression. In impressionism - through the transfer of a dynamically filled life. In symbolism - thanks to the animation of the outside world, and in modernism - thanks to the creation of images of the spirit.

Two important features of the culture of the 19th century should be noted:

1. The assertion of the values of the bourgeois lifestyle, which was manifested in the focus on consumption and comfort, and in art led to the emergence of new artistic styles (Empire, academicism, pseudo-romanticism, etc.)

2. Improvement of institutional forms of culture, i.e., the unification of previously disparate academic cultural institutions: museums, libraries, theaters, art exhibitions. An art industry has emerged. Art has become a commodity and structure of bourgeois economic relations.

The most important achievement of the culture of the XIX century. is the emergence of the art of photography and design. The development of photography led to a revision of the artistic principles of graphics, painting, sculpture, combined artistry and documentary, which is not achievable in other forms of art. The basis for design was laid by the International Industrial Exhibition in London in 1850. Its design marked the convergence of art and technology and laid the foundation for a new kind of creativity.

A very important fact in the culture of the XIX century. was the differentiation of artistic culture into aesthetics, art criticism, art history as separate areas of humanitarian knowledge.

19th century was a century of ups and downs, a century of multi-style and contradictions, but it prepared that turning point in the consciousness and culture of mankind, which divided the traditions of the classical and modern eras.

3. XIX century as a cultural-historical epoch

The 19th century was the century of "permanent revolution" that took place in all spheres of society. The technical civilization replaces the traditional one in Europe. Modern researchers call such a process modernization, including industrialization, scientific and technological progress, urbanization, democratization of political structures, secularization, the growth of education and a change in the social status of women.

Industrialization and urbanization changed the social structure of European countries: society was more and more clearly divided into two classes - the bourgeoisie that owned the means of production and the proletarians who were deprived of these means and sold their labor power. The economic and social situation of the working class was extremely difficult: a long working day of 14-16 hours, a low standard of living, colossal unemployment, and the widespread use of cheaper child and female labor. Under these conditions, the economic and political actions of the workers demanding social reforms became natural.

The social conflicts of capitalism were comprehended by politicians and philosophers, socialist and communist movements arose. These parties had some political influence. The trade union movement became a real social force. By the end of the 19th century, political reforms had mitigated the adverse effects of industrialization, and in most countries the state began to take over the fight against poverty.

In the 19th century, scientific and technical discoveries were made that led to a change in the way people lived, to the ability of a person to do more in a shorter period of time: by the end of the century, the steamboat, telegraph, telephone, gas and electric lighting, photography and cinema were invented.

Science moved from the period of collecting facts to the stage of revealing patterns, and theoretical natural science arose. In physics, the law of conservation and transformation of energy was formulated in biology - the cellular theory and the theory of evolution were created, in chemistry - the periodic system, and in geometry - the theory of Lobachevsky.

Science has become not just a form of rational knowledge and a new social institution. Her claims to create her own picture of the world, stated in the Enlightenment in the famous Encyclopedia, were confirmed by more and more new theories and scientific achievements introduced into production. science became a productive force, and its role in society increased more and more. Science was perceived as perfect knowledge about nature and man. Both philosophy and art tried to resemble it.

In philosophy, the Marxist and positivist trend will assert itself as scientific knowledge. In art, such a direction as naturalism will be an attempt to use the positivist method.

Positivism was not only a philosophy, it also became a very common worldview of the era. It seemed that the methods of the positive sciences should spread both in what seemed to be too speculative philosophy and in modern art, which should now be guided by science as a model.

Introduction

1. Public thought

2. Artistic culture of Western Europe

3. XIX century as a cultural and historical era

3.1. Literature

3.2. Architecture

3.4. Painting

3.5. Music

Conclusion

Literature

Introduction

1. public thought

The principles of democracy were carried out primarily in public life, spreading to other spheres of society.

These values are actively affirmed by the entire system of spiritual influence on the masses of the population.

Alienation has become one of the most important characteristics of industrial society. From the sphere of production relations, alienation spread to social norms.

2. Artistic culture of Western Europe

Two important features of the culture of the 19th century should be noted:

A very important fact in the culture of the XIX century. was the differentiation of artistic culture into aesthetics, art criticism, art history as separate areas of humanitarian knowledge.

3. XIXcentury as a cultural-historical epoch

In philosophy, the Marxist and positivist trend will assert itself as scientific knowledge. In art, such a direction as naturalism will be an attempt to use the positivist method.

The process of secularization in the XIX century. looked like a steady decline in the share of the religious and an increase in the share of the secular. The principles of freedom of religion, the separation of church and state, and the abolition of church censorship led to the emergence of an essentially new situation in the public mind. Secularization was facilitated not only by the development of science, but also by the growth of education.

The artistic life of society underwent radical and permanent changes. The contradictions of European development found their expression in art. A feature of the 19th century was the diversity of artistic trends.

Europe was becoming an unconventional type of society in which innovation was becoming more and more widespread, where artistic styles did not successively replace each other, but existed in parallel, complementing each other.

Questions of the purpose of art, its specificity, the role of the artist have become the property of not only art criticism, but also aesthetics. Such prominent philosophers of the 19th century as Kant, Hegel, Schelling, Feuerbach, irrationalist philosophers Schopenhauer, Nietzsche expressed a number of fundamentally new approaches to understanding artistic life.

The multiplicity of artistic movements in the 19th century was a consequence of the process of modernization. The artistic life of society was now determined not only by church dictates and the fashion of court circles. The change in the social structure led to a change in the perception of art in society: new social strata of wealthy and educated people are emerging who are able to independently evaluate works of art, focusing only on the requirement of taste. It is to the 19th century that culturologists attribute the beginning of the formation of mass culture; Newspapers and magazines, which published long novels with an entertaining plot from issue to issue, became the prototype of television serials in the art of the 20th century.

The variety of art directions had a deep social background. The modernization of European society could be artistically reflected only in new types, genres, directions of art.

In the artistic life of the first half of the 19th century, romanticism prevailed, reflecting disappointment in the ideology of the Enlightenment. Romanticism was a reaction to the results of the French Revolution, which did not justify the hopes placed on it. Romanticism, as a trend in artistic life, spread in different countries and involved various types of arts in its orbit. Moreover, romanticism has become a special worldview and way of life. The romantic ideal of the individual, not understood by society, forms the manner of behavior of its upper strata.

Romanticism is characterized by the opposition of two worlds: the real and the imaginary. Renal reality is considered as soulless, inhumane, unworthy of a person and opposing him. The "prose of life" of the real world is opposed to the world of "poetic reality", the world of ideals, dreams of hope.

Seeing the world of vices in contemporary reality, romanticism tries to find a way out for man. This exit is at the same time a departure from society in various ways.

The romantic hero goes into his own inner world, the world of passions and experiences, the world of fiction and dreams. Extraordinary love, love - passion, love - tragedy is proof of the uniqueness of the spiritual world of a romantic hero and his inability to accept the laws of a utilitarian and soulless world.

Departure from the world can be done not only in the depths of one's own "I", but also beyond the limits of real space. The natural world is capable of both reflecting violent romantic feelings and calming them down.

Romanticism begins to idealize the past, especially the Middle Ages, seeing in it a different reality, a culture whose values are not comparable with the utilitarianism of modern society.

Romanticism especially appreciates the originality of the artist's personality. In the aesthetics of romanticism, art has such opportunities for understanding life, insight and intuition. However, not every person is endowed with such abilities; they are characteristic only of an artist who is able to penetrate the essence of things. The crowd cannot understand the insights of the artist, and he finds himself in deep conflict with society. One of the main themes of romanticism is the theme of loneliness and even death of the artist, his incomprehensibility by society and alienation from him.

By the middle of the 19th century, other artistic trends were gaining strength. Significant for them is the embodiment of not only the tragedy of an individual, but also the biography of broad social strata.

Representatives naturalism proceeded from the predetermination of a person's fate by the social environment and heredity. The art of this trend was significantly influenced by positivism with its pedantic description of facts and the rejection of excessive theorizing. The literature of naturalism, in its study of human behavior, tries to be like science in its methods. Most often, this trend in literature is associated with the names of Zola and Maupassant. In painting, artists such as Courbet and Millet turn to images from the social ranks of society. Naturalism did not strive for generalization and typification like realism.

The sources of a person's moral attitudes are found exclusively in heredity or in the influence of the external environment. These reasons, according to naturalists, fatally determine the fate of man. In the works of adherents of naturalism, there is not that depth of psychological analysis of the character, which will become an artistic discovery of realism. The naturalist writer turns his work into a kind of photograph, preserving all the details, but at the same time avoiding his own author's position, from making a moral assessment.

IN realistic The illumination of the phenomena of reality appear in all their complexity, versatility and richness. If the world of romanticism is actually the spiritual world of the hero, then in realism the principle of generalization becomes typification: the display of recognizable characters and precise details. The development of realism could most fully express the contradictions of social development. The object of criticism of realist artists was the same bourgeois society that did not accept romance. But now it is no longer a person in an exceptional situation, but typical characters acting in typical circumstances, become the main subject of the image. Realism penetrates deeply into public life, revealing social contradictions.

By the middle of the century, realism becomes the dominant trend in European culture. If the main types of creativity for the romantics were music and poetry, capable of expressing the secret and inexplicable, then realism led to the flowering, first of all, of such a literary genre as the socio-historical novel. Literature, in turn, influenced realistic painting.

Realism as a trend turned out to be much wider than the boundaries of the 19th century, in contrast to previous eras. decadence(decline). If realism claimed to be an objective reflection of the world, then symbolism and impressionism discovered the subjectivity of the artist's perception, focusing on this and using a number of new artistic techniques.

Unlike realism, symbolism opposes the subjective world to the objective, continuing the tradition of romanticism. The position of individualism and even demonism finds expression in symbolism. The art of symbolism expressed the desire for spiritual freedom, the tragic foreboding of impending social catastrophes and doubt about spiritual values as a deterrent.

If in literature the subjectivity of an artist's perception is discovered by symbolism, then in painting a similar discovery is made by impressionism.

It was impressionism and symbolism that threw a bridge into the art of the 20th century.

The cultural conditions of the 19th century expanded the possibilities of the individual principle in artistic creation.

The century was so bright, it was represented by such great personalities that the originality of artistic trends can only be revealed through individual biographies of artists, their original works. The 19th century became the century of creative individuals, the century of personalities. It is therefore logical to turn to the analysis of the biographies of the authors and their works.

The status of the artist has never been as high as in the art of the XIX century. If in the Enlightenment philosophers became writers, then in the 19th century writers caught up with philosophers in terms of depth of analysis of society and a clear expression of moral position. The greatest writers and artists of the 19th century were the spiritual leaders of their time.

3.1 Literature

Romanticism in literature is a complex, multifaceted phenomenon that encompasses outwardly dissimilar works of art.

Romanticism is characterized by a degree of penetration into the depths of the human soul unknown to that in literature. Romantics often contrasted reality with a dream. Despising the entire bourgeois way of life, they considered it a boring, vulgar, unworthy subject and looked for great feelings and passions.

Romanticism dominated European literature for many decades. It was during this period that the lyrics flourished. The poet became a romantic hero, opposing himself to dull everyday life, living a different life: the life of his poetic emotions and experiences.

The Romantics discovered a variety of poetic forms, a wealth of innovations; abandoning the rules of classicism, they were able to convey genuine human feelings.

The world and man in romantic literature turned out to be more complex and meaningful than in the novels of the Enlightenment. The cult of reason of classicism and the enlightenment of romance was opposed to the cult of feeling, the principle of reflecting life - the principle of conventionality.

The new romantic hero was a lonely and mysterious person. It was possible to leave everyday life in different ways - and a romantic romance arises, just leave - and the romantic hero flees from society to other, as a rule, exotic countries, it was possible to withdraw into oneself, focusing on one's own experiences, and an all-consuming love affair became necessary. passion, showing all the difference between a romantic hero and ordinary people with their petty feelings.

George Byron(1788-1842) was a bright type of artist - romanticism, giving the name to the whole artistic movement - Byronism. Byron's life itself has become a legend. Born into an aristocratic family, he associates his aspirations with both literature and politics.

Byron's most famous hero was Childe Harold, the hero of Childe Harold's Pilgrimage (1812). It was this work that made Byron famous. The image of Childe Harold is the image of an English aristocrat who went on a journey to distant lands. The poem became the standard of romantic life.

Byron's poem contains a number of details of his biography, which gave grounds for identifying the author and his hero. At first, Byron protested, and then he himself began to narrate in the first person.

Whoever the Byronian hero is, he is always a stranger among people. He despises the laws of society, violates moral prohibitions, but the last hope of his noble heart is love. This love is always doomed and turns out to be the last tragedy of the hero.

Byron's friend was Percy Bysshe Shelley(1792-1822), who also came from an aristocratic family. Shelley left his homeland, spent many years in Italy. He was very sympathetic to the ideas of the French Revolution. Shelley's creative heritage, despite his short life, was quite diverse. His pen belongs to poems, poems, odes. The lyrical drama Prometheus Unbound was especially famous. Shelley romanticized poetry itself as a form of creativity, believing that it is not just imagination, but also creates eternal images.

As a romantic poet, Shelley made extensive use of biblical and mythological images, symbols and allegories. His bright poetic path was interrupted by an early death.

Turning to history, the writer sought to understand its tendencies, which make it possible to comprehend modern reality.

At the center of Shelley's works is a romantic hero, a fascinating love line unfolds. His poetic work was distinguished by a truly extraordinary variety, subtlety of lyrical experience.

Scottish writer Walter Scott(1771-1832) opened a new genre in literature - the historical novel. The writer looked at the past through the eyes of a romantic, seeing in it the brightness of events and experiences that was lacking in the ordinary course of life. For his novels, W. Scott chose historical turning points, when the fate of entire peoples was decided. His most famous works were: "The Puritans", "Ivanhoe", "Quentin Dorward".

Walter Scott was always keenly interested in the past of his family, his homeland - Scotland, and his memory did not miss the smallest details and details. Romanticism in the work of V. Scott was combined with a realistic beginning. In his novels, the fate of the individual depends on the course of historical development. Peru Scott owns 28 novels in which a whole world of events and feelings unfolds before the reader, a panorama of the life of England and Scotland over several centuries, from the 12th to the 19th century. V. Scott believed that for a writer, accuracy should become a necessary condition for creating a historical novel: he carefully studied customs, costumes, and documents. Chronicles served as sources of information for Scott; he built a narrative based on historical facts. The era of the Middle Ages captivates the writer with its severity and nobility, it is no coincidence that the novels of W. Scott help not only to learn, but also to feel history.

English writer Charles Dickens(1812-1870) represents the realistic trend in literature. His novels show the life of England in the 19th century. with its conflicts and contradictions. The features of Dickens's work were largely determined by the features of the writer's personal biography.

Glory came after the publication of the novel The Posthumous Papers of the Pickwick Club, in which the reader is presented with a whole gallery of funny and grotesque characters.

Dickens' work includes a social theme: in the novels "Bleak House", "Dombey and Son", "Hard Times" Dickens criticizes the cruelty of the owners, the bureaucracy of the state, the greed and duplicity of people. Dickes was a supporter of the moral re-education of members of society. He glorifies people from the people, always kind and generous, even romanticizes them. The term “Dickensian England” has remained in the history of literature, the world of his novels is so huge and diverse, inhabited by many characters belonging to different social strata.

Dickens traveled a lot, was friends with many writers and actors. Contemporaries noted that the writer himself had an outstanding acting gift, for example, Dickens often performed with readings of his works, and they wrote about him as the greatest reader of the century. The day of the writer's funeral became a day of national mourning.

Another master of the realistic novel William Makepeace Thackeray(1811-1863). The most significant work of the writer was the novel "Vanity Fair". It represents English society, which the writer likens to a fair: all his characters are obsessed only with a thirst for profit, everything is sold and everything is bought. Unlike Dickens, who often resorted to idealization, Thackeray is caustic and sarcastic.

In the literary works of Thackeray, the realistic basis is combined with the playful, comic. Modern literary scholars note that at a time when the position of the omniscient author dominated the writer, Thackeray, involving the reader in a kind of game, anticipates the literature of the 20th century, where relativity and a change of authorial positions in the text will become widespread.

A story about English literature would be incomplete without a mention of Oscar Wilde (1856-1900). Wilde received an excellent education.

Turning to the fairy tale genre, Wilde published The Happy Prince. Then the second collection of fairy tales "Pomegranate House" appeared. These works are addressed not only to children. Wilde's fairy-tale world was unusually refined, intricately imaginative, and ambiguous.

In the preface to his famous novel The Picture of Dorian Gray, Wilde wrote: “Art is a mirror that reflects who looks into it, and not life at all.” The novel is one of the versions of the Faust myth: the young Dorian Gray sells his soul to the tempter in order to preserve his youth and beauty.

Wilde was known as a playwright. His plays: "The Ideal Husband", "Salome" are included in the world repertoire. Wilde himself in one of his letters called himself a symbolic expression of his age.

Wilde's work naturally refers to symbolism.

The purpose of art, according to Wilde, is to give people aesthetic pleasure.

Ernst Theodor Amadeus Hoffmann(1776-1822) - an outstanding figure of German culture of the era of romanticism. His talent was multifaceted: he was a composer, a conductor, a theater critic, and a writer. Having received a law degree, he worked almost all his life in the offices, but he devoted all his free time to art.

As a writer, Hoffmann became famous for his fantastic novels - fairy tales in which the world of reality and fantasy intersect. The characters of his fairy tales are divided into romantics - artists, poets, musicians and past inhabitants.

The fairy tale “Little Tsekhas” is imbued with satirical pathos, the title character of which, thanks to the intervention of fairies, was attributed by those around him to all the best that happened in his presence. It was the fairy tale that made it possible for the author's imagination to fly. In the fairy tale "Little Tsakhes" Hoffmann shows the danger of unlimited power, causing mass psychosis and paralysis of common sense.

Hoffmann's creative heritage is extensive and varied - novels, short stories, librettos, essays. The author himself considered two works to be the best of them: the fairy tale "The Golden Pot" and the novel "Everyday Views of the Cat Murr". In almost all of Hoffmann's works there is a hero - an artist.

Creativity was also multifaceted. Heinrich Heine(1797-1856). Like Hoffmann, he received a law degree and developed an early interest in the arts, beginning to publish poetry and then releasing the Book of Songs. Heine's poetry became the highest expression of German romanticism. He spoke about his feelings without pathos, simply and naturally, at times even ironically. In Heine's poetic work, literary skill and sincerity, coming from the traditions of German folk poetry, are closely intertwined. Poems of the poet became even folk songs. As in the German song, Heine's poems are a lyrical monologue in which feelings and natural phenomena echo.

The political orientation of Heine's work was manifested in the poem "Germany. Winter fairy tale. Using fantastic images, dreams and visions, Heine, however, refers to real and topical problems. The poem was written under the impression of a trip home from new France. In addition to the image of the motherland, the poem also depicts the image of the poet, a deeply emotional and vulnerable creative person, which Heine remained in the history of literature as a representative of the romantic direction.

The founder of the French literature of romanticism is considered Francois de Chateaubriand(1768-1848). He entered the history of literature as the creator of vivid images of romantic heroes.

The main work of Chateaubriand is the treatise "The Genius of Christianity", a work in which the author considers Catholicism as the most poetic religion that has revealed a new world of human feelings. The text of the treatise includes two stories "Atala" and "Rene", which became especially famous and were published separately. It was Rene who became the first hero in literature, from whom a series of romantic characters suffering from "world sorrow" originates. Chateaubriand had a decisive influence on the formation of French romanticism.

French writer Stendhal(real name Marie Henri Beyle) (1783-1842) cannot be attributed to any direction; both romantic and realistic tendencies intertwined in his work. Having joined the struggle of the Romantics for a new literature, he created, however, a different realistic aesthetics. Stendhal was a historian and researcher of the mores of society. As an artist-psychologist, Stendhal with all the subtlest shades analyzes the thoughts and feelings of a person, his conflicting impulses. The writer sought to create a multifaceted image of the era, and not just describe the characters. In the novel "Red and Black" Stendhal created a picture of the life of modern society, it is no coincidence that the novel has a subtitle - "Chronicle of the 19th century".

In the book "Red and Black" the features of a novel of education appear: a young man who does not know life, Julien Sorel, gradually gains experience, coming to the conclusion that an honest and intelligent person has no place in society. The hero is characterized by the ability and desire to learn about the world around him, the combination of talent with calculation. Stendhal connects the development of the hero's psychology with the influence of the outside world, and in his novel Sorel is a subtle and attentive observer of life.

The idea for the novel The Parma Monastery came from Stendhal in Italy. The plot also focuses on the fate of the young man Fabrizio dal Dongo. In this novel, Stendhal expresses his idea that a person cannot be happy in this unhappy society of religious dogmas and the tyranny of power.

The head of the realistic school in the first half of the XIX century. was Honore de Balzac considered a classic of the social novel. Balzac created a large cycle of works, novels and short stories, which he later united under the general name "The Human Comedy". This cycle includes more than 90 novels.

Balzac was amazingly efficient. European fame was brought to him by the novels "Shagreen Skin", "Eugene Grande", "Father Goriot", "Lost Illusions", the short story "Gobsek". The writer's desire to give a broad panorama of the life of contemporary France could not be fully embodied in one novel, and Balzac came up with the idea of a whole cycle of works that were supposed to become an encyclopedia of social life. Indeed, without the "Human Comedy" our understanding of the XIX century. would be incomplete.

The writer examines contemporary society through the image of personal relationships, family stories. Moreover, each of the characters represents a separate social group and expresses its judgments. Rastignac, who has become a household name, represents young ambitious people using useful connections - a typical image of his time. Balzac shows the image of Rastignac in development from a naive provincial to a minister and millionaire who has lost all illusions, who has learned to live by the rules of this world.

Balzac skillfully combined the socio-typical and the individual, he was a master psychologist, he used the most extensive artistic material. Balzac's novels became a model of realism in the first half of the 19th century.

Emile Zola(1840-1902) was the head of naturalism. As a writer, Zola was very conscious of his chosen method, believing that a work of art is like a corner of nature, seen through the temperament of the artist. Zola's world fame was brought by the cycle of novels "Rougon-Macquart". In the novel The Trap, Zola turned to the theme of the social lower classes, expanding the scope of the artistic in accordance with the principles of the aesthetics of naturalism. Zola also acted as a theorist of naturalism, putting forward the concept of a scientific experimental novel. Careful observation and study of nature should, in his opinion, be the method not only of a scientist, but also of a writer.

Creativity can also be attributed to naturalism as a literary direction. Guy de Maupassant(1850-1893). Maupassant entered the history of literature, first of all, as a short story writer, but his novels ("Life", "Mont-Auriol", "Dear Friend") brought him great fame. An important place in Maupassant's short stories was occupied by the theme of love. This is largely due to the fact that Maupassant, like other naturalist writers, turned to the theme of flat love, previously forbidden for literature. Many of Maupassant's works are devoted to reflections on the existence of people who deserve a better life, on the inevitable tragedy of old age and death.

At the end of the XIX century. a new direction has developed in art - symbolism. The largest representatives of French symbolism were Charles Baudelaire, the poets Paul Verlaine, Stéphane Mallarme, Arthur Rimbaud.

Charles Baudelaire(1821-1867) begins literary work early. His most significant work was the poetic collection "Flowers of Evil", which is a confession of the poet. Baudelaire frankly depicts the darkest sides of his soul. The subject of research he chooses evil, vice. The poet becomes a stranger who is not accepted by the crowd, accusing him of immorality. His love is always tragic. In the images of Baudelaire poetry, the line between the imaginary and the real begins to blur. Baudelaire's work continued the romantic traditions of French poetry, and at the same time he was already a forerunner of the Symbolists. In Baudelaire's poetry, a painful split personality is conveyed, a wavering between good and evil, for the expression of which the author found a new poetic language.

Paul Verlaine(1844-1896) was a frequenter of French literary salons. Baudelaire's work had a great influence on him. However, Verlaine developed his own style, which is characterized by musicality, the ability to convey the most subtle movements of the soul and melancholic intonation. The canvases of Watteau and Fragonard inspired the collection "Gallant Festivities". Verlaine is characterized by a tendency towards the subjectivization of the artistic world: even sketches of nature were dissolved in the poet’s deeply personal perception, forming a special “landscape of the soul”. Verlaine's best book was the collection Romances Without Words, where a step was taken to merge music and poetry, to replace meaning with sound. Verlaine considered musicality to be the most important principle of the new poetry. The task of poetry, according to Verlaine, is the expression of the inexpressible, and the poet is a medium driven by intuition, not logic. As a master of Symbolism, Verlaine was associated with Impressionism as he strove to convey impressions rather than create symbols.

Arthur Rimbaud(1854-1891) already at a young age discovered his poetic talent. He painfully survived the defeat of the Commune in 1871. Rimbaud is characterized by a break with everything that fetters the freedom of the poet, prevents the spontaneity of his work from manifesting itself. In one of his poems, the poet compares himself to a ship that has lost control. The goal of poetic creativity for Vernlen was clairvoyance, the ability to reveal supersensible reality - dreams, prophecies, hallucinations. Poetry becomes the highest reality, the only way for the poet's self-realization.

3.2 Architecture

The first half of the 19th century passes as a period of the late dawn of neoclassicism. In the middle of the 19th century, architects are in search of style, and therefore they are trying to revive various styles of the past in an updated form: neo-baroque, neo-renaissance, neo-gothic.

It was in the first half of the 19th century that European capitals acquired their architectural appearance.

The revolutionary era chose neoclassicism as its official style. A Commission of Artists was formed to plan changes in the appearance of the city. Neoclassicism was preserved in the Napoleonic era and was called Empire. This style expressed the greatness of the empire created by Napoleon. The reconstruction of Paris and the renewal of the layout of the capital are underway. The designers were inspired by ancient Roman monuments, glorifying the military victories of Bonaparte. So did Jean Francois Changren, constructing the Arc de Triomphe on the Square of the Star (1806-1807).

If France chose neoclassicism, then neo-Gothic was established in England. An example of this is the Houses of Parliament in London. Ser was the architect. Charles Barry(1795-1860). The building resembles a monument of English Gothic of the 16th century, it is distinguished by its clear layout and special luxury.

In Germany, the architectural center was the capital - Berlin. Berlin buildings were most often variations on the theme of various historical styles. An example is the Altes Museum in Berlin (architect Karl Friedrich Schinkel (1781-1841).

In sculpture, neoclassicism also remained the dominant style, supported by a lively interest in ancient masterpieces. Romanticism contributed to the manifestation of interest in the individual, which was reflected in the appearance of numerous monuments to great people of the past. Among the most significant names of the 19th century sculptors is the Italian Antonio Canova(1757-1822). The sculptor worked in Italy and France, where he created an image of the emperor and his family.

Bertel Thorvaldsen (1770-1822), Danish sculptor, who worked mainly in Italy, then throughout Europe. He created sculptural images of Copernicus, Gutenberg, Byron. At the end of his life, he returned to Copenhagen and headed the Academy of Arts there.

In the middle of the century, the appearance of many European capitals changed, cities grew and were rebuilt: there were processes of industrialization and urbanization. The most successful reconstructions were carried out in Paris and Vienna. The famous Eiffel Tower, built in 1889 for the opening of the World Exhibition, has become the symbol of Paris. The Eiffel Tower demonstrated the technical capabilities of a new material - metal. However, the original artistic solution was not immediately recognized, the tower was called for to be demolished, called monstrous. Time has put everything in its place. Now the tower is a symbol of Paris.

Eclecticism appears in European architecture. Eclecticism combines elements of different styles both in one building and in ensembles. An example of an eclectic architectural ensemble is the Vienna Ring, an example of a separate building is the Grand Opera Theater Charles Garnier(1825-1898), the Secre-Coeur church in Paris, built Paul Abadi.

The Art Nouveau style completes the string of architectural styles of the 19th century, the originality of which was manifested in the liberation from the influence of the ancient order and in the amazing variety of decorative design of buildings. Art Nouveau developed in different versions, since the principle of improvisation became the main thing for architects.

Among the architects of modernity, one can name Antonio Gaudi(1852-1926). His buildings amaze with the richness of constructive solutions and variety in interior decoration. Among them are residential and apartment buildings. There, according to his project, a unique temple was built, similar to a Gothic cathedral: the Sagrada Familia (“Holy Family”) church.

The Belgian sculptor Victor Horta (1861-1947), like graphic artists and painters, sought to free himself from stylistic restrictions. His creations are characterized by a love for ornaments and the comfort of a home, which makes Art Nouveau interiors a bit like Rococo interiors.

In the design of interiors in the Art Nouveau style, the artists showed endless imagination, they could intricately combine different styles and eras. Impulsive nervous lines appeared, ornamentation, curved stairs, columns likened to trees. Ornaments evoke either plants or sea waves. Windows take the most unusual shape. Fantastic creatures are often guessed in the elements of the interior and decorative decoration. Stained-glass windows and mosaics were used, the lines of stucco could resemble snails and starfish.

Styles of arts and crafts in the 19th century changed with the same speed with which governments and political views changed. France was still the center of artistic change. The "revolutionary style" abandoned the luxury inherent in the old political system, the "old order". Empire, as a decorative style, also focused on the ancient world: furniture and utensils found during excavations were copied, antique items were collected. France remained a trendsetter even after the fall of Napoleon's empire. Decorative art in the 19th century gradually turns into a branch of industry: the artist conceived only the image of the future thing, but the craftsman made it.

When decorating the interior in the Empire style, panoramic wallpapers were often used, depicting views of nature, a large number of mirrors were used, creating an illusory world of reflections. Empire style furniture was quite massive, exotic mahogany was especially widespread. Precious raw materials were brought from the English colonies, and special skills were required from the master cabinetmaker. Bronze items also became a symbol of the Empire. In the manufacture of porcelain, the masters also sought to imitate antique samples. Porcelain production has become simpler and cheaper, products from it have become an affordable household item. Jewelers also imitated antiquity, choosing precious stones and the shape of jewelry. It was at this time that cameos came into fashion.

Throughout the 19th century, decorative and applied arts imitated patterns of past historical eras, sometimes quite eclectic, often with great taste. Only at the very end of the 19th century did a new original style appear, called Art Nouveau.

3.4 Painting

In the first half of the 19th century, painting took precedence in the art of Western Europe. The representative of classicism was Jacques Louis David(1748-1825). Fame brought him the painting "The Oath of the Horatii", made by state order.

During the reign of Napoleon, David fulfills the orders of the court. Napoleon took David as the first painter, remarkably guessing the propaganda component of his talent. The wonderful portrait of Madame Recamier, which testifies to the author's commitment to classicism, is distinguished by perfection.

He was also an adherent of classical ideals. Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres(1780-1767) . As an artist, he worked a lot for private individuals, but also carried out government orders. Ingres studied with David and remained a champion of classicism all his life. In his works, Ingres achieved high skill and artistic persuasiveness, embodied a deeply individual idea of beauty.

Artist Theodore Géricault(1791-1824) was a master whose name is associated with the first brilliant successes of romanticism in France. Gericault's painting "Fruit of the Medusa" has become a symbol of contemporary French artist. People fleeing a shipwreck experience both hope and despair. The picture not only tells about the last effort of people in distress, but becomes a symbol of France of those years, which also passed from despair to hope.

The dominant position in the painting of England was maintained by the academic school. The public enjoyed the popularity of the work of members of the Royal Academy of Arts, made in the traditional manner. However, an association of artists was created in England, called the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood. They were attracted by the religious spirituality of the Proto-Renaissance masters (artists who worked before Raphael). In their work, the Pre-Raphaelites expressed a romantic orientation to other eras. The work of the Pre-Raphaelites supported John Ruskin(1819-1900), writer and art critic who became the author of Modern Painters The Pre-Raphaelites turned to New Testament subjects, painted a lot from nature, and changed the traditional painting technique: their canvases were distinguished by bright and fresh tones.

Among the painters of the second half of the 19th century, he stood out for his bright talent Edouard Manet(1832-1883). The historical theme was familiar to him, but did not captivate the artist, he began to depict the many-sided Parisian life. Official criticism did not accept the artist, his innovative painting was condemned and protested. This is exactly what happened to SA with Manet's most famous paintings Luncheon on the Grass and Olympia. The image of a naked female body seemed a challenge to the public, and most importantly, the manner of the author, who tried to convey the richness of sunlight. Paris becomes a constant motive for Manet's work: the city crowd, cafes and theaters, the streets of the capital. Manet's work preceded a new direction in painting - impressionism, but the artist himself did not join this movement, although he somewhat changed his creative style under the influence of the impressionists. At the end of Manet's life, wide recognition came to him, he was awarded the Order of the Legion of Honor.

The workshop of Edouard Manet, which for a time became the center of artistic life, united a whole group of artists who were impressed by the picturesque discoveries of its owner. The jury of the Salon rejected their paintings like the paintings of Manet. They were exhibited privately in the so-called "Salon of the Rejects". At the exhibition, arranged in the premises of a photo studio in 1874, Claude Monet's painting “Impression. Sunrise". Artists such as Claude Monet (1840-1926), Camille Pissarro (1830-1899), Pierre-Auguste Renoir (1841-1919), Alfred Sisley (1839-1899), Edgard Degas (1834-1917) traditionally belong to the Impressionists.

Like the Barbizons, the Impressionists painted nature, in addition, they were the first to depict dynamic urban life. The Barbizons painted their paintings in the studio, while the Impressionists went out into the open air, “in the open air”. They noticed that the same landscape changes under different lighting in sunny and cloudy weather, at sunrise and sunset. They tried to preserve the freshness of the immediate impression in the picture. They painted their paintings quickly, refusing mixed colors and using pure bright colors, applying them in separate strokes.

Thus, a new artistic direction was born. Its emergence was influenced not only by the achievements of previous European artists, but also by the invention of photography, acquaintance with oriental art.

Impressionism was not just another trend in painting, it found its development in sculpture, music and literature. Impressionism was a revolution in the perception of the world: the subjectivity of human perception was discovered and openly demonstrated. The Impressionists discover the relativity of human perception, its subjectivity. In a unique way, art reveals its ability to predict and express the spirit of the times and changes in the consciousness of society.

For 12 years, the Impressionists organized eight exhibitions. Rural and urban landscapes, portraits, everyday scenes - in all pictorial genres they made genuine artistic discoveries. The works of the Impressionists constituted an innovative artistic direction, the artists absorbed the best achievements of each other.

At the end of the 19th century, four French artists: Paul Cezanne (1839- 1906), Vincent Van Gogh (1853- 1890), Paul Gauguin(1848-1903) and Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec(1864-1901), without formally uniting in a group, however, they constituted a new direction - post-impressionism. The Post-Impressionists are close to the Impressionists. Disappointed in their contemporary society, the artists turned to the image of nature, but they no longer sought to capture instantaneous states, as the Impressionists did, but to know the true essence of things hidden under their appearance. In still lifes and portraits, Cezanne looked for stable geometric forms. Gauguin portrayed the life of the natives of Tahiti, idealized by his imagination, life untouched by civilization, conveying exotic nature in fantastic color combinations. In the posters and lithographs of Toulouse-Lautrec, we see the life of the Parisian bohemia. The work of the post-impressionists served as the starting point for the search for art of the 20th century. Fauvism, cubism, expressionism originate in the work of the Impressionists.

In painting and graphics, symbolism and modernism manifested themselves in the work of a whole group of European artists.

3.5 Music

In the music of the 19th century, the existence of many directions was manifested: from romanticism to impressionism.

Franz Schubert(1797-1828) lived a short life, he gained the widest fame after his death. For many years, Schubert lived in Vienna, never finding wide recognition in the capital of Austria. There was a circle of friends around Schubert who supported him and highly appreciated his wonderful songs and ballads. The whole short life of the composer was filled with creativity and communication with people close to him in spirit. Schubert made the song the basis of his work, he expanded the range of its images and moods, saturated it with poetic content. The song cycles "The Beautiful Miller's Woman", "The Winter Road" deeply and excitedly convey the state of mind: hopes, dreams, love. The appeal to the song and the ballad is a feature of musical romanticism.

Robert Schuman(1810-1856) had much in common with Heinrich Heine. Schumann's favorite instrument was the piano, for which he wrote his best compositions. Schumann created a new genre - a program cycle of piano miniatures. His writings are characterized by a romantic impulse and strangeness. Schumann's legacy also includes symphonies, choral works and vocal opuses. For the texts of his works, Schumann chose the best works of the best romantic poets of his time. Themes such as loneliness, tragic love, grief and irony become an expression of the romantic structure of feelings.

Richard Wagner(1813-1883) was not only a brilliant composer, but also a talented playwright, he himself created the libretto for his operas. Wagner believed that in opera the literary text and music should form an inseparable whole, a musical drama. The content of Wagner's operas was the legends of the Middle Ages (they were also often referred to by romantic writers). The very image of the composer was a symbol of romantic rebellion.

At the end of the 19th century, unusual artistic trends appeared in art in general, and they also appeared in music. Many composers were looking for new means of artistic expression. Usually, new trends arose first in literature or the visual arts and then were already refracted in music. This is exactly what happened with Impressionism.

The first representative of this trend in musical art was Claude Debussy(1862-1918). The composer was greatly influenced by both impressionist painters and symbolist poets. Debussy's music is associated with both poetry and painting. Debussy created an original musical style, which is characterized by a special poetry, excitement and refinement. Sound images of Debussy conjure flavors and colors, his music includes moods and feelings born of impressions, as was the case with the Impressionist painters.

Conclusion

The European culture of the 19th century is a reflection of those contradictory principles that a developed bourgeois society represents, but, nevertheless, it has no equal in terms of depth of penetration into the being and spiritual world of a person in terms of creative tension in science, literature, philosophy and art.

The culture of the 19th century paved the way for the formation of a new culture of a new era - the era of the information-industrial society of the 20th century. At the turn of the XIX-XX centuries in the culture of Europe and America, crisis features are becoming more and more pronounced, one of the manifestations of this crisis was the rapid formation of such a peculiar phenomenon as mass culture. To a large extent, its appearance was facilitated by the technical achievements of the turn of the century - photography, sound media, and, of course, cinema. The final point in the development of the culture of the era of the XIX century can be considered the first world war, which finally destroyed the hopes generated by the Enlightenment to build the kingdom of reason and justice on Earth.

Literature

1. Gurevich P.S. Philosophy of culture. - M., 1994

2. Kachanovsky V.V. History of culture of Western Europe. - Mn., 2002.

3. [email protected]

4. Dmitrieva A.A. Brief history of arts. Issue 2. - M., 2005.

5. Culturology. XIX century. SPb., 1997

6. Culturology / Ed. G.V. Fight. - Rostov n / D., 1996.

Gurevich P.S. Philosophy of culture. - M., 1994

Kachanovsky V.V. History of culture of Western Europe. - Mn., 2002.

[email protected]

Dmitrieva A.A. Brief history of arts. Issue 2. - M., 2005.

Culturology. XIX century. SPb., 1997

Culturology / Ed. G.V. Fight. - Rostov n / D., 1996

Content Introduction 1. Social thought 2. Artistic culture of Western Europe 3. XIX century as a cultural and historical era 3.1. Literature 3.2. Architecture 3.3. Decorative and applied art of the 19th century

VYACHESLAV PAVLOVICH ARTEMIEV

FIRST DIVISION ROA

Materials for the history of the liberation movement of the peoples of Russia

(1941–1945)

FOREWORD

The work of V.P. Artemyev - the 1st Division of the ROA, was written in an enlarged format in 1971.

In many respects, this is an interesting work, since V.P. Artemiev was directly involved in the Liberation Movement.

Vyacheslav Pavlovich Artemyev was born in Moscow on August 27, 1903. From a young age, he entered the Soviet army and, devoting himself to military service, graduated from a military school, a higher officer school and the Frunze Military Academy. He directed his life path in military affairs, going through all its stages from an ordinary soldier to a regiment commander.

V.P. Artemiev participated in the Second World War and had distinctions for combat merit. In September 1943, commanding a guards cavalry regiment in the central sector of the Soviet-German front, with an operational breakthrough group, he entered the German rear, with the task of disrupting communications and preventing the approach of enemy reserves. In a battle with the prevailing enemy forces, he was taken prisoner by German troops.

Until June 1944, he was in the Special Interrogation Camp at the headquarters of the Eastern Front in the city of Loetzev in East Prussia.

In June 1944, V.P. Artemiev joined the Russian Liberation Movement and in November, with the beginning of the formation of the First Division of the ROA, he was appointed commander of the Second Regiment by General Vlasov. After the end of the war, he worked for the US Army in Europe in research and analytics. Since 1950, he has been in the service of the US Army Advanced Specialization Institute for the Study of Russian and Eastern European Affairs, as a professor of military sciences.

V.P. Artemyev has his numerous works published in the USA and Europe, as well as manuscripts and consultations stored in various research institutes and international organizations of the United Nations.

The work of V.P. Artemiev “1st Division of the ROA” is the first detailed description of the epic of the 1st Division.

Considering the fact that most of the surviving privates and officers of the 1st Division fell into the hands of Soviet military units and, subsequently, were handed over to the Special Camps of the Ministry of Internal Affairs, it is extremely difficult, if not impossible, at present to restore all the exact facts of the incidents in the last days of the existence of the 1st Division.

Based on the testimonies of several expatriate officers of the 1st Division of the ROA, as well as some archival documents, the SBORN Publishing House believes that the work of V.P. Artemyev is one of the most factual and complete descriptions of the events of that time.

Publishing house SBONR

My dear friend Vyacheslav!

I read your FIRST DIVISION with great interest and with complete satisfaction of the patriotic duty you conscientiously performed. Written vividly and truthfully. It is felt that you have invested in your story not only a lot of work, but also your soul. Thanks to this, reading the events you describe, one is completely transferred to the past, to that difficult and difficult situation of the bygone war years, in which our movement was created and, finally, its last tragic act.

I am more than sure that your work will be a serious material in the study of the history of the Russian Liberation Movement. Let this book serve as a wreath on the graves of our comrades-in-arms who died in the name of the liberation of their Motherland.

Konstantin Kromiadi

Kromiadi, Konstantin Grigorievich. Colonel. Former head of the office of General Vlasov.

Dear and dear Vyacheslav Pavlovich!

I read your First Division without stopping and, please, do not take it for flattery, I consider it extremely interesting and valuable. The main advantage of labor is dryness and clarity: - that's how it was, period. Reading your story, I again experienced all the tragedy of that crazy time, which I still cannot look back at without inner excitement. Everything from the first to the last chapter is very well presented. It is very clear that you know exactly what happened in the First Division.

Sincerely yours, R. Redlich

Dr. Redlikh Roman Nikolaevich. Radio Free Russia.

Mr. V.P. Artemiev:

My late husband, General AI Denikin, and I spent all the years of the German occupation of France in a remote village in the south of the country. There we first met with the Vlasovites.

And then, completely, unexpectedly, this acquaintance almost immediately turned into a mutual warm feeling. Some kind of irresistible heartfelt attraction connected us - the elderly of another era, with these young Russian guys ...

Your book, THE FIRST DIVISION, once again revived these unforgettable meetings in my memory and pain in my soul ... I took your tragedy as our own.

Both we and you went to die for the salvation of Russia. And if we did not win, then not only many circumstances are to blame for this, but also people who still do not understand what the world drama is. I believe that an impartial history will disassemble and pay tribute to the selfless sons of Russia who went into battle with world evil.

Ksenia Denikina

Denikin, Anton I. Lieutenant general. Former Commander-in-Chief of the United Armed Forces of the White Movement during the Russian Civil War (1918–1922)

Dear Vyacheslav!

I read your FIRST DIVISION. Well presented. Briefly and clearly. I did not find anything invented or distorted. I am truly grateful for the book you have written. For me personally, this book will serve as a guide to the past and a guide to the future. Once again, thank you very much, dear friend.

A.D. Arkhipov

Arkhipov (Gordeev), Andrei Dmitrievich. Colonel. Former commander of the 1st regiment of the 1st division of the ROA.

Translation from English

Dear Vyacheslav Pavlovich:

On the basis of seventeen years of close association with various former Soviet officers and veterans of the Vlasov movement, and as one interested in the study of the Russian Liberation Army in World War II, I must nevertheless say that I have never before come across a more accurate and significant description by a witness of the fundamentals, philosophy, actions and consequences of this one-of-a-kind military-political organization.

Your book testifies that this Movement was not an organization of a tarnished, motley group of traitors and traitors, but an army of former Soviet citizens who, individually and collectively, dedicated themselves to the revival of human freedom on Russian soil.

08.10.2007 14:15

On November 23, 1944, the formation of the 1st division of the ROA (600th Infantry) began in Münsingen. S.K. was appointed commander of the division. Bunyachenko. The division was formed mainly from the eastern battalions removed for this purpose from the Western Front.
The division included: the Kaminsky brigade; the part that suffered heavy losses, the 30th SS Grenadier Division; eastern battalions Nos. 308, 601, 605, 618, 628, 630, 654, 663, 666, 675; 681st, 582nd and 752nd Eastern Artillery Battalions, as well as volunteers recruited from POW camps. The division was armed with: 12 heavy and 42 light field howitzers, 14 assault guns, 6 heavy and 29 light infantry guns, 31 anti-tank and 10 anti-aircraft guns, 79 mortars, 536 heavy and light machine guns, 20 flamethrowers. The number of the division was 18 thousand soldiers and officers.
On January 17, 1945, the formation of the 2nd division of the ROA (650th infantry) began in Heuberg. It included: eastern battalions No. 427, 600, 642, 667; 3rd Battalion of the 714th Russian Grenadier Regiment, transferred from Denmark; 851st construction battalion and 621st eastern artillery battalion.
The personnel of the division hardly numbered 12 thousand people. The compound did not have a sufficient amount of heavy artillery and vehicles. Colonel G.A. was appointed commander of the formation. Zverev. The formation of the 3rd division of the ROA (700th infantry) under the command of Major General M.M. Shapovalov did not advance beyond the preparatory stage (only the headquarters was formed). On December 19, 1944, Reichsmarschall G. Goering signed an order on the creation of the ROA Air Force.

Colonel V.I. was appointed commander of the Air Force. Maltsev. By April, the 1st aviation regiment was formed as part of the 5th fighter (16 Me-109), 8th bomber (12 Ju88,) and 5th training (2 Me109, 2 Ju88, 2 Fi156, 2 U -2, 1 He111 and 1 Do17) squadrons. The ROA Air Force also included an anti-aircraft artillery regiment, a paratrooper battalion and a communications company. On January 28, 1945, Hitler approved General A.A. Vlasov commander of the formations of the ROA. By this time, the ROA fighter group had completed its formation, consisting of three platoons and Vlasov's bodyguard soldiers, under the command of Colonel I.K. Sakharov. Her armament consisted of light automatic weapons and faustpatrons. On February 9, 1945, the group was put into action in the Gustebize area. Having carried out a successful operation, the group knocked out the Soviet troops from the bridgehead on the western bank of the Oder, which earned the gratitude of the German command. On April 13, the 1st division of the ROA attacked the positions of the 33rd Soviet army south of Furstenberg. After unsuccessful attempts to seize the heavily fortified bridgehead, Major General Bunyachenko ordered the division to be withdrawn to the rear line. In early May, the 1st division of the ROA approached Prague and took part in an armed uprising against the Germans. On May 7, Bunyachenko ordered a cessation of hostilities and withdrew the division from Prague, fearing the approaching units of the 1st Ukrainian Front. Bunyachenko's division surrendered to the Americans on May 11 in the Schlusselburg area, but the American command refused to accept the surrender, referring to the fact that the territory where the division was located was supposed to be occupied by Soviet troops. May 12 Bunyachenko gave the order to disband the division. On the same day, Bunyachenko and the commander of the ROA A.A. Vlasov were handed over by the Americans to the Soviet command. In accordance with the agreement signed in Yalta on February 11, 1945, all captured ROA soldiers were handed over by the Americans to the Soviet Union. In the USSR, they were subjected to cruel reprisals and bullying. Officers were shot without trial or investigation, and soldiers were sent to remote regions of Siberia and the Far East.

A.A. Vlasov, F.I. Trukhin, G.N. Zhilenkov and V.F. Malyshkin were sentenced to death in a closed court session and executed by hanging.

Uniforms and insignia
In March 1943, the Germans developed and soon introduced insignia for the personnel of the ROA: a sleeve emblem, an oval cockade, buttonholes and shoulder straps. Later, these same insignia were introduced for soldiers and officers of the eastern battalions. By order of February 20, 1944, the personnel of the eastern units were allowed to wear all types of Wehrmacht uniforms, as well as German buttonholes and shoulder straps. But in fact, the same diversity was observed in the uniform of the ROA fighters.

Portal for the student. Self-training

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