Elena Chigina
Cognitive mental processes - leading guidelines in pedagogy
EDUCATIONAL AREA « COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT»
The Federal State Educational Standard for Preschool Education presents certain areas or educational areas of development and education children: social and communicative development, cognitive development, speech development, artistic and aesthetic development, physical development
Contents of the educational field cognitive development is directed: development of children's interests; curiosity and cognitive motivation; formation cognitive actions; formation of consciousness; development of imagination and creative activity; the formation of primary ideas about oneself, other people, objects of the surrounding world, about the properties and relationships of objects of the surrounding world
RELEVANCE
For successful development of the child’s school education program necessary:
think consistently and convincingly, have basic speech culture skills,
master the techniques of voluntary attention and memory, be able to identify a learning task and turn it into an independent goal of activity. Accordingly, even in preschool childhood, long before entering school, it is necessary to carry out work on the formation mental processes, which in the future will become the basis of solid school knowledge.
THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
Cognitive mental processes - sensation, perception, thinking, imagination, memory - form the information base, the orienting basis of the psyche.
A necessary condition for the full development of a child is the presence of certain natural prerequisites in the form of hereditary characteristics of the human nervous system and the normal course of their maturation in ontogenesis.
This position was the starting point for further experimental studies, which showed that the timely and optimal development of thinking in children is directly dependent on the developmental nature of learning, on the development of indicative actions, from maximum use leading activities of age.
Perception - process reflections in human consciousness of integral objects or phenomena with their direct impact on the senses.
There are visual, auditory, tactile perception.
Four analyzers - visual, auditory, skin and muscle - most often act as leading in the process of perception.
Properties of perception
Subjectivity, integrity, constancy and categoricality (meaningfulness and meaningfulness)- these are the main properties of the image that add up to process and the result of perception
These properties are not inherent in a person from birth; they gradually develop in life experience, partly being a natural consequence of the work of analyzers and the synthetic activity of the brain.
Types of perception
Perceptions of space, time and movement, which, together with the ways of perceiving the contours and content of meaningful figures of a planar type, form a black and white perceptual dynamic picture of the situation surrounding a person every day.
Attention is mental process, which consists in the direction and concentration of consciousness on a specific object while simultaneously distracting from others.
Attention is characterized properties: selectivity, volume, distribution, concentration, stability, switchability.
One type of attention disorder is absent-mindedness - a decrease in the ability to concentrate and switch attention.
As a result of constant attention exercise, children should develop observation as a personality trait, allowing a person to notice a larger number of different objects, their details and characteristics in a short time.
Memory is complex mental process, defined as the recording, preservation, recognition and reproduction by an individual of his experience.
Memory develops through activity. The more attentive, active and independent this activity is, the better a person’s memory develops.
Thinking is supreme cognitive process generalized and indirect reflection of reality.
Thinking is the most important process of cognition. With the help of thinking, we gain knowledge that the senses cannot give us.
The result of thinking is a thought expressed in words.
IN process mental activity, a person uses special techniques, or operations: analysis, synthesis, comparison, abstraction, generalization.
Age-related characteristics of perception in preschoolers
In early preschool age (3-4 years) perception is objective in nature.
Under the influence of play and object-based activities, the preschooler’s ability to separate properties from the object itself develops. By comparing, measuring and applying objects, a 4-5 year old child receives performance: about the basic geometric shapes, about the main colors of the spectrum; about parameters of magnitude, about space, about time.
In older preschool age (5-7 years) knowledge about objects and their properties is expanded and organized into a system, which allows them to be used in different types of activities.
Age-related characteristics of attention in preschoolers
The first signs of attention in a child appear already in the second or third week of life in the form of auditory and visual concentration, but for a long time this process does not gain independence.
At the beginning of preschool age, the child’s attention reflects his interest in surrounding objects and the actions performed with them. If younger preschoolers can play the same game for 25-30 minutes, then by the age of 5-6 years the duration of the game increases to 1-1.5 hours.
Age-related characteristics of memory in preschoolers
Memory exists in a child from the moment of birth. Already in early infancy, children are able to correlate new impressions with the images they have - to recognize. Recognition - first memory process appearing in a child. After 8 months, reproduction is formed - the restoration of an image in memory when there is no similar object in front of the child. By preschool age, memory becomes the dominant function. Neither before nor after this period does the child remember the most varied material with such ease.
Age-related features of thinking in preschoolers
Children show the first signs of thinking by the end of the first year of life. They begin to notice the simplest connections and relationships between objects and use them to achieve a specific goal.
As experience accumulates, the child’s thinking becomes more and more based on images - ideas about what the result of this or that action might be. The main type of thinking inherent in a preschool child is visual-figurative thinking.
In older preschool age, verbal and logical thinking begins to form.
DIRECTION OF DEVELOPMENTAL GAMES
They need to develop through activities accessible to their age - games. One of the important tasks of modern preschool education is the creation of conditions that would contribute to the development of the child and the disclosure of his creative potential. Presenter The activity of a preschooler is play, so develop cognitive processes are easier through play.
Educational games are aimed on: development cognitive processes and prerequisites for learning skills; expansion of vocabulary, enrichment of active and passive vocabulary; improvement of visual-spatial and spatio-temporal orientations, motor memory; development of successive abilities.
At the stage of completion of preschool education, the child must be able to: show initiative and independence in different types of activities; actively interact with peers and adults; speak well enough to be able to express your thoughts and desires; gross and fine motor skills must be developed; must be capable of volitional efforts; must show curiosity and must be able to make their own decisions.
Didactic games should contribute to the development cognitive activity, intellectual operations that represent the basis of learning.
Perception
Perception in preschool age loses its initially affective character: perceptual and emotional processes are differentiated. Perception becomes meaningful, purposeful, and analytical. It highlights voluntary actions - observation, examination, search.
The process of development of children's perception in preschool age was studied in detail by L.A. Wenger. According to Wenger, the basis of perception is perceptual actions. Their quality depends on the child’s assimilation of systems of perceptual standards. Such standards for the perception of, for example, shapes are geometric figures, for the perception of color - the spectral range, for the perception of sizes - the physical quantities adopted for their assessment.
Stages of formation of perceptual actions. Perceptual actions are formed in learning, and their development goes through a number of stages. The process of their formation (the first stage) begins with practical, material actions performed with unfamiliar objects. This stage poses new perceptual tasks for the child. At this stage, the necessary corrections necessary to form an adequate image are made directly into material actions. The best results of perception are obtained when the child is offered for comparison so-called sensory standards, which also appear in external, material form. With them, the child has the opportunity to compare the perceived object in the process of working with it.
At the second stage, the sensory processes themselves, restructured under the influence of practical activity, become perceptual actions. Perceptual actions are now carried out with the help of receptor apparatus and anticipate the implementation of practical actions with perceived objects. At this stage, children become familiar with the spatial properties of objects with the help of extensive orienting and exploratory movements of the hand and eye.
At the third stage, perceptual actions become even more hidden, collapsed, reduced, their external effector links disappear, and perception from the outside begins to seem like a passive process. In fact, this process is still active, but it occurs internally, mainly only in the consciousness and on a subconscious level in the child.
The role of visual components in perception. The development of the perception process in preschool age allows children to quickly recognize the properties of objects that interest them, distinguish some objects from others, and clarify the connections and relationships that exist between them. At the same time, the figurative principle, very strong in this period, often prevents the child from drawing correct conclusions regarding what he observes. In J. Bruner's experiments, many preschoolers correctly judge the conservation of the amount of water in glasses when water is poured from one glass to another behind a screen. But when the screen is removed and the children see a change in the water level in the glasses (achieved due to the different base areas of the glasses), direct perception leads to an error: the children say that there is less water in the glass where the water level is lower. In general, in preschoolers, perception and thinking are so closely connected that they speak of visual-figurative thinking, which is most characteristic of this age.
Attention
The attention of a child of early preschool age is involuntary. It is evoked by visually attractive objects, events and people and remains focused as long as the child retains a direct interest in the perceived objects.
At the stage of transition from involuntary to voluntary attention, the means that control the child’s attention are important. Reasoning out loud helps a child develop voluntary attention. If a 4-5 year old preschooler is asked to constantly name out loud what he should keep in the sphere of his attention, then the child will be quite able to voluntarily and for quite a long time maintain his attention on certain objects or their details.
From younger to older preschool age, children's attention progresses simultaneously along many different characteristics. Younger preschoolers usually look at pictures that are attractive to them for no more than 6-8 s, while older preschoolers are able to focus on the same image for 12 to 20 s. The same applies to the time spent doing the same activity for children of different ages. In preschool childhood, significant individual differences are already observed in the degree of stability of attention in different children, which probably depends on the type of their nervous activity, physical condition and living conditions. Nervous and sick children are more often distracted than calm and healthy children, and the difference in the stability of their attention can reach one and a half to two times.
Preschool childhood is the age most favorable for memory development.
Memory at this age acquires a dominant function among other cognitive processes. Neither before nor after this period does the child remember the most varied material with such ease.
Types of memory. The memory of a preschooler has a number of specific features. In younger preschoolers, memory is involuntary. The child does not set a goal to remember or remember something and does not have special methods of memorization. Events, actions, and images that are interesting to him are easily imprinted, and verbal material is also involuntarily remembered if it evokes an emotional response. The child quickly remembers poems, especially those that are perfect in form: sonority, rhythm and adjacent rhymes are important in them. Fairy tales, short stories, and dialogues from films are remembered when the child empathizes with their characters.
During preschool age, the efficiency of involuntary memorization increases. In children of early preschool age, involuntary visual-emotional memory dominates. In some cases, linguistically or musically gifted children also have well-developed auditory memory.
Children of primary and middle preschool age have well-developed mechanical memory. Children easily remember and reproduce without much effort what they saw or heard, but only if it aroused their interest and the children themselves were interested in remembering or remembering something. Thanks to such memory, preschoolers quickly improve their speech and learn to use household items.
The more meaningful the material a child remembers, the better the memorization. Semantic memory develops along with mechanical memory, so it cannot be assumed that in preschoolers who repeat someone else’s text with great accuracy, mechanical memory predominates. With active mental work, children remember material better than without such work.
The first recollection of impressions received in early childhood usually occurs around the age of three years (meaning adult memories associated with childhood). It has been found that almost 75% of children's first recalls occur between the ages of three and four years. This means that by this age, i.e., by the beginning of early preschool childhood, the child has developed long-term memory and its basic mechanisms.
In middle preschool age (between 4 and 5 years), voluntary memory begins to form. Improving voluntary memory in preschoolers is closely related to setting them special tasks for memorizing, preserving and reproducing material. Many such tasks arise in gaming activities, so games provide the child with rich opportunities for memory development. Children as young as 3-4 years old can voluntarily memorize, remember and recall material in games.
Stages of formation of arbitrary memory. 3. M. Istomina analyzed how the process of developing voluntary memorization occurs in preschool children. In primary and middle preschool age, memorization and reproduction are involuntary. In older preschool age, there is a gradual transition from involuntary to voluntary memorization and reproduction of material.
The transition from involuntary to voluntary memory includes two stages.
At the first stage, the necessary motivation is formed, i.e. the desire to remember or remember something. At the second stage, the mnemonic actions and operations necessary for this arise and are improved.
In the initial stages, conscious, purposeful memorization and recollection appear only sporadically. Usually they are included in other types of activities, since they are needed both in play, and when running errands for adults, and during classes - preparing children for school.
Children's memory productivity in play is much higher than outside of it. By playing, it is easier for a child to reproduce difficult-to-memorize material. Let's say, having taken on the role of a seller, he is able to remember and recall at the right time a long list of products and other goods. If you give him a similar list of words outside of a game situation, he will not be able to cope with this task.
In order for the transition to voluntary memorization to become possible, special perceptual actions must appear aimed at better remembering, more fully and more accurately reproducing the material retained in memory. The first special perceptual actions are distinguished in the activities of a 5-6 year old child, and most often they use simple repetition for memorization. By the age of 6-7 years, the process of voluntary memorization can be considered formed. Its psychological sign is the child’s desire to discover and use logical connections in the material for memorization.
Features of mnemonic processes. It is believed that with age, the speed at which information is retrieved from long-term memory and transferred to working memory, as well as the volume and duration of working memory, increases. It has been established that a three-year-old child can operate with only one unit of information currently located in RAM, and a fifteen-year-old child can operate with seven such units.
With age, the child’s ability to evaluate the capabilities of his own memory develops, and the older the children, the better they can do this. Over time, the strategies for memorizing and reproducing material that the child uses become more diverse and flexible. Of 12 pictures presented, a 4-year-old child, for example, recognizes all 12, but is able to reproduce only two or three, while a 10-year-old child, having recognized all the pictures, is able to reproduce 8 of them.
Imagination
The beginning of the development of children's imagination is associated with the end of early childhood, when the child first demonstrates the ability to replace some objects with others and use some objects in the role of others (symbolic function). Imagination is further developed in games, where symbolic substitutions are made quite often and using a variety of means and techniques.
Types of imagination. In the first half of preschool childhood, the child’s reproductive imagination predominates, mechanically reproducing received impressions in the form of images. These can be impressions received by the child as a result of direct perception of reality, listening to stories, fairy tales, or watching films. Imaginative images of this type restore reality not on an intellectual, but on an emotional basis. The images usually reproduce something that made an emotional impression on the child, caused him to have very specific emotional reactions, and turned out to be especially interesting. In general, the imagination of preschool children is still quite weak.
The younger preschooler is not yet able to completely restore the picture from memory, dismember and then creatively use the individual parts of what he perceived as fragments from which something new can be put together. Younger preschoolers are characterized by the inability to imagine things from a point of view different from their own, from a different angle. If you ask a six-year-old child to arrange objects on one part of the plane in the same way as they are located on another part of it, turned to the first at an angle of 90°, this usually causes great difficulties for children of this age. It is difficult for them to mentally transform not only spatial, but also simple planar images.
In older preschool age, when voluntary memorization appears, the imagination turns from reproductive, mechanically reproducing reality into creative imagination. The main type of activity where children's creative imagination is manifested is role-playing games.
Cognitive imagination is formed by separating the image from the object and designating the image using a word. Affective imagination develops as a result of the child’s awareness of his “I”, psychological separation of himself from other people and from the actions he performs.
Functions of the imagination. Thanks to the cognitive-intellectual function of imagination, the child learns better about the world around him and solves the problems that arise before him more easily and successfully. Imagination in children also plays an affective and protective role. It protects the child’s easily vulnerable and weakly protected soul from excessively difficult experiences and traumas. The emotional-protective role of imagination is that through an imaginary situation, tension can be discharged and a unique, symbolic resolution of conflicts can occur, which is difficult to achieve with the help of real practical actions.
Stages of imagination development. Imagination, like any other mental activity, goes through a certain development path in human ontogenesis. O.M. Dyachenko showed that children's imagination in its development is subject to the same laws that other mental processes follow. Just like perception, memory and attention, imagination from involuntary (passive) becomes voluntary (active), gradually turns from direct to mediated, and the main tool for mastering it on the part of the child is sensory standards.
The initial stage in the development of imagination can be attributed to 2.5-3 years. It is at this time that imagination, as a direct and involuntary reaction to a situation, begins to turn into a voluntary process and is divided into cognitive and affective.
The development of cognitive imagination is associated with the process of “objectifying” the image through action. Through this process, the child learns to manage his images, change and clarify them, and regulate his imagination. However, he is not yet able to plan it, to draw up a program of upcoming actions in his mind in advance. This ability appears in children only at 4-5 years of age.
The development of affective imagination from the age of 2.5-3 years to 4-5 years goes through a number of stages. At the first stage, negative emotional experiences in children are symbolically expressed in the characters of the fairy tales they hear. At the second stage, the child can already build imaginary situations that remove threats to his “I” (stories - children’s fantasies about themselves as supposedly possessing especially pronounced positive qualities). At the third stage, a projection mechanism is formed, thanks to which unpleasant knowledge about oneself, one’s own unacceptable qualities and actions begin to be attributed by the child to other people, surrounding objects and animals. By the age of about 6-7 years, the development of affective imagination in children reaches a level where many of them are able to imagine and live in an imaginary world.
By the end of the preschool period of childhood, the child’s imagination is presented in two main forms:
A) arbitrary, independent generation of an idea by a child;
B) the emergence of an imaginary plan for its implementation.
Thinking
The main lines of development of thinking in preschool childhood can be outlined as follows:
Further improvement of visual and effective thinking based on developing imagination;
Improving visual-figurative thinking based on voluntary and indirect memory;
The beginning of the active formation of verbal-logical thinking through the use of speech as a means of setting and solving intellectual problems.
Stages of development of thinking. N.N. Poddyakov identified six stages of development of thinking from junior to senior preschool age. These steps are as follows.
1. The child is not yet able to act in his mind, but is already able to use his hands, manipulating things, to solve problems in a visually effective way.
2. In the process of solving a problem, the child has already included speech, but he uses it only to name objects with which he manipulates in a visually effective manner. Basically, the child still solves problems “with his hands and eyes,” although he can formulate the result of the practical action performed in verbal form.
3. The problem is solved figuratively through the manipulation of images of objects. Here the ways of performing actions aimed at solving the task are realized and can be verbally indicated. An elementary form of reasoning aloud arises, not yet separated from the performance of real practical action.
4. The child solves the problem according to a previously drawn up and internally presented plan. It is based on memory and experience accumulated in the process of previous attempts to solve similar problems.
5. The problem is solved internally (in the mind), followed by the implementation of the same task in a visually-effective manner in order to reinforce the answer found in the mind and then formulate it in words.
6. The solution to the problem is carried out only in the internal plan with the issuance of a ready-made verbal solution without subsequent recourse to practical actions with objects.
An important conclusion that was made by Poddyakov is that in children the stages passed in the development of mental actions do not completely disappear, but are transformed and replaced by more advanced ones. Children's intelligence at this age functions on the basis of the principle of consistency. It presents and, if necessary, simultaneously includes in the work all types and levels of thinking: visual-effective, visual-figurative and verbal-logical.
Conditions of mental activity. Despite the peculiar childish logic, preschoolers can reason correctly and solve quite complex problems. Correct answers can be obtained from them under certain conditions.
First of all, the child needs to have time to remember the task itself. In addition, he must imagine the conditions of the task, and for this he must understand them. Therefore, it is important to formulate the task in such a way that it is understandable to children. In one American study, 4-year-old children were shown toys - 3 cars and 4 garages. All the cars are in garages, but one garage remains empty. The child is asked: “Are all the cars in garages?” Children usually say that not everything. A small child believes that if there are 4 garages, then there must be 4 cars. From this he concludes: there is a fourth car, but it has disappeared somewhere. Consequently, the child misunderstood the task assigned to him.
The best way to achieve the right decision is to organize the child’s actions so that he draws appropriate conclusions based on his own experience. A.V. Zaporozhets asked preschoolers about physical phenomena little known to them, in particular, why some objects float and others sink. Having received more or less fantastic answers, he suggested that they throw various things into the water (a small nail that seemed light, a large wooden block, etc.). Beforehand, the children guessed whether the object would float or not. After a sufficiently large number of trials, having checked their initial assumptions, the children began to reason consistently and logically. They developed the ability for the simplest forms of induction and deduction.
Thus, in favorable conditions, when a preschooler solves a problem that is understandable and interesting to him and at the same time observes facts that are understandable to him, he can reason logically correctly.
Development of verbal and logical thinking. A child’s verbal and logical thinking, which begins to develop at the end of preschool age, already presupposes the ability to operate with words and understand the logic of reasoning.
The development of verbal and logical thinking in children goes through at least two stages. At the first stage, the child learns the meanings of words related to objects and actions and learns to use them when solving problems. At the second stage, they learn a system of concepts denoting relationships and learn the rules of logic of reasoning. The latter usually refers to the beginning of schooling.
At preschool age, the process of mastering concepts is just beginning. A three- to four-year-old child can use concepts. However, he uses them differently than an adult, often without fully understanding their meaning. The child uses them as labels that replace an action or object.
Although the concepts remain at the everyday level, the content of the concept begins to more and more correspond to what most adults put into this concept. So, for example, a 5-year-old child already acquires such an abstract concept as “living being.” He easily and quickly classifies a crocodile as “living” (he needs only 0.4 seconds), but has a little difficulty classifying a tree (1.3 seconds) or a tulip (almost 2 seconds) into this category.
Children begin to use concepts better and operate with them in their minds. Let's say, it is much more difficult for a 3-year-old child to imagine the concepts of “day” and “hour” than for a 7-year-old. This is expressed, in particular, in the fact that he cannot estimate how long he will have to wait for his mother if she promised to return in an hour.
By the end of preschool age, a tendency toward generalization and the establishment of logical connections appears. The emergence of a generalization is important for the further development of intelligence, despite the fact that children often make unlawful generalizations, focusing on bright external signs (a small object means light, a large object means heavy, etc.).
Question 40. Development of cognitive processes in preschool age.
1. Sensory development: A child’s knowledge of the world around him begins with “living contemplation”, with sensory processes - sensations, perceptions, ideas. Their development in a child creates the necessary prerequisites for the emergence of more complex cognitive processes (memory, imagination, thinking). The formation of many abilities (for example, musical, visual) is also associated with the development of sensations and perception.
In early and preschool childhood, sensory processes develop especially actively. This is facilitated by the child’s assimilation of sensory standards as a system of measurements. Only with the help of us, adults, does he master and begin to independently use sensory standards of colors (red, blue, yellow, green, etc.), the pitch scale of musical sounds (do, re, mi...), geometric shapes, etc. Development Sensory skills during this period are largely determined by the formation in children of generalized methods of examining objects. It is important to teach the child perceptual actions, the ability to examine objects, feel them, listen, etc.
2. Artistic perception: In the development of artistic perception, children go through several stages, but the rudiments of it appear already in preschool age. The child does not immediately perceive works of art as such: at the first stages of development, the child’s effective, utilitarian attitude towards him is characteristic (he touches, feels the image in the picture, strokes, tries to lick, etc.).
The perception of a work of art presupposes the child’s ability to recognize and understand what is depicted. Don’t be surprised if your child, when looking at one picture, is able to penetrate the meaning of what is depicted, interpret it, in another picture - perceive the general and details, give a description, and when perceiving the third - just list the objects depicted. The level of perception is largely determined by how familiar and understandable the depicted events and objects are to the child: the more accessible and closer to the child’s experience the plot and content of the picture, the higher the level he perceives it.
3. Attention: A child’s success in mastering activities largely depends on the concentration and direction of the psyche, on attention. At a very early stage, attention appears in connection with the orienting reflex, which I.P. Pavlov aptly called “What is it?” The first indicative reactions in a child are caused by stimuli related to nutrition. Parents can detect the manifestation of visual concentration already on the 10-12th day of the child’s life. At the end of the 3rd week, the child’s attention is attracted to loud sounds and bright objects. In infancy and early childhood, the child’s attention is involuntary, arises without a predetermined goal, without volitional effort, and is determined by bright, powerful stimuli. Throughout the entire 1st year of life (and later), the most powerful irritant for a child, capable of arousing and maintaining his attention, is an adult.
A preschool child's mastery of new types of activities (play, art, work, study) steadily increases the demand for his attention. A new type of attention arises in activity - voluntary, purely human. The formation of voluntary attention begins with the fact that an adult, using a word or a pointing gesture, attracts the child’s attention to certain aspects of the activity. In the future, the baby himself begins to use these means to organize his attention. Direction and concentration of attention in this case depend not so much on the characteristics of the objects, but on the set goal and the use of volitional efforts. Therefore, this type of attention is also called volitional. Its formation is closely related to the development of the child’s speech. By the end of preschool age, the child masters some methods of rationally organizing his attention (self-instruction, preliminary grouping of material, etc.).
4.Memory: A child’s memory (memorization, preservation and subsequent recognition and reproduction of what happened) at an early age is predominantly involuntary, unintentional in nature and at the initial stage is included in the processes of sensation and perception (or is closely related to them). The quality of involuntary memorization largely depends on the material itself (it is easier for a child to remember things that are visual, concrete, and close to his life experience). It is also very important how actively the child acts with this material. He remembers objects (toys, pictures) better if he is asked to touch them, play with them, and place them in certain places. Speech is of great importance, since it significantly changes perception and memorization.
A child's memory is selective. The child quickly and for a long time remembers what is interesting to him, what is connected with his emotional experiences. In preschoolers, you can notice the manifestation of different types of memory. However, at this age, motor, figurative, and emotional memory is most developed, and verbal memory is weaker. Already in the preschool years, a transition occurs from involuntary memorization and recollection to intentional. Children remember much better what they need in the work process and play; It is much more difficult for them to voluntarily memorize something that is not associated with a motive that is important to them.
5. Imagination: The beginnings of imagination can be observed already at the end of early childhood: the child begins to supplement and replace real objects with imaginary actions. However, the imagination of a preschooler is still poorly developed and is of a passive, recreating nature, arising without a consciously set goal. Significant changes in the development of imagination occur in preschool age. Along with the development of involuntary imagination, a qualitatively new type of imagination appears - voluntary imagination, which is associated with the emergence of new, more complex types of activity in the child, with changes in the content and forms of his communication with others, primarily with adults.
External support plays an important role in the development of imagination. In the first stages of its inception, imagination is practically inseparable from real actions with the game material it perceives. The very process of a child’s imagination in role-playing play is determined by the nature of the toys and attributes. What images your child will be embodied in largely depends on what toys you bought him. Here he has a toy steering wheel in his hands - and the baby becomes a driver; put on a sailor's cap made of paper - and he is already a sailor; picked up a tube - and he is now a doctor listening to a patient. In older preschoolers, the imagination can already find support in objects that are not similar to those being replaced. The game is especially easy for older preschoolers to develop when they can use natural materials (pine cones, pebbles, leaves, sticks, planks).
6. Thinking: Thinking is an indirect and generalized reflection of reality, the highest level of human knowledge. What are its characteristics in childhood? During the preschool years, the child’s horizons expand significantly and the amount of information he assimilates increases. However, profound changes in a child’s thinking are not limited to changes in its content; The preschooler begins to have a different attitude towards an intellectual task; new forms of thinking appear in him.
The development of children's thinking and the child's intellectual life, of course, do not begin with solving theoretical problems. In early and early preschool age, thinking is woven into the practical, playful activities of the child. With its help, he cognizes the surrounding reality and forms the simplest generalizations. Genetically, the earliest form of thinking is visual-effective thinking. A child disassembles and assembles a pyramid. It would seem like a simple task. But this is the beginning of effective analysis and synthesis. The baby jumps, trying to get a bright toy on the closet. “You better sit down and think about how to get it,” the mother advises. “You don’t have to think, you have to get it!” he replies with conviction.
Adolescence is a very difficult stage of mental development; when characterizing it, a number of circumstances should be kept in mind. On the one hand, in terms of the level and characteristics of their mental development, adolescents have not yet completely emerged from childhood, on the other hand, they are already on the threshold of adulthood, their behavior really expresses their focus on adult forms of relationships and relationships.
An important mental new development of adolescence is the development of voluntariness of all mental processes, caused primarily by new, higher demands on them from educational activities. A teenager is already capable of independently organizing his attention, memory, thinking, imagination, and to a certain extent regulating his own emotional and volitional processes, and the like.
Attention. A teenager’s attention develops in connection with the formation of his skills to study and work, simultaneously becoming one of their components. The ability to consciously direct attention to certain objects is developed, focus on them for a long time, overcome distractions, switch attention to new tasks and distribute it, that is, higher voluntary forms of attention are formed. Such changes are associated with the general mental development of the child, in particular with the development of his thinking.
The volume of attention, its concentration and stability are growing. At the same time, it is still difficult for adolescents to manage attention in conditions of increased demands on themselves, which is due to a certain impulsiveness inherent in age.
The child’s ability to focus on objects given not only visually, but also mentally, in thoughts, increases.
The ability to distribute and switch attention is improved. Attention becomes more controlled, elements of self-control and self-regulation grow.
The attention of adolescents is characterized not only by the fact that its volume and stability are growing. but also specific selectivity.
The development of attention at this age is directly related to the formation of perseverance, and its growing volitionality is a direct manifestation of the volitional activity of a teenager.
Sensation and perception. The child's sensations and perceptions develop and function in an organic relationship. Improving the sensitivity of sensations is reflected in the completeness and detail of perception. Sensation becomes subtler and more differentiated, and perception becomes more meaningful. All this leads to the transformation of the processes of sensation and perception into purposeful sensory and perceptual actions.
Improving perception at this age is associated both with the development of the ability to use one’s senses better and more productively, and with the formation of the ability for a more complex analysis and synthesis of objects that are perceived, aimed primarily at clarifying the internal properties of these latter. Intellectualization of perception processes is a necessary condition for the successful assimilation of any educational material.
In the perceptual activity of a teenager, self-regulation occupies an increasingly important place and is closely related to motivation.
Perception is increasingly beginning to be characterized by planning and consistency. Observations become systematic, including mental operations of comparison, comparison, generalization and classification of objects that are perceived.
Memory. The volume of memory increases significantly, due not only to better memorization of the material, but also to its logical comprehension. The memory of adolescents, like their attention, gradually acquires the character of an organized, regulated and controlled process. Semantic logical memory is quickly formed.
It is at this age that memory develops in the direction of intellectualization. The number of schoolchildren who use indirect memorization techniques is growing. The number of such techniques is increasing, and their use is becoming more conscious, voluntary and purposeful. Note that there is a direct relationship between the use of such techniques and the level of productivity in memorizing and reproducing material.
Thinking. Changes in the intellectual sphere are expressed primarily in the development of the ability for abstract thinking, in changing the relationship between specifically figurative and abstract thinking in favor of the latter, in the formation of conceptual thinking. Such thinking (theoretical, reflective) is characteristic primarily of adolescence, but begins to develop already in younger teenagers.
Thinking acquires the ability to make hypothetical-deductive judgments (i.e., the ability to build logical reasoning based on put forward hypotheses). The ability to perform mental experiments, to solve problems mentally based on certain assumptions, and the like develops. The ability to operate with hypotheses when solving intellectual problems is the most important achievement of adolescents in the analysis of reality.
The specificity of this level of thinking is that its subject is not only the solution of external problems, but also the process of thinking itself, that is, it becomes reflexive.
An important feature of this age is the formation of active, independent, creative thinking.
Imagination. Progressive changes also occur in the teenager’s imagination. Thus, the content of its images expands, since the imagination is involved in creating images of objects that are not directly perceived, in the processes of understanding works of art, technical drawings, descriptions of historical events, in the transition of thought from the concrete to the abstract, in various types of creative activity, etc. . . On the other hand, it is precisely because of this that opportunities for the development of imagination are created.
The ways of forming images of the imagination are expanding, the leading among which is speech, especially internal speech. Representation processes become arbitrary, gradually turning into special imaginative actions aimed at constructing images of objects, situations, structures, etc. that have not yet been perceived by the subject. These actions become characteristic of both creative and reproductive imagination.
Adolescents’ demands for the formation of their imagination are growing. An important form of imagination is the dream, which creates images of the desired future.
Speeches. The mental development of a teenager is inextricably linked with the further development of the speech process and occurs as a result of mastering their native language. its lexical, grammatical, phonetic capabilities. Speech develops both as a means of communication with other people, and as a way of acquiring knowledge, and as a tool for creating and a means of expressing emotional states and volitional regulation of behavior, and as an object of study.
The main thing at this age is to improve speech as a means of communication. Interest in mastering the means of expressive language is increasing, since many teenagers see their intellectual strength in mastering external broadcasting. Sensitivity to the artistic word develops, and a desire to write poetry often arises.
Speech actions become more controlled. The number of unnecessary insertions (“well”, “here”, “means”, etc.) is reduced.
Performing a regulatory function in the lives of adolescents, speech becomes a form of existence for their individual self-awareness.
The vocabulary is enriched, experience in the active use of various language categories is accumulated, and the grammatical structure of speech is complicated.
Speech becomes contextual, less and less related to a specific situation, although elements of situationality are not preserved.
In connection with the increase in the general level of mental development, the written speech of adolescents also improves, approaching the literary language, and the ability to adequately express abstract thoughts is formed.
Educational activity of a teenager. Let us note that the basis of the social situation of the development of modern adolescents is determined despite the fact that they are schoolchildren. The main social requirement that is put forward to adolescents in the context of modern culture is to master a certain amount of knowledge, skills and abilities necessary to enter the life of society. This requirement, combined with the general cultural tradition of attitudes towards education, makes the problem of learning and knowledge very important in adolescence.
Together with that teachings is undergoing significant substantive and organizational changes due to the growing independence of adolescents. Thus, in the process of studying the fundamentals of science, adolescents move from empirical generalizations to theoretical concepts (V. Davydov).
Complications of the content side of knowledge require students to have perfect ways of obtaining it. The level of abstraction and generalization is growing, systems of direct and inverse logical operations, reflections and inferences are being formed, which become more conscious, reasonable and logically more perfect.
The ratio of external and internal actions changes in favor of the latter. There is a transition of external actions to the internal, mental plane, mental actions are formed, acting as components of the ability to learn.
Adolescence is a period of transition from childhood to adulthood, awareness of oneself as an adult, the emergence of the desire to be and be considered an adult, reorientation from the values characteristic of children to the values of the adult world.
The emergence of a sense of adulthood as a specific new formation of self-awareness is the structural center of a teenager’s personality, the quality that reflects a new life position in relation to oneself, people and the world as a whole. It is this that determines the direction and content of a teenager’s activity, his new aspirations, desires, experiences and emotional reactions.
The difficulty lies in the fact that teenagers, striving for recognition of their own adulthood from others, do not yet feel like (let alone yet are) adults fully, truly. However, it is precisely this feeling that is new, progressive in the individual, will definitely develop, and it is on this that one should rely in pedagogical practice.
Fundamental changes in the personality structure of a teenager predetermine his special sensitivity to the assimilation of norms, values and modes of behavior inherent in the adult world. In essence, we are talking about a reorientation from the norms and values of the child’s world to others, adults, about the development of personal formations that play a special and decisive role in the child’s mastery of the social situation of an adult (D.I. Feldshtein).
The adolescent’s growing desire to be independent is determined by the entire course of mental development, acquired life experience and changes in the body caused by its maturation. At the same time, adolescents are in dire need of benevolent and tactful support from adults, which helps to fulfill their desire for independence.
The manifestations of the desire for independence in younger and older adolescents are noticeably different. Thus, in the behavior of the former, childish traits still predominate; they are primarily interested in the external side of the lives of adults, the impression that their actions have on others. However, the actions themselves are often impulsive and uncontrollable.
Younger teenagers are not yet sufficiently aware of their own actions, do not strive for introspection, and therefore often do not admit obvious guilt, trying to justify something. The problem is that it is extremely difficult for them to publicly admit their guilt, since this is tantamount to destroying the foundations of their own personality. At the same time, they usually understand and deeply experience the situation.
The attitude of older teenagers towards their actions is much more conscious. They are already prone to introspection, although they are not always able to cope with it; they are already interested not only in the external side of the lives of adults, but also in their inner world and spiritual qualities.
Specific features of self-awareness develop, which are manifested in the teenager’s self-esteem, in his assessment of the effectiveness of various types of his activities and his relationships with adults and peers. The mechanism for developing self-awareness is reflection.
Self-esteem at this age acquires no less importance than the assessments of adults, turning into the most important motive for behavior. The teenager’s predominant orientation towards self-esteem is associated primarily with his desire for autonomy and independence, with self-respect, and being demanding of himself (E.I. Savonko).
Already from the sixth grade, personal and interpersonal reflection develops intensively; adolescents begin to see the reasons for their conflicts or, conversely, success in communicating with friends in the characteristics of their own personality (N.I. Gutkina).
The balance of positive and negative self-esteem characteristic of a primary school student changes to a sharp dissatisfaction with oneself, which extends both to educational activities and to the entire system of relationships with others. We can talk about a kind of crisis of self-esteem, more inherent in boys than girls.
There is an interest in oneself and in other people, a desire to understand the characteristics of a person and his relationships with other people, the motives of his actions and experiences. A pronounced attitude is to compare oneself with others. This is especially true for actions, because it is in them that a person’s attitude towards something or someone is expressed.
A teenager’s thoughts about himself and his life are not abstract, as is typical for early youth, but relate primarily to what happens to him, to other people, his relationships with them, life plans, and the like.
The teenager evaluates his actions, trying to comprehend their consequences in the future. He tries to understand his characteristics, wants to know his own shortcomings, which is due to the need to properly build relationships with adults and peers, to be on top of the requirements of both other people and his own.
The latter leads to the teenager’s dominant orientation towards the positive in another person (more precisely, to the fact that he considers this to be the case), and a readiness to follow her example. Orientation towards certain models largely determines the content of the new system of life values and the general direction in the formation of a teenager’s personality.
Thus, external signs of adulthood can become attractive at this age, in which, first of all, the characteristic signs and advantages of this status are seen (smoking, drinking, imitating adult fashion in clothing, cosmetics, forms of recreation, flirting, etc.). For teenagers, mastering them is often identified with asserting and demonstrating their own adulthood in an easy way - through imitation.
Teenagers’ ideas about themselves gradually expand and deepen, and their independence of judgment on this matter increases. However, teenagers still evaluate other people more fully and correctly than they evaluate themselves. This is especially true for those with whom they have close relationships.
Teenagers are open to communication with both peers and adults; their isolation is due to the feeling that they are not understood, the experience of injustice or disrespect for themselves.
At this age, the dependence on what they say about you and how they treat you is especially pronounced. Teenagers are trying to discover the best side of themselves, to earn positive feedback from others, especially those whose opinions are important to them. The fear of showing one's ignorance or inability can be the cause of excessive shyness and self-doubt, which can become painful. All this is often masked by feigned swagger, bravado and rudeness to hide inner insecurities.
This age is characterized by emotional instability and impulsive behavior. Teenagers often do things first and then think about what they have done, although they are aware that they should have done the opposite.
Strong-willed qualities acquire noticeable development - perseverance, perseverance in achieving goals, the ability to overcome obstacles and difficulties, and the like.
Adolescents, unlike younger schoolchildren, are capable not only of individual volitional actions, but also of volitional activity. They are already able to set a goal for themselves and plan to achieve it.
The lack of will lies primarily in the fact that, while showing great persistence in one type of activity, adolescents may not show it in other types.
L. Vygotsky also drew attention to the fact that in the case of teenagers, most often it is not weakness of will, but weakness of goals, when teenagers simply do not have the reason to overcome various obstacles, as well as their own laziness. The emergence of a meaningful goal also solves the problems of freedom.
The emotional sphere is rapidly developing. A teenager's emotional states may suddenly change, with sharp transitions from excessive mobility to calmness, from elation to indifference.
The increased emotionality of adolescents is due to puberty and imbalance in the processes of excitation and inhibition, with a clear advantage of the former; their increased excitability explains the tendency to affect - sudden manifestations of joy, anger, dissatisfaction and the like.
Experiences become increasingly stable. In adolescence, feelings further develop as generalized and relatively stable experiences (intellectual, moral, aesthetic, etc.). Feelings become longer lasting and more stable, which leads to an increase in their influence on all aspects of adolescents’ lives.
Moral feelings are intensively formed, thanks to which the norms of behavior acquired by children can become an effective impetus for action. In adolescence, a gradual transition occurs from the situational experience of the beauty of natural phenomena, musical and literary works, works of painting to stable aesthetic feelings, which are the result of systematic education.
There is every reason to believe that this is due not so much to age-related characteristics as to the result of internalization, the assimilation by children of those ideas and assessments that other people, primarily parents and teachers, give them (N.M. Tolstykh). And the statements of adults about the positive aspects of teenagers, as a rule, are very stingy, have an extremely abstract nature and do not change with age; judgments about shortcomings, on the contrary, are extremely specific, varied, and change with age. It is they who have the greatest influence on the process of personal self-determination of adolescents, although psychology has shown how important it is to rely on the positive aspects of one’s “I” in the formation of personal self-identity. The experiences of adolescents associated with self-realization, with active work on the development of their own personality, as a rule, are positive.
When characterizing the interests of a teenager, we note first of all that, compared with younger school age, they acquire greater purposefulness, activity and depth. On the other hand, interests still largely retain their variability and only in older adolescents acquire a certain stability. It is at this age that the formation of the dominant orientation of cognitive and other interests of the individual begins.
It is often possible to observe the definition of professional intentions, which is accompanied by serious efforts to prepare oneself for the desired future. The more definite and stable a teenager’s professional intentions are, the more differentiated his attitude towards academic subjects becomes (the latter are clearly distinguished as “necessary” and “unnecessary”). The independent activity of such adolescents is increasingly acquiring the character of self-education in a certain direction and with a clear goal - to master the knowledge necessary for future professional activity.
Adolescence is a very important period in the development of personal ideals. If for younger adolescents such ideals are images of specific people, then for older adolescents they acquire a synthetic character, based on a generalization of ideas about people whose qualities appeal to them. Ideals become role models, rules by which teenagers try to act.
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INTRODUCTION
mental imagination thinking intelligence
The mental processes by which images of the environment are formed, as well as images of the organism itself and its internal environment, are called cognitive mental processes.
Mental processes: perception, attention, imagination, memory, thinking, speech - act as the most important components of any activity. In order to satisfy his needs, communicate, play, study and work, a person must perceive the world, pay attention to certain moments or components of activity, imagine what he needs to do, remember, think, and make judgments. Consequently, without the participation of mental processes, human activity is impossible; they act as its integral internal moments.
Occurring simultaneously, these processes interact with each other so harmoniously and so imperceptibly for us that at any given moment we perceive and understand the world not as a jumble of colors, shades, shapes, sounds, smells that need to be understood in order to establish what’s what , and not as a picture depicted on some screen, but precisely as a world outside of us, filled with light, sounds, smells, objects, inhabited by people, having a perspective and clearly perceived, as well as hidden, not perceived at the moment plan. Despite the fact that with the help of our senses at any given moment we perceive only part of the space, we know that the space of the world around us is holistic and continuous. Thanks to these processes, the world also appears before us in its temporal integrity and continuity, as something that develops and exists not only in the present, but also has a past and a future, as a result of which its temporal boundaries expand indefinitely.
1. SENSATION AND PERCEPTION
In knowledge, it is customary to distinguish two levels: sensory and rational. The first level includes cognition through the senses. In the process of sensory cognition, a person develops an image, a picture of the surrounding world in its immediate reality and diversity. Sensory cognition is represented by sensations and perceptions. In rational knowledge, a person goes beyond the limits of sensory perception, reveals the essential properties, connections and relationships between objects of the surrounding world. Rational knowledge of the surrounding world is carried out thanks to thinking, memory and imagination.
Sensations are the simplest form of mental activity. They arise as a reflex reaction of the nervous system to a particular stimulus. The physiological basis of sensation is a nervous process that occurs when a stimulus acts on an analyzer adequate to it. The analyzer consists of three parts:
Peripheral section (receptor), transforming energy into a nervous process;
Conducting nerve pathways connecting the peripheral parts of the analyzer with its center: afferent (directed to the center) and efferent (going to the periphery);
The subcortical and cortical sections of the analyzer, where the processing of nerve impulses coming from the peripheral sections occurs.
The cells of the peripheral parts of the analyzer correspond to certain areas of cortical cells. Numerous experiments make it possible to clearly establish the localization in the cortex of certain types of sensitivity. The visual analyzer is represented mainly in the occipital zones of the cortex, the auditory one - in the temporal zones, tactile-motor sensitivity is localized in the posterior central gyrus, etc.
For sensation to occur, the entire analyzer must operate. The impact of an irritant on the receptor causes irritation. The beginning of this irritation is expressed in the transformation of external energy into a nervous process, which is produced by the receptor. From the receptor, this process reaches the cortical part of the analyzer along afferent pathways, as a result of which the body’s response to irritation occurs - a person feels light, sound or other qualities of the stimulus. At the same time, the influence of the external or internal environment on the peripheral part of the analyzer causes a response that is transmitted along the efferent pathways and leads to the pupil dilating or contracting, the gaze being directed to the object, the hand withdrawing from the hot object, etc. The entire path described is called the reflex hoof. The interconnection of the elements of the reflex ring creates the basis for the orientation of a complex organism in the surrounding world and ensures the activity of the organism in different conditions of its existence.
Sensations are a form of reflection of adequate stimuli. For example, visual sensations arise when exposed to electromagnetic waves with a length ranging from 380 to 780 millimicrons, auditory sensations - when exposed to mechanical vibrations with a frequency of 16 to 20,000 Hz, volume from 16-18 to 120 decibels, tactile sensations are caused by the action of mechanical stimuli on the surface of the skin, vibrations are generated by the vibration of objects. Other sensations (temperature, olfactory, taste) also have their own specific stimuli. Closely related to the adequacy of the stimulus is the limitation of sensations, due to the structural features of the sense organs. The human ear cannot detect ultrasound, although some animals, such as dolphins, have this ability. Human eyes are sensitive to only a small part of the spectrum. A significant part of physical influences that do not have vital significance are not perceived by us. To perceive radiation and some other influences found on Earth in their pure form and in quantities that threaten human life, we simply do not have sense organs.
The spatial localization of the stimulus also determines the nature of the sensations. Spatial analysis, carried out by distant receptors, provides information about the localization of the stimulus in space. Contact sensations correspond to the part of the body that is affected by the stimulus. At the same time, the localization of pain sensations can be more diffuse and less accurate than tactile ones.
The main properties of perception as a perceptual activity are its objectivity, integrity, structure, constancy, selectivity and meaningfulness.
The objectivity of perception is manifested in the attribution of images of perception to certain objects or phenomena of objective reality. Objectivity as a quality of perception plays an important role in the regulation of behavior. We define objects not by their appearance, but by how we use them in practice.
The integrity of perception lies in the fact that images of perception are holistic, complete, objectively shaped structures.
Thanks to the structure of perception, objects and phenomena of the surrounding world appear before us in the totality of their stable connections and relationships. For example, a certain melody, played on different instruments and in different keys, is perceived by the subject as one and the same, and stands out to him as an integral structure.
Constancy - ensures the relative constancy of the perception of the shape, size and color of an object, regardless of changes in its conditions. For example, the image of an object (including on the retina) increases when the distance to it decreases, and vice versa. However, the perceived size of the object remains unchanged. People who constantly live in a dense forest are distinguished by the fact that they have never seen objects at a great distance. When these people were shown objects that were at a great distance from them, they perceived these objects not as distant, but as small. Similar disturbances were observed among residents of the plains when they looked down from the height of a multi-story building: all objects seemed small or toy-like to them. At the same time, high-rise builders see objects below without distortion of size. These examples convincingly prove that constancy of perception is not an innate, but an acquired property. The actual source of constancy of perception is the active actions of the perceptual system. From the diverse and variable flow of movements of the receptor apparatus and response sensations, the subject identifies a relatively constant, invariant structure of the perceived object. Repeated perception of the same objects under different conditions ensures the stability of the perceptual image relative to these changing conditions. The constancy of perception ensures the relative stability of the surrounding world, reflecting the unity of the object and the conditions of its existence.
Selectivity of perception consists in the preferential selection of some objects over others, due to the characteristics of the subject of perception: his experience, needs, motives, etc. At any given moment, a person identifies only some objects from the countless objects and phenomena surrounding him.
The meaningfulness of perception indicates its connection with thinking, with an understanding of the essence of objects. Despite the fact that perception arises as a result of the direct impact of an object on the senses, perceptual images always have a certain semantic meaning. To consciously perceive an object means to mentally name it, i.e. assign it to a certain category, summarize it in a word. Even when we see an unfamiliar object, we try to catch its similarity with familiar objects and classify it into a certain category.
Perception depends not only on irritation, but also on the perceiving subject himself. The dependence of perception on the content of a person’s mental life, on the characteristics of his personality is called apperception. Perception is an active process that uses information to formulate and test hypotheses. The nature of the hypotheses is determined by the content of the individual’s past experience. The richer a person’s experience, the more knowledge he has, the brighter and richer his perception, the more he sees and hears.
The content of perception is also determined by the task set and the motives of the activity. For example, when listening to a piece of music performed by an orchestra, we perceive the music as a whole, without highlighting the sound of individual instruments. Only by setting the goal to highlight the sound of an instrument can this be done. An essential fact influencing the content of perception is the attitude of the subject, i.e. willingness to perceive something in a certain way. In addition, the process and content of perception are influenced by emotions.
Depending on which analyzer is the leading one, visual, auditory, tactile, gustatory and olfactory perception are distinguished. The perception of the surrounding world, as a rule, is complex: it is the result of the joint activity of various senses. Depending on the object of perception, the perception of space, movement and time is distinguished.
Perception is often classified according to the degree to which consciousness is directed and focused on a particular object. In this case, we can distinguish intentional (voluntary) and unintentional (involuntary) perception. Intentional perception is, at its core, observation. The success of observation largely depends on prior knowledge about the observed object. Purposeful development of observation skills is an indispensable condition for the professional training of many specialists; it also forms an important personality quality - observation.
Thus, sensation and perception are integral elements of cognitive psychological processes.
2. IMAGINATION AND CREATIVITY
Imagination plays an essential role in every creative process. Its significance is especially great in artistic creativity. Every work of art worthy of this name has an ideological content, but unlike a scientific treatise, it expresses it in a concrete figurative form. If an artist is forced to derive the idea of his work in abstract formulas, so that the ideological content of the work of art appears along with its images, without receiving adequate and sufficiently vivid expression within them, his work loses its artistry. The visual and figurative content of a work of art and only this should be the bearer of its ideological content. The essence of artistic imagination lies, first of all, in being able to create new images that can be a plastic carrier of ideological content. The special power of artistic imagination lies in creating an imaginary new situation not by violating, but subject to preserving the basic requirements of life reality.
The idea that the more bizarre and outlandish a work is, the greater the power of imagination it testifies to is fundamentally erroneous. Leo Tolstoy's imagination is no weaker than Edgar Allan Poe's imagination. This is just another imagination. In order to create new images and paint a broad picture on a large canvas, maximally observing the conditions of objective reality, special originality, plasticity and creative independence of the imagination are needed. The more realistic a work of art is, the more strictly it adheres to the reality of life, the more powerful the imagination must be in order to make the visual-figurative content with which the artist operates a plastic expression of his artistic intent.
Observance of life reality does not mean, of course, photographic reproduction or copying of what is directly perceived. The immediately given, as it is usually perceived in everyday experience, is for the most part accidental; it does not always highlight the characteristic, essential content that determines the individual face of a person, event, or phenomenon. A true artist not only has the technique necessary to depict what he sees, but he also sees differently than an artistically insensitive person. And the task of a work of art is to show others what the artist sees, with such plasticity that others see it too. Thus, the portrait of Anna Karenina, painted by a real artist, for the first time revealed to Vronsky that very sweet expression of hers, which, as it seemed to Vronsky after he saw the portrait, he always knew and loved in her, although in fact it was only thanks to the portrait that he really saw it for the first time .
There is no better way to express what the essence of artistic creativity is. Even in a portrait, the artist does not photograph or reproduce, but transforms what is perceived. The essence of this transformation is that it is not removed, but approaches reality, that it, as it were, removes random layers and external covers from it. As a result, its main pattern is revealed more deeply and accurately. The product of such imagination often gives an essentially truer, deeper, more adequate picture or image of reality than a photographic reproduction of the directly given is able to do.
An image, internally transformed by the idea of a work of art so that in all its vital reality it turns out to be a plastic expression of a certain ideological content, is the highest product of creative artistic imagination. A powerful creative imagination is recognized not so much by what a person can invent, regardless of the real requirements of reality and the ideal requirements of artistic design, but rather by how he is able to transform the reality of everyday perception, burdened with random, devoid of expressiveness strokes, in accordance with the requirements reality and artistic intent. The imagination creates in visual images, so similar and at the same time different from our perceptions, faded and erased in everyday life, a miraculously revived, transformed and yet seemingly more authentic world than that given to us in everyday perception.
Imagination in artistic creativity also allows, of course, a significant departure from reality, a more or less significant deviation from it. Artistic creativity is not only expressed in a portrait; it includes both a fairy tale and a fantasy story. In a fairy tale, in a fantasy story, deviations from reality can be very large. But both in a fairy tale and in a fantastic story itself, deviations from reality must be objectively motivated by a plan, an idea, which is embodied in images. And the more significant these deviations from reality are, the more objectively motivated they should be. In a work of art, creative imagination resorts to fantasy, to deviations from certain aspects of reality in order to give figurative clarity to reality, the main idea or idea that indirectly reflects some essential aspect of reality.
Imagination, in other forms, is no less necessary in scientific creativity.
Another great English chemist of the 18th century. J. Priestley, who discovered oxygen, argued that truly great discoveries, which “a rational, slow and cowardly mind would never have thought of,” can only be made by scientists who “give full play to their imagination.” T. Ribot was even inclined to assert that if we “sum up the amount of imagination expended and embodied, on the one hand, in the field of artistic creativity, and on the other, in technical and mechanical inventions, then we will find that the second is significantly greater than the first.” .
Lenin also highly regarded the role of imagination in scientific creativity. He wrote: “... it is absurd to deny the role of fantasy in the most rigorous science.” “They think in vain,” notes V.I. in another place - that it (fantasy - S.R.) is needed only by the poet. This is a stupid prejudice. Even in mathematics it is needed, even the discovery of differential and integral calculus would be impossible without imagination. Fantasy is a quality of the greatest value...”
Participating together with thinking in the process of scientific creativity, imagination performs a specific function in it, different from the one that thinking performs in it. The specific role of imagination is that it transforms the figurative, visual content of the problem and thereby contributes to its resolution. And only since creativity, the discovery of something new, occurs through the transformation of visual-figurative content, can it be attributed to the imagination. In a real thought process, a visual image also participates in unity with the concept to one degree or another. But the figurative content of perception and the representation of memory, which reproduces this content, sometimes do not provide sufficient reference points for resolving the problem facing thinking. Sometimes it is necessary to transform visual content in order to advance the resolution of a problem; then the imagination comes into its own.
This role of imagination appears very clearly in experimental research. The experimenter, when planning an experiment, must, based on his theoretical hypotheses and taking into account the already established laws of a given scientific field, imagine, imagine such a situation that is not directly given, which, satisfying all these conditions, would make it possible to test the original hypothesis. This construction of a specific experimental situation in the imagination of the experimenter, preceding the experiment, is an act of imagination operating in scientific research.
The imagination, necessary for the transformation of reality and creative activity, was formed in the process of this creative activity. The development of imagination occurred as more and more perfect products of imagination were created. In the process of creating poetry, fine art, music and their development, new, higher and more perfect forms of image were formed and developed. In the great works of folk art, in epics, sagas, in folk epics, in the works of poets and artists - in the “Iliad” and “Odyssey”, in the “Song of Roland”, “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” - imagination not only manifested itself, but and was formed. The creation of great works of art, which taught people to see the world in a new way, opened up a new field for the activity of the imagination.
Not to a lesser extent, but only in other forms, imagination is formed in the process of scientific creativity. The infinity revealed by science in the big and small, in worlds and atoms, in the innumerable variety of concrete forms and their unity, in continuous movement and change, provides for the development of imagination in its own way no less than the richest imagination of an artist can provide.
Finally, imagination is formed in practical activity - especially in revolutionary eras, when the practical activity of people breaks established norms and routine ideas, revolutionizing the world.
3. THINKING AND INTELLIGENCE
To the term “thinking” we can associate in our ordinary language the word “deliberation” or (less normatively, but perhaps more accurately) “thinking.” The word “mind” expresses a property, an ability; thinking is a process. When solving a problem, we think, and do not “get smart” - this is the sphere of the psychology of thinking, not intelligence. Thus, both terms express different aspects of the same phenomenon. An intelligent person is one who is capable of carrying out thinking processes. Intelligence is the ability to think. Thinking is a process in which intelligence is realized.
Thinking and intelligence have long been considered the most important and distinctive features of a person. It is not without reason that the term “homo sapiens” is used to define the type of modern man. A person who has lost his sight, hearing or the ability to move, of course, suffers a serious loss, but does not cease to be a person. After all, deaf Beethoven or blind Homer are considered by us as great personalities. The one who has lost his mind seems to us to be struck at the very essence of humanity.
The description of the various types and types of thinking is based on the premise that there is no thinking at all: thinking is heterogeneous and subject to detail. Different types of thinking are divided according to their functional purpose, development, structure, means used, and cognitive capabilities.
In psychology, the most common classification of types of thinking is: visual-actional, visual-figurative, verbal-logical. This classification is based on a genetic principle and reflects three successive levels of development of thinking. Each of these types of thinking is determined by two criteria. One of them (the first part of the names) is the specific form in which it is necessary to present the subject with a cognizable object or situation in order for them to be able to be successfully operated:
the object as such in its materiality and concreteness;
an object depicted in a picture, diagram, drawing;
an object described in one or another sign system.
Another criterion (the second part of the names) is the main ways in which a person experiences the world around him:
through practical action with an object;
using figurative representations;
based on logical concepts and other sign formations.
The main characteristic of visual-effective thinking is determined by the ability to observe real objects and learn the relationships between them in a real transformation of the situation. Practical cognitive objective actions are the basis of all later forms of thinking. With visual-figurative thinking, the situation is transformed in terms of image or representation. The subject operates with visual images of objects through their figurative representations. At the same time, the image of an object allows one to combine a set of heterogeneous practical operations into a holistic picture. Mastery of visual and figurative representations expands the scope of practical thinking.
At the level of verbal-logical thinking, a subject can, using logical concepts, cognize essential patterns and unobservable relationships of the reality under study. The development of verbal-logical thinking rebuilds and organizes the world of figurative ideas and practical actions.
The described types of thinking form the stages of development of thinking in phylogenesis and ontogenesis. They coexist in an adult and function in solving various problems. Therefore, they cannot be assessed in terms of greater or lesser value. Verbal-logical thinking cannot be the “ideal” of thinking in general, the end point of intellectual development.
Intelligence (from Latin intellectus - understanding, understanding, comprehension) in psychology is defined as the general ability to cognition and problem solving, which determines the success of any activity and underlies other abilities. Intelligence is not limited to thinking, although thinking abilities form the basis of intelligence. In general, intelligence is a system of all human cognitive abilities: sensation, perception, memory, representation, imagination and thinking. The concept of intelligence as a general mental ability is used as a generalization of behavioral characteristics associated with successful adaptation to new life challenges.
In 1937, the first version of his test for measuring intelligence was proposed by D. Wexler. He created a scale to measure intelligence not only for children, but also for adults. The Wechsler intellectual scale for children has been translated into Russian, adapted and widely used in our country. The Wechsler scale differed significantly from the Stanford-Binet test. The tasks that were offered to the subjects according to L. Theremin’s method were the same for all ages. The basis for the assessment was the number of correct answers given by the subject. This number was then compared with the average number of responses for subjects in that age group. This procedure greatly simplified the calculation of IQ. D. Wexler proposed a qualitative classification of levels of intelligence development, based on the frequency of occurrence of a certain IQ:
and below - mental defect (dementia);
79 - borderline level of development;
89 - reduced level of intelligence;
109 - average level of intelligence;
119 is a good norm;
129-high intelligence;
and above - very high intelligence.
Currently, interest in intelligence tests has weakened significantly, primarily due to the low predictive value of these methods: subjects with high scores on intelligence tests do not always achieve high achievements in life, and vice versa. In this regard, the term “good intelligence” even appeared in psychology, which is understood as intellectual abilities that are effectively implemented in a person’s real life and contribute to his high social achievements.
Today, despite attempts to identify new “elementary intellectual abilities,” researchers are generally inclined to believe that general intelligence exists as a universal mental ability. In connection with the successes in the development of cybernetics, systems theory, information theory, etc., there has been a tendency to understand intelligence as the cognitive activity of any complex systems capable of learning, purposeful processing of information and self-regulation. The results of psychogenetic studies indicate a high level of genetic determination of intelligence. Nonverbal intelligence is more trainable. The individual level of intellectual development is also determined by a number of environmental influences: the “intellectual climate” of the family, the order of birth of the child in the family, the profession of the parents, the breadth of social contacts in early childhood, etc.
CONCLUSION
Human life requires an active study of the objective laws of the surrounding reality. Understanding the world and building an image of this world are necessary for a full orientation in it, for a person to achieve his own goals. Knowledge of the surrounding world is included in all spheres of human activity and the main forms of its activity.
Sensation is a process of primary information processing, which is a reflection of the individual properties of objects and phenomena that arise when they directly impact the sense organs, as well as a reflection of the internal properties of the body. Sensation performs the function of orienting the subject in individual, most elementary properties of the objective world.
Perception (perception) is the reflection in the human mind of objects, phenomena, integral situations of the objective world with their direct impact on the senses. In contrast to sensations, in the processes of perception (of a situation, a person), a holistic image of an object is formed, which is called a perceptual image. The image of perception is not reduced to a simple sum of sensations, although it includes them in its composition.
Imagination plays an essential role in every creative process. Its significance is especially great in artistic creativity.
Participating together with thinking in the process of scientific creativity, imagination performs a specific function in it, different from the one that thinking performs in it. The specific role of imagination is that it transforms the figurative, visual content of the problem and thereby contributes to its resolution.
Imagination is formed in practical activity - especially in revolutionary eras, when the practical activity of people breaks established norms and routine ideas, revolutionizing the world.
Thinking and intelligence are similar terms. Their relationship becomes even clearer when translated into words from ordinary Russian. In this case, the word “mind” will correspond to intelligence. We say “smart person” to denote individual differences in intelligence. We can also say that the child’s mind develops with age - this conveys the problem of intellectual development.
Thus, both terms express different aspects of the same phenomenon. An intelligent person is one who is capable of carrying out thinking processes. Intelligence is the ability to think. Thinking is a process in which intelligence is realized.
LIST OF REFERENCES USED
1. Godefroy J. What is psychology? A textbook of general psychology with the basics of the physiology of higher nervous activity: in 2 volumes. T.1. / lane from fr. N.N. Alipov, per. from fr. A.V. Pegelau, trans. from fr. T.Ya. Estrina, ed. G.G. Arakelov. - M.: Mir, 1992. - 491 p.
2.Kotova I.B. General psychology: textbook for universities / I.B. Kotova, O.S. Kanarkevich. - M.: Dashkov and K", 2008. - 478 p.
3.Leontyev A.N. Lectures on general psychology: textbook for universities / A.N. Leontiev, ed. YES. Leontyev, E.E. Sokolova. - M.: Smysl, 2000. - 511 p.
4. Poddyakov A.N. Psychodiagnostics of intelligence: identification and suppression of abilities, identification and suppression of capable ones // Psychology. Journal of the Higher School of Economics. 2004. Volume 1. No. 4. pp. 75-80.
5. Starovoitenko E.B. Modern psychology: forms of intellectual life: textbook for universities / E.B. Starovoytenko. - M.: Academician. Project, 2001. - 539 p.
6.Ushakov D.V. Thinking // Cognitive psychology / Ed. V.N. Druzhinina, D.V. Ushakova. M.: Per Se, 2002, p. 171-194, 200-202, 204-224, 233-240.
7.Ushakov D.V. Thinking and intelligence // Psychology of the 21st century / Ed. V.N. Druzhinina. M.: Per Se, 2003, p. 291-353.
8.Ushakov D.V. Social intelligence as a type of intelligence // Social intelligence: theory, measurement, research / Ed. D.V. Lyusina, D.V. Ushakova. M.: Institute of Psychology RAS, 2004, pp. 11-28.
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