DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION OF THE CITY OF MOSCOW
NORTHERN DISTRICT DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION

STATE EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION

EDUCATION CENTER № 1409

Design and research work

"The Influence of the French Language on Russian

through borrowing"
"L'influence de la lanque française sur la lanque russe. Les emprunts»

Performed:

student 7 "B" class GOU TsO No. 1409

Panchenko Julia

Supervisor:

French teacher

GOU TsO №1409

Melnik Olga Evgenievna
2011

I Introduction

1. 
   The relevance of the issue. Rationale for choice 3
2. 
   Purpose and objectives of the study ________________________________________________4
3. 
   Object of analysis. Research Methods _______________________________________4
4. 
   Literature review on the topic __________________________________________________ 4
5. 
   The practical significance of the work____________________________________________5
6. 
   Main hypothesis ________________________________________________________ 5

II. Main (theoretical) part

1. 
   Etymology - scientific and folk, historical and phonetic 5
2. 
   Reasons for borrowing French words and types of assimilation 7

III. Practical part

1. 
   Research in phonetic etymology 9
2. 
   Classification of loanwords from French 11
3. 
   Assimilation of loanwords from French 15
4. 
   "Dark" words 16

IV. conclusions 17

V. Conclusion 1 8
VI. Application 20
VII. List of used literature 36

Language is a city, for the construction of which, everyone who lived on Earth brought his own stone.

R. Emerson

I Introduction

1. Relevance of the issue. Rationale for choice

A large number of words were borrowed from French by Russian. This process was most actively observed in the 18th-19th centuries, when the French language was perceived by many (for example, Pushkin Alexander Sergeevich) not as the language of France, but, above all, the language of European educated society. It was the vocabulary that was the layer of the language most closely connected with the social life of society, sensitively reacting to all the changes taking place in it.

While studying French and working with vocabulary, I repeatedly asked myself the question: “Why is this subject called this way and not otherwise?”, “Where did this or that name come from?”, “How to translate the word correctly?”. To answer all these questions, you need to follow the influence of the French language on Russian, to conduct a series of studies in the field of etymology, linguistics and lexicology, to penetrate the secrets of the history of the language. The answers I received will not only help me understand and learn the language better, but also remove a number of difficulties in the field of translation.

Stages:

Stage I: Preparatory.

Stage II: Planning.

Stage III: Implementation of the project.

Stage IV: Design of the project.

Stage V: Protection of the project.

1. 
   Purpose and objectives of the study

Target : To trace the influence of the French language on Russian. Create a dictionary of the most common borrowed words from French to Russian. Remove a number of difficulties associated with understanding and translating borrowed words.

Tasks:

1. Study the scientific work of linguists.

2. Study borrowings from French in Russian.

3. Tracing their etymology.

4. Classify borrowed words into groups.

5. Analyze the results and draw conclusions.

3. Object of analysis. Research methods

Object of analysis: the most common French vocabulary borrowed into Russian.

Research material: the work is based on the material of etymological dictionaries, dictionaries of foreign languages, scientific articles.

Main methods: research ( organization of activities in which the student is in the position of a researcher: independently poses a problem, finds ways to solve it, draws conclusions and generalizations, and does not receive them ready-made), classification method (allows for the division of the studied objects (i.e. vocabulary) into separate groups.
4. Literature review on the topic

The study of borrowings from the French language was carried out by linguists Vedenina L. G., Gak V. G., Budagov R. A., Marcello-Nizia, Picoche J. and others (they conducted research in the field of the history of languages ​​and culture of peoples, primarily Romance, in the field of grammatical structure, vocabulary and semantics of languages, in the field of linguoculturology, their works are devoted to the problems of the science of language).

1. 
   The practical significance of the work

The material of this work can be used in French lessons on the topics: "Sights", "Clothing and fashion", "Food", "In the world of science", "Transport" and others.

The work will be presented at the open scientific and practical conference “Countries of the world. Story. Culture. Traditions", at the city competition of projects "Breakthrough" on the basis of the Moscow State Pedagogical Institute and others.

Product received: mini-dictionary of borrowings from the French language.

Project language: Russian, French.

1. 
   Main hypothesis

In the 18th-19th century, the French language had a huge impact on Russian. From French, Russian borrowed a greater number of words from various areas. The process of borrowing words from one language to another unwittingly brings them together.
II Main (theoretical) part
1. Etymology - scientific and folk, historical and phonetic.

What is etymology? Etymology is the science of the origin of words (from the Greek etymo- "true value" and logos- "teaching"). The task of the etymologist is to determine when and where the word appeared in the language, what it originally meant, what other words of the language are related to. Each story of the origin of the word is a small piece of the great history of the life of the people, the development of their culture, the peculiarities of the perception of the surrounding nature, a story about their beliefs, feelings, fears, hopes.

Having become acquainted with etymology, we can take a different look at the words that we use in everyday life, discover their new semantic shades. For example: what is mountaineering? This is a sport - climbing hard-to-reach mountain peaks. Why is this sport called that way? Etymology will give us the answer to this question. Word mountaineering originated in 19th century French, derived from Alpes"Alps" (it was in the Alps that they began to seriously engage in this beautiful and dangerous sport). By the way, the very name of the Alps is of Celtic origin, and in translation simply means “high mountains”.

Why are we talking wardrobe? Because this word is borrowed from French in the 18th century, where garden- robe formed by adding two words: garden- "storage" and robe – "dress". The original meaning is “a closet where dresses are stored”, later new meanings “clothes”, “dressing room” appeared. There are many interesting words, and each of them has its own unusual story.

There are 4 types of etymology:

1. 
   scientific;
2. 
   folk;
3. 
   historical;
4. 
   phonetic.

Let's look at the first two types first. We can talk about scientific etymology when the origin of the word has scientific justification and confirmation. Its examples have been given above. What is folk etymology? First of all, this is an unscientific or even incorrect explanation of the word. A good example can be found in Leo Tolstoy's novel "War and Peace": the name of the captured Frenchman, still a boy, Vincent, is immediately translated by Russian soldiers into a language they understand, rewriting the foreign name into the Russian way - Spring.

As for historical etymology, it studies when and where the word appeared, its semantic shades, while phonetic deals with phonetic changes that the word has undergone during its development.

The method of forming new words by analogy with the word already existing in another language is called tracing paper. For example, the word influence. If we translate this word in parts - the prefix in- as our prefix "in-", the root flu- (verb fluer) as Russian "li-" (the verb "to pour"), the suffix - ence as the Russian "-yani-" and to this add the Russian ending, which the French indeclinable word does not have, then the word "influence" will be obtained. It would seem that it is quite Russian, but in fact it is a copy of French. The words: Introduction- introduction, Cendrillon (diminutive form of cendre- "ash") - Cinderella, - are also examples of tracing paper.
Thus, having become acquainted with various types of etymology, we can take a fresh look at the words that we use in everyday life, at their semantic shades, find out when and where they appeared, what phonetic changes they have undergone.
2. Reasons for borrowing French words and types of assimilation

French is derived from Latin and belongs to the group of Romance languages. Working with sources, I learned that it ranks first in terms of the number of borrowings from it into the largest European languages: English, German, Italian, Russian, etc. This is due to the historical role of the French language, which for centuries has served as an international communication, moreover, until the beginning of the 19th century, France was the most populated country in Western Europe, and in the Middle Ages, every third Western European lived in France.

Why does a language borrow foreign words?

Firstly, because of the need to name objects or new concepts of foreign origin.

Secondly, following the fashion that makes us borrow words from a country that has priority in one area or another.

What can be borrowed? First of all, words and expressions. For example: tour ( turné e), buffet ( fourchette), gourmet ( gourmand), wardrobe ( garden- robe), tete-a-tete (tê te à tê te) ... You can borrow the internal form of words or expressions. For example:

francais russe

tuer le temps to kill time

prendre la decision

lune de miel honeymoon

avoir lieu take place

romper la glace break the ice

What is borrowing? Borrowing is the transfer of a foreign word by phonetic means of one's own language. The borrowed word must satisfy the norms of the borrowing language, so it must assimilate. Assimilation can be:

1. 
   phonetic(this is a change in stress, a change in the pronunciation of foreign sounds). For example, in French, the stress always falls on the last syllable, while in Russian it is movable: autographe - autograph (the emphasis will move from the last syllable to the second).

Another example: adventure - a gamble, during assimilation, the French word loses its nasal sound [ã], which will turn into “an”, and the graded [r] will turn into Russian “r”.

1. 
   grammatical(this is a change in gender, the disappearance of the article). For example: une Chaise longue- deck chair (in French this is a feminine word, and in Russian it is masculine, in French the article shows the gender and number, and in Russian it shows the ending).
2. 
   semantic(changing the meaning of a borrowed word). For example: in the 19th century, the Russian language borrowed the word from French cô telette(cutlet), where it originally meant "chopped fried meat on the bone", later this word changed its meaning and began to mean "fried minced meat", which means that the word assimilated.

A person who starts learning French knows a huge number of French words in advance. For example, among the most common Russian words related to nutrition, we find many words of French origin (sometimes with a changed sound or meaning): appetite, dessert, soup, salad, vinaigrette, cutlet, garnish, sauce, compote, loaf, broth, sausages and etc.

Let's consider some correspondences between French words and Russians of French origin. For example, final e in feminine words corresponds to Russian - a or - I: normal, date, accident – ​​norm, date, accident; French h can match Russian G: hymne, hô pital- anthem, hospital. There are also discrepancies, for example, when a borrowed French word changes the gender in Russian (advance, march), as already mentioned above, or retains an unpronounceable consonant in sound ( format - format, granite- granite), etc.

Thus, due to the fact that the French language, for a long time (XVIII - XIX centuries ..) performed the function of international communication, and during this period was the language of the Russian aristocracy, it gave our language, as well as some others, a lot of words to which we are so accustomed that we do not even notice their foreignness. These words were assimilated grammatically, phonetically and even semantically.

III. Practical part

1. Research in the field of phonetic etymology.

Working with sources and conducting research in the field of etymology, I came to the conclusion that some types of etymology can be subdivided in turn into subgroups (see Appendix, diagram No. 1). For example, phonetic etymology can have the following modes of formation:

1. 
   prefixal;
2. 
   suffix;
3. 
   from the base;
4. 
   by merging 2 words.

Let's look at these methods with examples.

Attachment method: the word "absurd" came from French into Russian in the 19th century, where absurd derived from Latin absurdum"absurd, stupid", where ab- this is a prefix + surdum – “obscure, stupid”, so “absurd” is that which does not make sense.

The word "invalid" was borrowed in the 18th century from French, where invalide derived from Latin invalidus"powerless", it is formed by a prefix from the word validus "strong".

Suffix way: the word "artist" was borrowed from French in the 18th century, where artiste formed with a suffix from the word art "skill, art", from Latin ars, artis- art.

The word "cutlet" was borrowed in the 18th century from French, where cô telette formed in a suffixal way from the word cô té "rib" and meant "chopped meat on the bone."

The word "linguist" is borrowed from French, where linguiste formed in a suffixal way from the Latin lingua- "language".

The word "aviation" was borrowed from French in the 20th century, where aviation happened in a suffixal way from the Latin avis"bird".

The word "broth" was borrowed from French in the 18th century, where it was formed in a suffixal way from bouillir "boil".

From the base: the word "advance" was borrowed from French in the 19th century, where advance formed from the stem of the verb avancer "to lend," so "advance" is part of the money up front.

The word “attaché” (an embassy employee is a specialist consultant in any field) is borrowed from French, where attaché derived from the verb attacher- attach, i.e. attaché means attached).

By merging 2 words: The word "lampshade" came from French into Russian at the beginning of the 19th century and was formed by merging two words, where " abat- jour» formed with a verb abat"weakens" (abattre - weaken) and words jour"daylight". Thus, the word "lampshade" means an object that weakens the light.

The word "avant-garde" is formed similarly to the word "lampshade". It was borrowed in the era of Peter I, where advanced- garden merge 2 words advanced"ahead" + garden"Guard, Squad" Therefore, the word "avant-garde" means people who go ahead.

The word "masterpiece" was borrowed in the 18th century from French, where chef- d’œ vre means "main work", formed by merging 2 words: chef + œ vre from latin opera"work, work"

The word "antonym" came from French in the 20th century, where antonyme derived from the Greek anti"against" + onyma"name".

The word "biscuit" was borrowed from French in the 18th century, where biscuit derived from Latin biscoctus: bis"twice" + coctus"baked".

The word "muffler" was borrowed from French in the 19th century, where cache- nez derived from the verb cacher "hide" and words nez“nose”, literally, is where you can “hide your nose”.

The word "centimeter" was borrowed from French in the 19th century, where centimè tre derived from Latin centim"hundred" + French mè tre"meter".

The word "control" was borrowed from French in the 18th century, where contrô le formed with 2 words: contre"against" + rô le"list".

The word "parachute" was borrowed from French in the 19th century, where parachute derived from the Greek para"against" + French chute "fall", literally that which serves "against falling".

In the course of research, I came to the conclusion that the most common ways of phonetic etymology are: suffixal and by merging two words, while the prefix method and the method of formation from the stem (or from the verb) are much less common.

2. Classification of borrowings from the French language.

Working with various etymological dictionaries and having carefully studied the most common vocabulary borrowed from French by Russian, I decided to classify it into rubrics in order to find out from which areas of words more was borrowed and from which less. I presented the results of my work in the form of the following table (242 words).

The most common borrowed vocabulary

Russian from French

Food	Clothing/Fashion	Transport/Travel
appetite	batiste	avenue
assorted	beret	bus
range	bijouterie	automobile
banana	blouse	mountaineering
meringue	shoe	ticket
biscuit	bracelet	the Bureau
wineglass	brooch	railway carriage
bouillon	brunet	bike
vanilla	vignette	turn
the vinaigrette	veil	voyage
roasting	gallant	hydroplane
gourmet	haberdashery	depot
delicacy	riding breeches	detail
cognac	wardrobe	token
cutlet	makeup	catastrophe
liquor	lady	coupe
lemonade	neckline	ditch
marinade	defile	limousine
marmalade	perfume	omnibus
menu	frill	platform
montpensier	jacket	platform
nougat	vest	bag
olive	hood	ticket
omelette	cashmere	tour
puree	scarf	funicular
radish	cap	highway
roll	necklace
salad	crepe de chine
soda	couturier
sausages	T-shirt
sauce	cuffs
soup	manicure
tart	coat
wine glass	perfumery
buffet	coat
	purse
	prestige
	powder
	jacket
	brown-haired
	hair
	chignon

Art	Furniture / Architecture / Interior	The science	Military theme
album	shade	nitrogen	boarding
Role	balcony	agronomist	avant-garde
ensemble	barrack	aluminum	aviation
artist	lobby	article	machine
attraction	showcase	atmosphere	alliance
aphorism	garage	biology	attache
ball	sofa	bisector	bastion
ballet	shower	bud	battalion
bas-relief	blinds	vector	battery
baritone	interior	decimeter	binoculars
benefit	cabin	diploma	bomb
bis	pots	discussion	veteran
Bohemia	kiosk	a diary	volunteer
book dealer	clinic	iodine	hero
variety show	plant	critic	deserter
opening day	the corridor	linguist	landing
vaudeville	attic	magnifying glass	diplomat
guide	furniture	oval	dossier
engraving	niche	greenhouse	dragoon
graphomaniac	pavilion	teacher	understudy
debut	parterre	pioneer	gendarme
motto	polyclinic	prism	cadet
decadent	curtain	centimeter	camouflage
recitation	repair	session	helmet
decoration	sanatorium	semester	cornet
juggler	scoreboard	seminar	medal
impressionism	terrace	space suit	obelisk
stuntman	floor lamp	glory	page
collection	deck chair		parachute
music lover			partisan
still life			patriot
nocturne			resident
note			sabotage
orchestra			sapper
palette			sergeant
papier mache			blackmail
play			chauvinism
premiere
piano
serenade
text
trilogy
triumph
chansonnier
masterpiece

Borrowed words that originated from proper names, city names, etc. can be distinguished into a separate group. For example: cognac (cognac), wine glass (fougère), vest (gilet), attic (mansarde), nicotine (nicotine), etc. e. But these words are not so numerous. However, they are quite interesting, so let's take a closer look at them.

Cognac is a city in the south of France where cognac grapes were grown, from which they made a new alcoholic drink, aging grape wine in oak barrels. Winemakers named the new drink after the city.

Fougère is a city where special glass is made from which wine glasses are made.

Gilet (vest) comes from the name of the jester Gill, who began to wear this clothes.

Mansarde (mansard) - attic-type living space under the roof, with a sloping ceiling, named after the architect Mansard, who came up with a roof of a special shape.

Nicotine (nicotine) - on behalf of the French envoy to Portugal Nicot, thanks to which they began to breed tobacco in France.

And, of course, it is impossible not to mention the words that have a fairly general meaning, but which we use quite often in our lives, they can be attributed, for example, to business vocabulary: tête-à-tête (eye to eye), vis-à-vis (face to face), beau monde (high society), mauvais ton (bad taste, bad manners), rendez-vous (date)…

The table shows not only from which areas the borrowings were made, but also in what relation to each other they are. To sum up a more accurate result, we present these data in the form of a diagram (see Appendix, diagram No. 1).

So, we see that most of the words are borrowed from the field of art, clothing and fashion, military topics. A little less from the field of food, furniture, architecture and interior design, science and transport. Groups of borrowed words that originated from proper names, city names, as well as business vocabulary are not numerous.

3. Assimilation of borrowings from the French language.

Consider the word "vinaigrette" it came from the French language in the 18th century, where vinaigrette derived from the word vinaigre vinegar ( vin- wine, and aigre- sour, literal translation - "sour wine"). The French call this a sauce made from vinegar and vegetable oil, which is poured over a salad. But in Russia, the word did not take root with such a meaning, and in the second half of the 19th century it semantically assimilated and began to denote a salad of boiled vegetables. At the same time, a figurative meaning appeared - “a hodgepodge, confusion” (for example: “After the sixth lesson, I have a vinaigrette in my head”).

The word "hood" was borrowed from French in the 18th century and also changed its meaning over time. French borrowed it from Italian, where the word capuccio derived from Latin caputium"monk's hat" cappa"headdress". Thus, earlier the “hood” was an attribute of monastic clothing, its headdress, later the word assimilated semantically and “hood” began to be called a headdress in the form of a cap, characteristic of any type of clothing.

Similar examples are the words: olivier, vernissage, grillage, dominoes, etc.

Studying the assimilation of borrowed words from the French language, I came to the conclusion that words were subjected to phonetic or grammatical assimilation more often than semantic. This can be explained by the fact that in Russian there are no nasal sounds and a graduated “r”, there is no article and the gender does not always coincide with the French language, and therefore the words had to assimilate phonetically and grammatically. The meaning of the words did not change very often. In this regard, semantic assimilation is more interesting for us.

4. "Dark" words.

Studying the etymology of words, I found the so-called "dark" words, those that do not have a generally accepted etymology, for example: gymnasium, melon, club, jazz, etc. This is what one of the first Russian etymologists, Max Vasmer, called them.

Consider the word "high school". We can say that the origin of this word remains a mystery. Scientists suggest that at the beginning of everything there was a borrowing by Latin from Greek, where Latin gymnasium meant "a place for bodily exercises" (both the Greeks and Romans attached great importance to the physical development of young people). In turn, the Greek word was formed from the Greek "naked", because at that time they were engaged in physical exercises without any clothes. The meaning of "educational institution" arose much later, when mental development began to be given more or at least no less importance.

The word "club" was borrowed from English around the middle of the 18th century, its etymological meaning is not entirely clear. Word club in addition to the meaning “unification of people”, it has another meaning - “heavy stick”, therefore the following way of development of meanings is possible: “heavy stick” - “lump” - “group of people”. On the other hand, the word club there was also the meaning of "golf club". Maybe this is where the path to a new meaning began?

I think dark words are an interesting job for linguists. However, to solve this riddle, one desire is not enough; deep knowledge in the field of linguistics, etymology, knowledge of foreign languages ​​and much more is needed here.
IV. conclusions

So, doing research work in the field of linguistics, linguistics and etymology, I came to the following conclusions:

knowledge in the field of etymology makes it possible to take a fresh look at the words that we use in everyday life, find out when and where they came from, and what changes have occurred with these words;

the largest number of words was borrowed by Russian from French in the 18th - 19th centuries, since it was during this period that the French language performed the function of international communication and was the language of the Russian aristocracy. He gave our language many words that we are used to and do not realize that they came to us from another language;

most of the words are borrowed by Russian from French from the field of art, clothing and fashion, military subjects; slightly less from the field of food, furniture, architecture and interior design, science and transport. Not numerous are "dark words", as well as borrowings that come from proper names, city names, business vocabulary;

in the process of borrowing, French words were subjected to phonetic and grammatical assimilation, less often semantic. This is explained by the fact that in the Russian language there are no nasal sounds, a graduated “r”, articles and the gender does not always coincide with the French language, and therefore the words had to assimilate phonetically and grammatically. The meaning of the words changed much less frequently.

It is necessary to distinguish between borrowings and foreign words. Borrowings are adapted in the Russian language, they undergo the necessary change. Adaptation to the realities of the Russian language is the main feature that distinguishes borrowings from foreign words.

Foreign words retain traces of their foreign origin. Such traces can be phonetic, spelling, grammatical and semantic features.

V. Conclusion

So, in the course of research work in the field of linguistics, linguistics and etymology, I have achieved the following results:

studied the scientific works of prominent linguists Vedenina L. G., Gak V. G., Budagov R. A. and others;

traced the influence of the French language on Russian;

studied borrowings from French;

traced their etymology;

classified the most common borrowed words into groups, traced their correlation, presenting the results of her research in the form of tables and diagrams;

acquired new knowledge in the field of etymology, lexicology, linguistics;

expanded her horizons and erudition;

I gained a lot of experience in research work, which I hope will be useful to me in the future.

It should be noted that the language quickly responds to the needs of society. By the number of words taken from a particular language, one can judge its prestige in various fields. Borrowings are the result of contacts, relationships between peoples and states. The main reason for borrowing foreign vocabulary is the absence of a corresponding concept in the base of the receptor language.

The process of borrowing words from one language to another unwittingly brings them together.

Of course, this gives both a positive result (enrichment of the vocabulary due to the designation of new concepts and objects), and a negative one - the destruction of the national language.

On the one hand, as it may seem, the language must retain its essence. But on the other hand, attempts to isolate the language may not justify the expected results. This can stall the development of the language, make it less alive.

The French language had a huge impact on Russian through borrowing, which was reflected in almost all areas of life, since it was the vocabulary that was the layer of the language that was most closely connected with the social life of society, sensitively reacting to all the changes taking place in it. This process was most actively observed in the 18th-19th centuries, when French was the language of European educated society. The presence in Russian of a large number of words of French origin undoubtedly facilitates the study of French.

The rhythm of modern life and the development of international relations today create all the conditions for borrowing words from one language to another. Thus, the process of borrowing continues and remains one of the ways in which the modern language develops.

This work helped me to remove a number of difficulties in the field of translating borrowed words and learning French in general. I believe that I managed to achieve all the goals and objectives.

For myself, I outlined further prospects for research: I would like to return to the problem associated with the so-called "dark words" and try to answer questions that do not yet have an unambiguous answer.

“Any living language is generated by reality and serves it. The problems of language will open up to us with new facets, as both society and people are in constant motion and development. Together with them, the languages ​​of the peoples of the world move and develop with their old and eternally new problems. This means that the problem of the relationship between language and man remains one of the central problems of the scientific world.

(translation of the work into French, see appendix, p. 22)

VI. Application
Scheme No. 1

from the base

Types of phonetic etymology

Diagram #1

La lanque est une ville pour la construction de laquelle chaque habitant de la Terre a apporté sa pierre.

Kuzik Anna

The material for the study was French words that entered the Russian language, identified by analyzing works of literature of the 19th century, as well as data from dictionaries of modern French.

Download:

Preview:

Scientific society of students "POISK"

MOU "Alekseevskaya secondary school"

Done by: 10th grade student

Kuzik Anna

leader: teacher

French

Kutsobina Galina Ivanovna

2009

Introduction …………………………………………………………………………….3

Chapter I. History of the French language on the example of Russian-French relations. …………………………………………………………………………. four

Chapter II. Formation of Russian vocabulary. ……………………………………...6

Chapter III. French borrowed words in the vocabulary of the Russian language. …………………………………………………………………………………… 9

Chapter IV. French language in the works of A. S. Pushkin. …………… 13

Conclusion ……………………………………………………………………… 18

Literature …………………………………………………………………………20

You don't need to disown foreign words, you don't need to abuse them either.

L. N. Tolstoy

Introduction

No culture, no language develops in isolation, and any national culture and language is the fruit of both internal development and complex interaction with the cultures of other peoples, and the interaction between cultures, economic, political and everyday contacts are the common basis for all borrowing processes. .

The object of our research is the ways of reflecting French realities in the Russian language.

Realia are words and phrases that name objects that are characteristic of the life (everyday life, culture, social and historical development) of one people and alien to another, which are carriers of national and historical color, and, as a rule, do not have exact matches (equivalents) in other languages.

The relevance of the chosen topic is due to the fact that the study of realia words is one of the problems of modern linguistic science. The term "realia" appeared in linguistics only at the end of the 50s, and until now, researchers have not come to a consensus about which words refer to realities.

In the course of the study, the purpose of which is to collect and analyze French words in works of fiction, the following tasks are solved:

1.Trace the history of the appearance of words denoting French realities in Russian.

2. Determine ways of borrowing French words.

To solve the tasks in the work, the following methods are used:

Method of observation, i.e. extracting certain facts of interest from the text and including them in the desired category.

Encyclopedic method, i.e. the study of the meaning of a word in close connection with the objects and phenomena that they designate.

Comparative typological method, i.e. the study of the similarities and differences of languages, the vocabulary of these languages.

The material for the study was French words that entered the Russian language, identified by analyzing works of literature of the 19th century, as well as data from dictionaries of modern French.

Chapter I. History of the French language on the example of Russian-French relations.

French is a beautiful melody played with words. Previously, France was called the "capital of the world", and the French language throughout the planet was imbued with respect and treated with special trepidation, and in the 18th century it was considered practically international. Today, France does not occupy such a strong position, but still remains a place where foreigners dream of relaxing, working and studying. French as a classic is always relevant and will be fashionable out of time.

According to the VKS-Globus public center, today 36% of Russian citizens study French for communication and travel. Work is the main stimulus for learning French for 24%, study - for 23% of students. International certificate and self-education received 7% and 6% respectively. Students planning to move to a French-speaking country account for 4%.

Students account for the largest percentage of French learners at 27%, followed by schoolchildren at 13%. To move up the career ladder, knowledge of French is more often required for middle managers (6%) and senior managers (4%). Lawyers, bankers, journalists, accountants, teachers, scientists make up half of all professions that require knowledge of the French language.

Russia and France have been bound by close mutually beneficial ties of cooperation for more than one century. The beginning of Russian-French relations was laid by the daughter of Yaroslav the Wise Anna, who, at a middle-aged age (25 years old) in 1051, married King Henry I of France. She became the first and only Russian woman to become a French queen.

The first correspondence between the French and Russian thrones dates back to 1518, when the confrontation with Poland forced Vasily Ioannovich to turn to the French monarch Francis I for help. However, at that time, the linguistic carrier of the correspondence was by no means French, but Russian and German.

The reign of Boris Godunov opened up European countries for Russian students, among whom was France (where they received their education), and for the French - the possibilities of the Russian State. Jacques Margeret was one of the first French subjects who managed to get a job in Russia. Stay in the country was reflected in the book "The State of the Russian Empire and the Grand Duchy of Moscow."

French fashion trends storm the wardrobes of the then fashionistas in 1605. What is the French dress of Maria Mnishek, tied in a belt, with which she shocked not a single Muscovite!

The first exchange of embassies between the Russian Empire and France took place in 1615.

The reign of Alexei Mikhailovich is a new milestone in the history of Russian-French relations. In 1668, the first visit of the Russian embassy headed by Prince P.I. Potemkin. Russian ambassadors were impressed by local tapestry factories, galleries and parks, and especially theaters. Already in 1672, the first court theater appeared in Russia, which began its activity with the plays of Molière.

A new round of enthusiasm for France and its culture takes place under Peter I. An observer from Russia appears in the capital of France, who helped the Russians to get a job or study in France.

During this period, France becomes the standard of education, culture, morals. The Russian nobility admires the ability of the French to hold masquerades, balls, and receptions.

During the reign of Elizabeth Petrovna, outstanding artists, architects, and sculptors began to be invited from France. It was believed that among foreigners in Russia, the French were the vast majority. The time of the cult of everything that could be connected with France begins. Russians from young to old were fluent in French, dressed in French clothes, lived surrounded by French interiors, read books in French, and used the services of tutors from France. It was not uncommon for people to speak French better than their native Russian.

Catherine II, who replaced Elizabeth Petrovna, tried unsuccessfully to fight the dominance of fashion for French words, for which she even introduced a system of fines. However, by the 19th century, French had become almost native to most of the nobles who spoke, wrote and even thought in it. This is confirmed by the imperishable works of Russian classics, in which one can often find paragraphs in French. Higher Russian society greedily absorbed everything new that appeared in France. Ballet, fashion, cooking, art, theater - in each of these areas, the French style dominated, which instantly began to be considered distinctively Russian.

In our time, it is difficult to imagine Russia of that era without touching flies, powdered hairpieces and wigs, umbrellas and fans, as well as business cards, without which not a single business, and even romantic date could do. And each of these features was introduced by French culture. At the same time, France becomes the European legislator in the production of cosmetics and perfumes. The recipe for French perfume was kept in the strictest confidence, which contributed to the cultivation of fashionable passions among Europeans. France also received the palm of leadership thanks to the production of cosmetics, including decorative ones - powder, blush, etc. And the famous Madame Pompadour, who introduced the fashion for the so-called "talking bouquets", conquered the whole of Europe with a new trend. These were golden times for France.

Chapter II. Formation of Russian vocabulary.

The lexical composition of the Russian language was influenced by borrowed words from other languages.

BORROWING - a process as a result of which a certain foreign language element appears and is fixed in the language (first of all, a word or a full-fledged morpheme); also such a foreign language element itself. Borrowing is an integral part of the process of functioning and historical change of the language, one of the main sources of vocabulary replenishment. Borrowing can be direct or indirect.

When borrowing, the meaning of a word often shifts. So, the French word chance means "good luck" (Tu a de la chance! - "You're lucky!"), While the Russian word "chance" means only "the possibility of luck." The Russian word "excitement" comes from the French hazard "case"; the semantic transition occurred due to the phrase jeu d "hazard -" gambling ", literally -" a game of chance ". It also happens that a borrowed word returns in its new meaning back to the language from which it came. Such, apparently , the history of the word "bistro", which came into the Russian language from French, where it arose after the war of 1812, when parts of the Russian troops ended up on French territory - probably as a transmission of the replica "Quickly!"

Generally speaking, a language that finds itself in the face of a foreign word denoting some necessary concept that is missing in it (this can be either a new “subject” or a new “idea”) has three possibilities: 1) to borrow this word itself: in this way borrowings in a narrow sense appear in the language, for example, the Russian “fair” is a borrowing from German. Jahrmarkt, "choir" - other Greek. , "quorum" from lat. quorum, "idyll" from it. Idylle, "poetry" from the French. poésie, "high" from Arabic. kejf, "design" from English. design, etc.; 2) to create a new word from their morphemes following the pattern of a foreign one: thus, word-building tracing papers appear in the language: for example, the Russian word “linguistics” is modeled after the German Sprachwissenschaft, “oxygen” is modeled after the Latin oxygenium, “subject” is modeled after objectum, etc.; 3) to use an already existing word to express the desired meaning, giving it a new meaning following the model of a foreign word that has the same polysemy or the same internal form (this is called semantic tracing); for example, the Russian verb “to touch” acquired the figurative meaning “to excite feelings” under the influence of the French “toucher”, which has both meanings (direct and figurative); The Russian words influence and inspiration acquired their modern "abstract" meaning under the influence of the French language "influence" and "inspiration". Words and meanings created according to the second and third models are called borrowings in a broad sense.

In scientific terminology, tending to unambiguity, the first and second mechanisms are more often used. The second and third mechanisms constitute the most important sources of enrichment of the literary language. Thus, the vocabulary of a generally significant nature includes borrowings of all three types. The main stream of borrowings in the narrow sense (i.e., foreign words) comes through the colloquial speech of professional spheres and jargons of various social groups.

Often words coexist in a language that are identical in their internal form, but one of them is a direct borrowing, and the other is a tracing paper; at the same time, they usually do not completely coincide, and sometimes differ very significantly in meaning, for example: subject and subject, opposition and opposition, composition and addition, position and position, positive and positive, president and chairman, biography and biography, etc. Such doubletness is very typical for Russian, to a lesser extent for German, and is not typical for French and English.

In order to become a borrowing, a word that came from a foreign language must gain a foothold in a new language for itself, firmly enter its vocabulary - as many foreign words entered the Russian language, such as bread, a mug, an umbrella, a store, a cat, a horse, dog, monkey, tie, compote, tractor, tank, harbor, sail, icon, church, choir, sports, market, bazaar, music, station, car, goal, hut, glass, herring, soup, cucumber, tomato, cutlet, potatoes, a saucepan, a plate, tea, sugar, etc., many of which turned out to be so mastered by the Russian language that only linguists know about their foreign language origin.

When borrowing, the word is adapted to the phonological system of the borrowing language, i.e. the missing sounds in it are replaced by the closest ones. This adaptation can occur gradually: sometimes foreign words for some time retain sounds in their pronunciation that are absent in this language, as, for example, in the German words “chance”, “restorant” borrowed from the “prestigious” French language (both words are pronounced "in the French manner" with a nasal vowel). In the borrowed from the same French Russian word “jury”, a sound absent in Russian is also pronounced - soft j. In the word resume, before the final spelling "e", a consonant sound is pronounced, intermediate between hard and soft. More recently, a similar sound was pronounced, for example, in the word "cafe"; now in this word, as in many others that came from French earlier (pince-nez, scarf, etc.), a hard consonant is pronounced. Thus, adaptation to the phonological system of the borrowing language takes place. The next stage of this process of mastering a foreign word is to replace hard consonants before the spelling "e" with soft ones. With a hard consonant, for example, the words decollete, phoneme, timbre, tempo, etc. are pronounced; with soft - more "mastered" Russian words theme, decree, flight, theater, telephone, safe, etc. Many words allow fluctuations in pronunciation (i.e. are "halfway"): computer, dean, mayonnaise, tent, etc.

In addition to phonetic, the borrowed word also undergoes grammatical (morphological) adaptation. The nature of this adaptation depends on how the external appearance of the borrowed word corresponds to the morphological models of the borrowing language. Words such as sport or station easily entered the Russian language, immediately falling into the morphological class of masculine words of the 2nd declension (which includes the words table, house, etc.). But, for example, the word “shampoo”, having entered the Russian language, did not immediately acquire a stable gender category, having as a model both masculine words like horse or fire, and feminine words like “rubbish” or “wormwood”; accordingly, the instrumental form was both “shampoo” and “shampoo” (subsequently, the masculine gender was assigned to this word). It is precisely because of the existence of a powerful mechanism of assimilation to existing models that such resistance from the Russian language meets the notorious masculine gender of the word coffee prescribed by the norm, which is automatically likened to words of the middle gender - such as “field” or “woe”.

Of the stream of foreign words that floods the language in eras of social upheaval and scientific and technological revolutions, only a certain part is retained. The process of adaptation of foreign words, controlled, like all linguistic processes, primarily by intralinguistic factors, can be regulated to some extent by extralinguistic forces - at least, the possibility of human and society intervention in this process is greater than in the case when speech is about phonetic and especially grammatical changes. There are always conservative forces in the linguistic community that prevent the penetration of foreign words “clogging” it into the language, as well as all innovations in general (changes in pronunciation, including stress, shifts in meaning, penetration of jargon, professionalism, etc. into the literary language). ). The defense of a language from foreign words usually also has a pronounced ideological connotation. However, regardless of the ideological aspirations that gave rise to them, such conservative forces objectively perform a very important social function of maintaining the natural balance between the old and the new, which is necessary for the normal functioning of the language. For example, the authority of A.I. Solzhenitsyn, who is opposed to the use of foreign words and proposes to replace them with words of Russian origin, may turn out to be great enough to have some influence on the fate of certain foreign words. Sometimes the language community even takes administrative measures. So, in France, in order to fight, first of all, with anglicisms, a list of approximately 3,000 words was recently introduced, limiting the use of foreign words in texts created in French and intended for the media (television, advertising, etc.).

Chapter III. Frenchborrowed words in the vocabulary of the Russian language.

There is not a single language on our planet that does not have borrowings. The share of borrowed vocabulary can range from 10% to 80-90%.

In different historical periods (common Slavic, East Slavic, Russian proper), words from other languages ​​penetrated into the original Russian language. The main reason was that the Russian people constantly entered into cultural, economic, political ties with other peoples.

A significant part of borrowings in the Russian language are Gallicisms.

Gallicisms (from lat. gallicus - Gallic) - words and expressions borrowed from French or formed according to the model of French words and expressions.

In the 18th century, borrowings from the French language began to settle densely in Russian speech. In order to promote the development of literature and the literary language, as well as to direct development in the direction necessary for the government, a special higher scientific institution is being created - the Russian Academy (in imitation of the French Academy in Paris). French - the language of the great enlighteners: Voltaire, Diderot, Rousseau - at that time was the most lexically rich and stylistically developed language in Europe.

Gallicisms reflected the characteristic features of the French language: pronons (prononcer), grass (grasseyer).

An interesting feature is the following assimilation of Gallicisms:

He was not comme il faut (comme il faut).

Let me engage you (engager) to dance.

Courtesy (courtois) behavior must not be violated.

In the XVIII - early XIX century, words truly saturated with the French spirit entered the Russian vocabulary: charm (charme), adultery (aduletère), visitor (visiteur), tutor (gouverneur), cavalier (cavalier), cocotte (cocotte), compliment (compliment ), curtsy (révérence), favorite (favorite).

Gallicisms penetrate into all spheres of life and activity of people. Vocabulary related to clothing has been replenished with especially French borrowings: accessory (accessoire), bijouterie (bijouterie), veil (voile), frill (jabot), manto (manteau), negligee (peignoir) and food: meringue (baiser), puree (purée ), mayonnaise (mayonnaise). An interesting detail is that words such as gourmand (gourmand) and delicacy (délicatesse) are of French origin. For example, this could be a gourmet menu:

Asparagus

Lobster with garnish (homard), (garnir)

Grilled meat under bechamel (griller), (bèchamel)

And for dessert - biscuit (biscuit) and jelly (gelèe), meringue (meringue) and souffle (soufflè), as well as liqueur (liqueur) and cruchon (cruchon).

I would like to pay special attention to gallicisms that are associated with art - theater, music, painting. For example, the following words are associated with music: accordion (accordéon), ensemble (ensemble), vocal (vocal), clarinet (clarinette), nocturne (nocturne), overture (ouverture). There are a lot of gallicisms associated with the theater: actor (acteur), intermission (entracte), applause (applaudissments), poster (affiche), vaudeville (vaudeville), make-up (grimer), debut (dèbut), pirouette (pirouette); as well as with painting: gallery (galerie), vernissa, w (vernissage), gouache (gouache), palette (palette), impressionism (impressionnisme).

In the 19th - early 20th centuries, more and more new Gallicisms appeared in the Russian language. Many of them were connected with public life, with the economy, with politics. Examples of such words: capitalism (capitalisme), bourgeoisie (bourgeoisie), budget (budget), press (presse), diplomat (diplomate), attaché (attachè), democrat (dèmocrate), shareholder (actionnaire), bureaucracy (bureaucratisme). These words are known to everyone and are often used in everyday life. Gallicisms are such words as indexation (indexation), alliance (alliance), assets (avoir), clique (cligue). Quite often, the following borrowings from French are found in speech: authoritarian (autorgtaire), shareholder (actionnaire), run (balloter), debate (dèbattre), importer (importeur), exaggerate (mousser).

There are times in the history of a society when a foreign culture is chosen as a role model. Its language becomes prestigious, and words are borrowed from it especially actively. The influence of the French language on Russian vocabulary was observed both in the 18th and 19th centuries. The attitude towards borrowed words as more “beautiful” and prestigious is typical of the late 20th and early 21st centuries. For example, the word boutique. In French, boutique simply means “small shop,” but in Russian soil, the word boutique has come to mean “expensive fashion store.” Interestingly, in the French language itself, it was replaced by the noun magasin (shop) from Arabic, which became especially widespread in the first half of the 19th century, when French trade was being restructured on new industrial grounds and the old shops (boutiques) now ceased to suit sellers who more spacious and capacious stores were needed. In Russian, this word "increased in rank" began to denote a fashion store, that is, a word that in the source language called an ordinary, ordinary object, in the borrowing language is attached to a more significant and prestigious object.

There are quite a lot of similar borrowings in modern Russian. Here are some of them: perfume (parfum), nouveau riche (nouveau riche), purse (porte-monnaie), wardrobe trunk (coffre), travel bag (nécessaire), voyage (voyage), concierge (concièrge), volunteer (volontaire), camouflage ( camouflage), grand iris (Grand Prix), carte blanche (carte blanche).

Interestingly, it is from the French language that the words that characterize the high society are borrowed: elite (élite), bohemia (bohème), beau monde (beaumonde).

As in the XVIII-XIX centuries, today there is an interesting assimilation of Gallicisms in Russian speech:

Rest in plein air

In the evening they made a promenade (promenade)

Have you decided to go to a rendezvous? (rendez-vous)

At the resort we jouir

Speaking of borrowings from the French language, one cannot fail to mention the "winged" words and phraseological units. They can be conditionally divided into three groups: historical, literary and secular. The historical group includes "winged" words once uttered by a famous political or historical figure: a king, commander, politician and others. Historical and political events left their mark on the French vocabulary. Some of them switched to Russian:

Accuracy (accuracy) is the courtesy of kings. (L "exactitude est la politesse des rois) This expression is attributed to the French king Louis XVIII.

All is lost except honor. The expression belongs to the French king Francis I. Defeated by the troops of Charles V and captured at Pavia, he

sent a letter to his mother containing only this phrase.

The expression "State within a State" arose during the era of the religious wars in France.

"Golden youth". So they call the rich bourgeois-noble youth, winding money, burning through life. Initially, it was the nickname of the Parisian counter-revolutionary youth, grouped after IX Thermidor.

"Art for Art's sake". The slogan proclaimed in France by the supporters of the so-called "pure", "free" art. The idea of ​​this direction was first expressed by the French idealist philosopher Victor Cousin.

"Old Guard". This expression goes back to the name of the elite units of Napoleon's troops. The French Guard was in 1807 divided into "old" and "young"; The "old guard", which consisted of the best soldiers and officers, hardened in battles, who played a large role in the Napoleonic wars, was surrounded by an aura of "invincibility".

The literary group includes phraseological units that were once mentioned in a particular work of art:

"Balzac Age". The expression arose after the release of Honore Balzac's novel The Thirty-Year-Old Woman.

"Pulling chestnuts out of the fire." This expression came into Russian speech from the fable of the French fabulist Jean La Fontaine "The Monkey and the Cat".

The last group - secular, includes expressions that were used by the people or were said by a person who was close to ordinary people:

He is at ease (N "est pas dans son assiette). If we translate this phraseological unit literally, then it should sound something like this: "to be in an unenviable position." What does the plate have to do with it? The French word assiette is translated as "position" and how "plate".

I would like to note one curious detail - the similarity and difference between the idioms of the Russian and French languages. These idioms have the same meaning, for example:

A ram on five legs. Un mouton a cinq pattes.

White crow. Corneille Blanche.

To be made of gold. Etre cousu d "or.

Get out of bed on the wrong side. Se lever du pied gauche.

Chickens do not peck money. Les poules ne picorent pas l "argent.

Chapter IV. French language in the works of A. S. Pushkin.

Studying in the ninth grade the novel by A.S. Pushkin "Eugene Onegin", we noticed that the poet uses a lot of words and expressions from the French language. This interested and aroused the desire to study the reasons and motives for the author's use of foreign words in his work. We started with the history of that time and the influence of Europe on Russia.

The influence of the French language on Pushkin's language is considered primarily as the influence of French vocabulary and phraseology. Several chapters of V.V. Vinogradov's book "Pushkin's Language" are devoted to this, where the poet's attitude to Europeanism, the role of French in the formation of his language are clarified, in connection with which the researcher characterizes Pushkin's position in relation to the Karamzin reform and such a phenomenon as "secular language ladies".

When studying the evolution of Pushkin's views on the phraseological means of the poetic language of the 17th - early 19th centuries. Much attention is paid to the influence of traditional French poetic phraseology on the language of Pushkin's poetry. Thus, the problems put forward by Academician Vinogradov are relevant today.

At the beginning of the XIX century. the question of borrowing - not borrowing foreign language elements, using - not using them was a topical, topical issue that needed to be addressed daily - in private and official correspondence, oral communication, in all areas of verbal creativity. Therefore, the study of foreign inclusions by its various aspects is connected with the study of both the language and Pushkin's style.

Pushkin's poetic gift was determined very early.

From memoirs about Pushkin's poetic exercises before his lyceum years, we learn that Alexander Sergeevich was brought up in a literary environment. The poet's sister, Olga Sergeevna, says: "In such a circle, Alexander Sergeevich's childhood impressions developed, and it is not surprising that a 9-year-old boy wanted to try himself in the art of imitation and become an author. His first attempts were, of course, in French, although they also taught him Russian literacy ."

Confirmation is also found in the memoirs of the poet’s brother Lev Sergeevich Pushkin, written around the same time: “In general, his upbringing did not contain much Russian: he heard only French; his tutor was a Frenchman, however, a man not stupid and educated; his father’s library consisted from some French writings. The child spent sleepless nights and secretly devoured books one after another in his father's study. Pushkin was gifted with an extraordinary memory and at the age of eleven he already knew all French literature by heart. "

The first teacher of Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin was the French emigrant Count Montfort, an educated man, musician and painter; then Ruslo, who wrote well French poetry, then Shendel and others: they, as was customary then, were given complete freedom over the children. Of course, the children spoke and studied only in French.

Education by French tutors, constantly in French, as well as reading Western literature played a role in the fact that Pushkin is almost the only case in the history of literature when the greatest poet of his country,

French literature was only a part of European literature and could not replace the whole, and he aspired to this whole, it alone could satisfy him.

The question naturally arises as to how French education affected the poetic work of young Pushkin, especially since the cultural hegemony of France throughout Europe, established in the 18th century, was still strong in the years of Pushkin's youth. The dominance of classicism coincided with the time of the special authority of French literature of two centuries, since it was in the works of French writers that they saw the highest examples of classical literature.

Upon entering the Lyceum, Pushkin impressed even his comrades, who, like him, grew up in a French secular environment, with a wide knowledge of French literature and a perfect knowledge of the French language. It is not for nothing that Pushkin appears in the "national songs" under the name "Frenchman".

During his apprenticeship, French literature could not but be reflected in Pushkin's early work.

It is well known that Pushkin considered it natural and logical to use foreign words in the event that these words denoted objects or abstract concepts for which there were no equivalents in the Russian language. In a playful form, his position is expressed on the pages of "Eugene Onegin":

But pantaloons, tailcoat, vest,

All these words are not in Russian,

And I see, I blame you,

What is it my poor syllable

I could dazzle much less

In foreign words,

Even though I looked in the old days

In the Academic Dictionary.

It is natural that in Pushkin's language there are no bookish or poetic French phraseological units. Book phraseological units are expressions that are characteristic of literary writing. Meanwhile, in his works, prose fiction, journalistic and epistolary Pushkin, in his own words, develops designations "for the most ordinary concepts." Poetic French phraseology also could not find its place in Pushkin's work on prose literary language, from which he demanded laconism, simplicity and clarity.

The nominative functions of a foreign word are diverse. Pushkin introduces French words into the Russian context for different purposes. Let us dwell in more detail on specific cases of the use of French inclusions.

1. Pushkin introduces a French word or expression that has no equivalent in Russian to denote a phenomenon or object.

Affectation "No one cried, tears would be - une Affectation.

Pushkin uses the French word in its second meaning, recorded in the dictionary: "Imitation? faux-semblant. Affectation de douleur? affectation de vertu".

Forgery, trick, trick. Image of grief, virtue

Such a laconic designation of pretense, cunning in behavior and the manifestation of feelings was absent in the Russian language. Pushkin uses a widely used word to clarify his thought.

Gracieuse "Ah! if I could lure you to Mikhailovskoye! ... You will see that if you compare Onegin with Don Juan, then only in one respect: who is nicer and prettier / Gracieuse /, Tatiana or Yulia?" .

2. The introduction of a new meaning that is missing from the Russian word: mystère - the first meaning coincides with the Russian word "sacrament", but in the context it refers to a phenomenon in European history - a medieval religious play. The Russian word "sacrament" does not have a similar meaning.

3. Rethinking the Russian word, using it in a new meaning, close to the French synonym; with the help of the word individualité, a new concept for the Russian language is introduced. The Russian equivalent is created by rethinking the word "originality".

Reflecting on the fate of the word "coquette", which has long been learned by the Russian language, comparing it with the French word prude, Pushkin writes the word "coquette" in French: "Coquette, prude. The word coquette has become Russified, but prude has not been translated and has not yet come into use" .

Interestingly, despite the statement of the fact that the word prude did not enter the Russian language, Pushkin himself forms from this adjectival verb "prudnichat" and the noun "prude", the meaning of which is defined as

Be overly strict in matters of decency, decency. "The government is not a lady, not a Princesse Moustache: it does not behoove to show off."

The attitude to French culture and language reveals a lot in the guise of one of the central heroines of Pushkin's work, Tatyana Larina. Let us consider in more detail the role of the French language and, more specifically, the role of French elements in creating the psychological and speech characteristics of the heroine of Pushkin's programmatic work.

Tatyana Larina does not utter a single French phrase in the text of the novel. But the element of the French language permeates her life. Moreover, it exists for Tatyana in a dual guise. On the one hand, these are the best examples of European literature, serving as a textbook for life:

She liked novels early,

They replaced everything for her;

She fell in love with deceptions

Both Richardson and Rousseau.

(VI.44).

Then Onegin's library will join here, complicating her worldview, expanding its boundaries, and - in a certain sense - completing her education. On the other hand, is it everyday colloquial speech, samples of which we meet on the pages of the album of a provincial young lady?

On the first page you will find:

Qu "ecrivez - vous sur ces tablettes?

and signature: t.a.v. Annette.

This inclusion does not have a specific author. It is given as a common cliche, as a socio-historical characteristic of the environment in which the heroine grew up. Triquet's couplet adjoins a similar example of county creativity. Its text is not given, but correlates with the melody and words of the children's song:

Triquet brought a couplet to Tatiana

Reveillez - vous, belle endormie.

(VI, 109)

This quote is familiar to the Pushkin reader from childhood. The characterization of Triquet's work, "boldly" substituting the ingenuous belle Tatiana instead of the conventionally literary belle Nina, demonstrates the widespread and vulgarization of the conventional poetic French phraseology.

The description of the turning points in Tatyana's life - the duel and death of Lensky, the departure of Yevgeny, the acquaintance with the Onegin library and the departure of the Larins to Moscow - is devoid of foreign language elements.

Russian educated society in the second half of the 18th - early 19th centuries. was bilingual. The development of interlingual relations in that era went in different ways. In extralinguistic terms, it manifested itself in the intensification of the training of noble youth in foreign languages, ancient and living, the development of translated literature, and the distribution of printed materials in many foreign languages. One of the intra-linguistic results of these contacts has been an increase in borrowings from different languages.2

French since the beginning of the 18th century. belonged to the most common, and by the end of the century, successfully competed with German, he came out on top in terms of prevalence in Russian society, influence on the formation of the Russian literary language. Considering the consequences of the Europeanization of Russian life in the XVIII century.

V.V. Vinogradov distinguishes two phenomena: 1. the widespread use of the French language in society; 2. formation of colloquial and everyday and literary styles of the Russian language with a bright imprint of the French language culture. The objective reason for such a linguistic situation, according to Vinogradov, is the need to adapt Russian literary speech to the expression of Western European concepts.

Russia entered the European political arena. This led to the rapid development of science and culture. “It is not so much about private borrowing of words and concepts,” wrote V.V. Vinogradov, assessing the state of the Russian literary language in the second half of the 17th century, “but about the general convergence of the semantic system of the Russian literary language with the semantic structure of Western European languages”4.

In mixing Russian with French, the researcher distinguishes the following phenomena:

1. When assimilating Western European concepts, when translating them into Russian, the semantic adaptation of Russian words to the corresponding French took place. This led to the merging of the meanings of the Russian word with the sphere of French meanings.

2. Correspondences and similarities to foreign words were compiled by tracing "Europeanism". Russian morphemes were a literal translation of the morphological elements of a foreign word. There was, as it were, an exact survey of morpheme after morpheme.

3. Together with lexical tracing papers, phraseological tracing papers arose.

The processes that took place in the 17th century were completed in the first quarter of the 19th century: “French becomes the official language of the court and aristocratic circles, the language of secular noble salons. The struggle for the national foundations of the Russian literary language inevitably put forward the task of creating “secular” styles of the Russian literary language ".

Conclusion

Analyzing the state of the Russian literary language in the Pushkin era, most researchers inevitably touch upon the question of the situation in the literary language of the first half of the 19th century. foreign elements and attitude towards them. And here the French elements are in first place in terms of frequency of use.

So, L.A. Bulakhovsky, in his fundamental work on the literary language of this period, notes the important role of the French language in an educated Russian society: the opportunity to get acquainted with foreign literature, etiquette communication in a secular society, etc.

L.A. Bulakhovsky emphasizes the use of such "ready-made material" as easy-to-communicate formulas and phrases that the French language is rich in, especially in the epistolary genre: into French, to use some concepts only in its shell are reflected especially in the epistolary and memoir syllable of this time, in the constant interspersing into the Russian text of individual French words and expressions. "7 The researcher draws a clear boundary between such "blotches", on the one hand, and vocabulary borrowings from the French language with tracing papers, on the other. The habit of using individual words and expressions in French is noted by V.V. Vinogradov.8

Of course, it is impossible to cover all the richness of borrowings from French in Russian vocabulary in such a small work. I would like to emphasize that borrowings enrich the Russian language, but we must strive to use them wisely.

No culture, no language develops in isolation, and any national culture and language is the fruit of both internal development and complex interaction with the cultures of other peoples, and the interaction between cultures, economic, political and everyday contacts are the common basis for all borrowing processes. . Until recently, the Russian language played the role of a mediator and distributor of Sovietisms and international words and contributed to the enrichment of the vocabulary of the language of the peoples of many countries of the world. But at the same time, many words appeared in many languages ​​of the world (and, in particular, in French), denoting the features of Russian culture, life, and history.

In different periods of the development of the Russian literary language, the assessment

the penetration of foreign language elements into it was ambiguous. In addition, with

activation of the process of lexical borrowing is usually enhanced and

opposition to him. So Peter I demanded that his contemporaries write

"as intelligibly as possible", without abusing non-Russian words.

M.V. Lomonosov in his “theory of three calms”, highlighting the words of various groups in the Russian vocabulary, did not leave room for borrowings from non-Slavic languages.

To what extent this will change the face of the Russian language, enrich it or

"spoiled", time will tell. It will determine the fate of one or another

borrowings that will eventually be approved or rejected

linguistic taste of the era. The Russian language is not the first time faced with

the need to perceive useful information in the form of foreign words from international experience.

List of used literature

1. Vinogradov V.V. "Language of Pushkin" M. 1979
2. Gak K.A. Ganshina K.A. New French-Russian Dictionary. M. "Russian language" 1997
3. Ilyina O.V. "Semantic assimilation of foreign language lexical innovations by the Russian language". Novosibirsk, 1998
4. Linnik T.G. "Problems of language borrowing". Kyiv, 1989
5. Lotman Yu.M. "A.S. Pushkin's novel "Eugene Onegin" M. 1983.
6. Pushkin A.S. Essay in three volumes. Volume II "Eugene Onegin" M. Fiction, 1986
7. Pushkin A.S. Essay in three volumes. Volume I. M. Fiction, 1985.
8. Raevskaya O.V. New French-Russian and Russian-French Dictionary. M. "Russian language" 1997

The vocabulary of our language includes not only native Russian words. Some of them are borrowed. What are the origins of this phenomenon?

Reasons for borrowing

The life of any people is certainly connected with other countries and states. This usually happens through economic, cultural and trade relations. Mutual influence during contact is also experienced by the vocabulary of peoples. And this is not surprising, because language is the main means of communication. As a result of this influence, foreign words necessarily appear in the dictionary of this or that people.

Borrowing history

Since the eighth century, various foreign words began to fall into the Russian language. This phenomenon has become one of the ways of developing his vocabulary. There is nothing surprising in this. The fact is that the vocabulary of any people at all times was sensitive to the changing needs of society. Borrowed words in the Russian language appeared in the process of developing relations between countries. They came to us due to the fact that the concepts corresponding to them were absent in the vocabulary of our people.

The nature and volume of borrowings can indicate the historical paths of scientific, cultural and economic ties, as well as geographical discoveries. The result of all these processes was the penetration into Russian phraseology and vocabulary of other languages.

Main steps

In history, one can observe certain periods that differ from each other in predominant borrowing. So, in the most ancient period, many words came to us from Latin and Germanic languages. The next stage is associated with the colonization of North-Eastern and Northern Russia by the Slavs. During this period, numerous borrowed words in Russian appeared from the Finno-Ugric vocabulary. At the next historical stage, Christianity began to emerge.

This was the period when borrowings appeared in Russian from Old Church Slavonic and Greek. Some changes affected vocabulary in the 16th-18th centuries. This period is characterized by borrowings from the Polish language. In the 18-19 centuries, the bulk of foreign words entered our vocabulary due to ties with the French and German peoples. The next period touched on English words. They began to enrich our vocabulary in large quantities in the 20th and 21st centuries.

Language signs of borrowings

What can say about the foreign origin of the word? The main features of borrowing are:

1. The "a" sound at the beginning of a word. Such a construction contradicts our phonetic laws. Beginning with the letter "a" - borrowed words in Russian. Examples of words of this type are numerous. These are "abbot" and "aria", "lampshade" and "anathema", "arba" and "paragraph", "angel" and "questionnaire".
2. The "e" sound at the beginning of a word. This is usually how Latinisms and Greekisms begin. For example, "era" and "epoch", "exam" and "ethics", "effect" and "floor".
3. The sound "f" in the word. The fact is that the Eastern Slavs did not have such a sound in their language. It appeared only to denote letters in borrowed words. These are "fact" and "forum", "sofa" and "scam", "ether" and "form", "profile" and "film".
4. Using a combination of two or more vowels in words. Such a construction according to the laws of our phonetics was simply unacceptable. That is why it is so easy to find borrowed words in Russian. Examples of words: "punctuation" and "radio", "theater" and "out", "poet" and "veil", "cocoa" and "halo".
5. Harmonious combination of identical vowel sounds. This feature is typical for the Turkic language. These are words such as "pencil" and "shoe", "sarafan" and "caravan", "drum" and "ataman".

Morphological sign of foreign words in some cases is their immutability. These are nouns that sound the same in any case, do not have a specific form of singular or plural. An example of such words may be the following: "taxi" and "coat", "coffee" and "maxi", "beige" and "mini".

History of borrowing French words

A significant part of foreign words that are included in the vocabulary of the Russian language are gallicisms. This term comes from the Latin "Gaulish". It means expressions and words that were borrowed from the French people and built according to the phonetic laws of their language.

Gallicism was especially pronounced in the 18th century. It was during this period that French words confidently entered Russian speech. They were literally imbued with the spirit of this European country. So, borrowed words in Russian from French are “visitor” and “charm”, “compliment” and “favorite”, “curtsey” and “cavalier”, “tutor” and “cocotte”.

Gallicisms penetrated into all spheres of activity and life of people. This was especially true for wardrobe items. This is evidenced by such words borrowed from the French language as "jewellery" and "accessory", "jabot" and "veil", "peignoir" and "coat". A lot of gallicisms appeared in the culinary business. The Russian dictionary was replenished with such words as "mayonnaise" and "meringue", "mashed potatoes" and "delicacy".

Many Gallicisms are connected with the sphere of art. These are "accordion" and "overture", "debut" and "billboard", "applause" and "palette", "vaudeville" and "ensemble".

The infusion of Gallicisms into the Russian language did not stop in the 19th and 20th centuries. Foreign words in this era were associated, as a rule, with the economy, social life and politics. Such examples can be given: "diplomat" and "bureaucracy", "democrat" and "capitalism", "shareholder" and "press", "budget" and "bourgeoisie". French borrowings include such words as "run" and "authoritarian". Gallicisms include "exaggerate" and "importer".

French borrowed words in Russian are an example of how a foreign culture becomes an example to follow. A particularly strong influence of Gallicisms on Russian vocabulary was observed in the 18th and 19th centuries. In the next two centuries, loanwords came to be regarded as more prestigious and more beautiful. For example, "boutique". In France, this is a small shop. In Russia, this word has taken on a completely different meaning. Boutiques began to be called expensive stores offering fashionable clothes to customers.

Phraseological units borrowed from French

Gallicisms include not only words. Many phraseological units and popular expressions have passed from French to Russian. At one time they were uttered by political or historical figures - kings and politicians, generals, etc.

One of these expressions belongs to Louis VIII. He said: "Accuracy is the courtesy of kings." The era of religious wars in France gave us such a phrase as "a state within a state." It concerned rich young people from the bourgeois-noble estates, burning their lives. And the "old guard" was called the elite units of the Napoleonic troops. They included the best soldiers and officers. Everyone knows such an expression as "Balzac age". It belongs to the group of literary borrowings.

It is interesting that such a common expression among us as "not at ease" is also gallicism. Literally, it means "to be in an unenviable position."

The history of the appearance of German words in Russian

The process of penetration of German vocabulary began in the 13th century. It intensified significantly three centuries later. However, borrowed words in Russian from German most of all began to appear in the 17-18 centuries. Their penetration occurred not only by written means, but also by oral. The list of German borrowed words in Russian is quite impressive. It concerns such sections of vocabulary:

Military - "assault" and "parade ground", "gun carriage", "corporal" and "bayonet", "grenade" and "soldier";

Production - "chisel" and "workbench", "washer" and "mine", "matrix" and "slate", "template" and "format";

Trade - "accountant" and "freight", "bill" and "cashier";

Medical - "paramedic" and "bandage", "plaster" and "cotton wool", "syringe" and "resort";

Socio-political - "dictatorship" and "falsification", "aggressor" and "priority", "slogan" and "discrimination";

Chess art - "grandmaster" and "endgame";

Household - "sandwich" and "pretzel", "dumplings" and "pate", "apron" and "rutabaga", "hairdresser" and "corkscrew";

Arts - "landscape" and "easel", "tour" and "dance", "flute" and "choreographer".

The main grammatical and phonetic signs of borrowed German words are combinations of the sounds "ey", "ay", as well as the initial "shp", "sht" ("spy", "stamp"). In addition, they are issued by an addition that does not have connecting vowels ("mouthpiece", "whiskers").

The history of the appearance of anglicisms

Borrowings from Foggy Albion entered our language much later than French and German words. This process began in the 16th century. This period was characterized by successful trade between countries. Borrowed words in Russian from English appeared along with new concepts and goods, as well as with scientific works.

The next active period of penetration of Anglicisms into our language began in the times of Peter the Great. During this period, borrowings that came to us from the British Isles related to trade, domestic relations, as well as scientific activities.

In imperial Russia, the prestige of the English language was maintained at a high level due to the significant role of Great Britain on the world stage. The next stages of borrowing date back to the 20s of the twentieth century. It was the period of the formation of an independent Russian state.

Examples of Anglicisms

Borrowed words in Russian that came to us from Britain began to especially replenish our vocabulary after 1925. These are “stand” and “harvester”, “tanker” and “container”, “TV” and “trolleybus”, etc.

Strengthening interaction with the countries of Western Europe at the end of the 20th century. led to the fact that during this period numerous borrowed words appeared in Russian from English. Examples are found in all fields of activity. There is nothing surprising in this, because English is the language of the global Internet, the largest radio and television companies, as well as many magazines and newspapers.

Borrowed words in Russian from English, examples from the spheres:

Socio-political - "businessman", "management", "dealer";

Computer technologies - "laptop", "hacker", "monitor".

Currently, there is a large list of wardrobe items, the names of which came to us from abroad. So, borrowed words in Russian from English are "grinders" and "body", "cardigan" and "top". You can also find "foreigners" in the field of culture - "promotion", "remix", "show business", etc.

Have you just started learning French? I assure you, you know much more words than you have already managed to learn in a couple of lessons from the textbook. How so? Why?

Because in Russian there are French words all the time.

When I compiled this list, I was not interested in words that name French realities, such as “baguette”, “champagne”, “petanque”, “pastis” and so on. I was interested in those words that have become so firmly established in our language that they have even ceased to seem like borrowings. For example, makeup, cream, mode. But there are other words on this list that are clearly foreign in appearance. At some point, I suddenly clearly saw French roots in them, and this surprised me so much that I thought maybe others would be interested. This, for example, entrecote, couturier, opening day.

Where the meaning of the French word coincides with the Russian, I will not write a translation. Otherwise, I will indicate in brackets what the given word means in French.

Et voilà, 100 French words in Russian, in the order they came to my mind:

1. Crew- fr. équipage is the crew of the ship. There is also the verb équiper - to provide with the necessary. Hence - to equip, equipment.
2. outrageous- in French there is no word épatage, but there is a verb épater - to surprise, to amaze.
3. Makeup- comes from the verb maquiller - to apply makeup; change the appearance of someone; also fake numbers
4. Cream– une crème (the first meaning is “cream”)
5. Pomade- une pommade (Interestingly, “lipstick” in French is called le rouge à levres (lit. red for lips), and une pommade is an ointment.
6. papilotka– une papillote
7. Kare- le carré (from the adjective carré - square)
8. Shower– une douche
9. Trumeau- le trumeau - pier
10. Sideboard- une servante - servant
11. planter- le cache-pot - letters. hide-pot
12. Shade- un abat-jour - letters. dims-light
13. Deckchair- une chaise longue - a long chair
14. Stool– un tabouret
15. chaise longue- une causette - chatter
16. pince-nez- le pince-nez, from pincer - to pinch and le nez - nose
17. Floor– unétage
18. Mezzanine- un entresol - an apartment between the rez-de-chaussée (the first floor on which no one lives in France) and the actual le premier étage.
19. Whatnot– une etagere
20. Voyage- un voyage (travel), voyager - to travel
21. Baggage– les bagsages (usually plural)
22. Sacvoyage– from sas de voyage (lit. travel bag)
23. Travel bag– le nécessaire (lit. necessary)
24. Mode– le regime
25. Duel– le duel
26. Fiction– les belles lettes (as fiction is called in French)
27. Grimace– un grimace
28. Vernissage– un vernissage (unofficial opening of the artist's exhibition on the eve of the official opening)
29. Inauguration– inauguration (opening, for example, of an exhibition)
30. Turn- un virage (lit. turn)
31. Collage- un collage (derived from the word coller - to glue; the collage technique was invented by Picasso)
32. Decoupage- le découpage - from découper - cut out
33. Impressionism- l'impressionisme (from une impression - impression)
34. Dude- un pigeon (1. pigeon, 2. dude)
35. Couturier- un couturier (tailor), haute couture– la couture (sewing)
36. Defile- le défilé - the first meaning of "march, parade" (from the verb défiler - to march)
37. Parade– une parade
38. Coat– un paletot
39. Studio– un atelier
40. Chiffon- le chiffon - rag, flap, towel
41. Muffler- le cache-nez - lit. stick-nose
42. Chauffeur comes from the French chauffeur - letters. stoker, stoker. Because the first vehicles were steam or coal fired. The suffix -eur is a suffix indicating the performer of a certain action. So, the one who chauffe (chauffer - heat, glow) - chauffeur.
43. Kuaffer- from coiffeur - coiffer - to comb.
44. Entrepreneur- entrepreneur (someone who undertakes, organizes something), from entreprendre. From the same word and entreprise (enterprise) - enterprise.
45. Another "theatrical" word - intermission- comes from entractre.
46. Role- emploi - work, employment, position
47. Conductor- le dirigeur (from diriger - to manage)
48. Ballet– le ballet
49. Proscenium– avant-scene
50. Understudy– le doubleur
51. Aport! - apporte - letters. bring. I wonder what the French themselves say va churcher(go look)
52. face! - face - letters. face. French dogs hear at a moment like this attaque! (attack!)
53. Redoubt– la redoute
54. Hussar– un houssard
55. Duel- le duel - duel, fight
56. Musket, musketeer– un mousquet, un mousqueutaire
57. Vanguard- l'avant-garde - forward detachment
58. Motto– la devise
59. Revenge(take revenge - prendre sa revanche)
60. Stagecoach– une diligence
61. Brothel– un bordel
62. landing stage- from debarquer - to land on the shore
63. buffet- la fourchette - fork
64. Menu- menu - small (since we are talking about a limited number of dishes)
65. Entrecote- une entrecôte - a piece of beef cut between the ribs and the backbone
66. Cutlet– une côtelette – lamb rib
67. Omelette– une omelette
68. Aperitif– l'apéritif
69. Digestif- le digestif (from digerer - digest)
70. Souffle- un souffle - exhale
71. Prompter- un souffleur - from souffler - breathe, exhale, prompt
72. Eclair- un eclair - lightning
73. Caramel– le caramel
74. Chance- une chance - good luck
75. rendezvous- un rendez-vous - meeting, comes from the verb se rendre - to come somewhere
76. Dispatch- une dépêche, de dépêcher - hurry, se dépêcher - hurry
77. Courier- via fr. un courrier from ital. "messenger"
78. Pavilion– un pavilion
79. enfilade– une enfilade
80. firecrackers– des petards
81. Solitaire– la patience – the first meaning is “patience”
82. Piqué– piquer
83. Aerobatics- le pilotage - aircraft control
84. ace- un as - ace, the first in his business
85. Obstetrician- un accoucheur (accoucher - to give birth)
86. Promenade- une promenade - a walk (from se promener - to walk, walk)
87. Summary- un resumé - summary
88. Cour d'honneur- la cour d'honneur - court of honor
89. Melange- un mélange - mixture, hodgepodge
90. Bush(cafe name) - une bouchée - a piece that can be bitten off at one time. From la bouche - mouth.
91. Letual(cosmetics stores) - l'étoile - star
92. There is a French expression - amis comme cochons - literally friends are like pigs. And they say this about very close relationships between friends. But who would have thought that a whole expression could be borrowed into Russian and become ... " amicochism“!
93. alley– une allee
94. Boulevard– un boulevard
95. Entourage- entourage - environment
96. Director- le directeur
97. Illusion– une illusion
98. Imitation– une imitation
99. Calorie– une calorie
100. Score– un store

Borrowed words ( French:les emprunts) are widespread in the vocabulary of any language. This unconscious process is one of the ways in which vocabulary is enriched along with word formation and the semantic evolution of words.

Borrowings in French began to appear only after French began to look less and less like Latin, acquiring the main features of the Romance language. Therefore, you should not consider Celtic words as borrowings (for example: barque- Russian: boat, chemin- Russian: road, way, grève- Russian: strike) and of German origin (for example: fauteui l - Russian: armchair, gare- Russian: station, jardin- Russian: garden), which came into the vocabulary in the era of the formation of an independent French language. It would be more accurate to call borrowed only those words that come from languages ​​that are fundamentally different from French.

Thus, borrowing is an element of a foreign language transferred from one language to another as a result of language contacts, as well as the process of transition of elements of one language to another. Moreover, not only whole words are borrowed, but also their meanings, as well as morphological and syntactic elements. Yes, French verb realiser(Russian: to realize) acquired the additional meaning of "understand, realize", characteristic of the English verb to realize. Noun cré nature(Russian: creature) borrowed the meaning of "protege, favorite" of the Italian word protege. A suffixes - esque and – issime passed into French through some nouns borrowed from Italian. Also, thanks to borrowings from Latin, the suffix – isme.

One of the varieties of borrowings is tracing paper, or tracing paper. This is a transfer not only of meaning, but also of the internal form of a word or phrase in a foreign language. Yes, noun surhomme(Russian: superman) came from the German Û bermensch. Expression bass- blue(Russian: blue stocking) goes back to English blue- stocking, a grate- ciel(Russian: skyscraper) to American English sky- scraper.

The study of borrowings indicates the connection of the language with the history of the people who speak it. Modern French has a large number of words borrowed from foreign languages ​​in different eras. Borrowings are caused by historical conditions, the nature of the relationship between the French people and other nations. As a rule, a rich source of borrowings is the language of the people who have unshakable authority on the world stage and influence the economic and cultural development of the planet. However, this alone is not enough. In general, borrowings are more often made from languages ​​of the same family, and especially from a branch.

The origin of borrowings is sometimes very difficult to trace. Depending on whether the word passed directly from one language, or whether this language initially adopted it from another language, direct and indirect borrowings are distinguished. In French, indirect borrowings are often represented by exotic concepts that are not characteristic of French culture. Yes, noun pirogue(Russian: pieroga) passed from the Caribbean language, which borrowed it from Spanish ( piragua). A Haitian word barbecue(Russian: barbecue) became part of French from English, which adopted it from Spanish ( barbacoa).

There are also words that, having been borrowed from French by other languages, returned to French use, while changing quite a bit. Yes, noun bacon(bacon) borrowed from English, goes back to Old French bacon(Russian: "salted pork"). In modern French, the word has adopted an English pronunciation. Verb corner(Russian: blow a horn), also borrowed from English, comes from Old French cornier(Russian: horn).

Let us consider in more detail some sources of borrowings in French. A separate place among them belongs to the Romance languages, especially Italian. His influence can be clearly seen in the XVI century.

Many military terms were borrowed during the war with Italy (1494-1497), for example: attaquer< attaccare ( Russian: to attack, to attack), bastion< bastione ( Russian: bastion, fortress) , parapet< parapetto( Russian: parapet), soldat< soldato ( Russian: soldier, warrior).

There are also numerous borrowings of words from the household sphere: apartment< appartamento (Russian: apartment), strapontin< strapuntino (Russian: folding seat), carrosse< carrozza(Russian carriage), parasol< parasole (Russian: umbrella from the sun), bottom< botta(Russian: blow).

The influence of Italian art was also reflected in the French vocabulary: musical terms were borrowed: sé ré hope < serenata(Russian: serenade) , ariette < arietta(Russian: arietta) ; architectural terms: faç ade < facciata(Russian: facade, front side of the building) , balcony < balcony(Russian: balcony) , belvé dè re < belvé dè re(Russian: Belvedere) ; and fine art terms: pastel < pastello(Russian: pastel) , aquarelle < ac- quarella(Russian: watercolor) .

During the XVIII-XIX centuries, a significant number of English words passed into the French language. This is due to the increased interest in the parliamentary regime that was established in England after the revolution of 1649, as well as the influence of English philosophy and literature.

Thus, English enriched the French language with political terms: commité < committee(Russian: committee) , ordre du jour < order ofthe day(Russian: agenda) . Newer borrowings are: boycotter < to boycott(Russian: boycott) , interview(Russian: interview) , meeting(Russian: meeting, rally) .

In the 19th century, as a result of industrial growth in England and the development of trade relations between the two countries, the following words of English origin became part of French: rail(Russian: rail) , tender(Russian: tender) , cargo(Russian: cargo ship) , pipe- line(Russian: pipeline). The increased interest in everything connected with England turned into a real Anglomania. This was the reason for the emergence of a large number of borrowings related to the sphere of everyday life: bifteck < beefsteak(Russian: steak, beefsteak) , rosbif < roast beef(Russian: roast beef) , pos­ ter (une letter) < to post(Russian: send) , cottage(Russian: cottage) , square­ re(Russian: square) , pull- over(Russian: sweater) , shopping(Russian: shopping, shopping) .

German also made a significant contribution to the French language. His influence increased in the 17th century, and was especially felt during the Thirty Years' War in Europe (1618-1648).

Military terms were borrowed from the German language: sabre < Sabel(Russian: saber), reî tre < Reiter(Russian: cavalryman) , blockhaus < Blockhaus(Russian: log house) ; music and dance terms: harmonica < Harmonica(Russian: harmonica) , accordé on < Akkordion(Russian: accordion) , valse < walzer(Russian: waltz) . Words related to various areas of everyday life were also adopted: rosse < Ross(Russian: zlyuka), blafard < Bleichvar(Russian: pale, dull) , chena­ pan < Schnapphahn(Russian: scoundrel) , loustic < lustig(Russian: cheerful) .

From the languages ​​of the countries of the East, the French language borrowed terms that appeared due to the achievements of these peoples. Medical terms were adopted from Arabic: alco­ ol < al- kohl(Russian: alcohol) , syrup < charâ b(Russian: syrup) ; mathematical: algè bre < ald- jabr(Russian: algebra) , zé ro < sifr(Russian: zero) ; astronomical: zé nothing < samt(Russian: zenith) , azimuth < as- samt(Russian: azimuth) ; as well as chemical alchimie < al- kî miyâ (Russian: alchemy) , alcali < al- qâ ly(Russian: alkali) . Words reflecting the life and traditions of the Arab countries were also borrowed, namely: é mir< amî r(Russian: emir) , caï d< qâ id(Russian: leader), harem < haram(Russian: harem) , calife < Khalifa(Russian: caliph, caliph) .

The appearance of the first borrowings from the Russian language occurred in the 18th century. These words entered French through Russian literature and denoted phenomena reflecting Russian realities: moujik <- мужик , ruble < рубль , samovar < самовар, té lé ga < телега , touloupe < тулуп , toundra < тундра, vodka < водка. A large number of words came into the French language after the October Revolution (1917): sovkhoze < совхоз , komsomol < комсомол , Bolchevik < большевик, spoutnik < спутник. At the same time, French suffixes were added to Russian words: kolkho­ zien <колхозник , stakhanoviste < стахановец.

However, one of the most common ways of borrowing from Russian is tracing: autocritique < самокритика , plan quinquennal < пятилетка , journal mural, Maison de repos < дом престарелых , jardin d" enfants < детский сад , Sans- parti, minimum technique < технический минимум.

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2. Tarkhova V.A. Reader on the lexicology of the French language (in French). - M.: Enlightenment, 1972. - 240 p.

3. Chekalina E.M., Ushakova T.M. Lexicology of the French language. Tutorial. - Publishing house of St. Petersburg. university 1998. - 236 p.

4. Yartseva VN Linguistic encyclopedic dictionary. - M.: Soviet Encyclopedia, 1990. - 685 p.