The difference is in the nature and peculiarities of the ways of social development. At a time when Thales looked at the stars in Greece, Tarquinius the Proud comes to power in Rome. The Roman policy is still being formed, there are still no laws of the XII tables, and Papirius, from whom the history of Roman law begins, has not even collected the laws of the kings. As Rome reaches its heyday, Greece, in turn, is in crisis. The campaigns of Alexander the Great turned the usual world order upside down; after his death, the Eastern Mediterranean and the Middle East become an arena for clashes between the Diadochi. Greece, as it were, is on the periphery of this new world, although these wars have also affected it. In the same period, at the beginning of the III century BC. The Academy is headed by Arcesilaus, who gravitates towards skepticism and believes that true judgment is impossible, but only probable. His successors seem to be insignificant, because nothing has survived from them. At the same time, a desire for luxury begins to flourish, which is explained by the crisis of the traditional social structure and the wealth that poured from the east. Rome in this period is still quite conservative, a person who meets three criteria is considered exemplary: a citizen - a farmer - a warrior. Even by the time of the conquest of Carthage and Corinth (146 BC), deliberate modesty will be honored. Illustrative examples are Aemilius Paulus, who took nothing from the booty obtained in the war against Perseus of Macedon, and Mummius Achaic, who, having conquered Corinth and brought many statues to Rome, did not take anything personally. However, already in the II century BC. there are people who are interested in Greek learning - this is Scipio the Elder and, to a greater extent, Scipio the Younger, who even gathered around him a learned circle. On the whole, there was little public approval of this interest in speculative pursuits; Cato was a prominent exponent of this view. His main treatise is Agriculture, and the philosophy is to be a vir bonus in the sense of a good host. When in the 1st century BC. However, since the Roman intellectual elite turned to philosophical studies, even a language problem arose: there were no abstract concepts, no language apparatus. This interestingly characterizes the Romans as more practical and concrete people. Philosophy has always remained a kind of occupation, a hobby. The exception is late, proper Roman stoicism, but this is not a strictly developed philosophical system, but for the most part reflections on ethical issues. Outstanding representatives are Seneca, Musonius Rufus (only fragments of his works have survived), Epictetus (Greek and freedman), Marcus Aurelius (wrote in Greek). It seems to me that a philosopher (again, rather a thinker of an ethical nature) to some extent can be called Tacitus, who tried to trace the dynamics of the development and decline of public morals through history (in principle, a tradition begun by Sallust). Finally, it is worth taking into account the crisis of ancient culture: by the time of the heyday of the Roman state (the turn of the eras), so many works had already been created that it was difficult to create something new due to the difficulties of covering the existing heritage. Therefore, compilations, epitomes, collections begin to appear. Vivid examples are Historia Naturalis of Pliny the Elder (an encyclopedia of natural sciences) and Noctes Atticae of Aulus Gellius (in fact, a notebook where the author wrote down everything interesting that he came across while reading).
1. Patricians.
2. Proletarians.
3. Plebeians.
9. Early, Ancient, Middle, New and Late kingdoms - this is the periodization of history:
1. Ancient Egypt;
2. Ancient Rome;
3. Ancient Greece;
4. Ancient Babylon.
10. The political system of Sparta is:
1. military-aristocratic republic;
2. democratic republic;
3. monarchy;
4. oligarchic republic.
11. The magistracy system in Rome was headed by:
1. praetors;
2. consuls;
3. aediles;
4. censors.
12. Feud is:
1. Hereditary land ownership transferred by a seigneur to a vassal for service;
2. Lifetime, non-inherited land ownership transferred by a seigneur to a vassal for service.
3. The owner of the land.
13. "Princely absolutism", which developed in the Holy Roman Empire of the German nation, in the 16th - 18th centuries:
1. Characterized by the political and territorial unity of the state; the prince is the head of the central apparatus of power;
2. Formed within the boundaries of individual princely possessions in the virtual absence of centralized imperial power;
3. It was an indicator of the high level of political and economic development of the empire.
Who was the head of state in the Arab Caliphate?
4. Supreme Mufti.
According to the French constitution of 1946, for how long was the president elected?
1. for 7 years
2. for 4 years
3. for 5 years
Option number 5
Task number 1
Solve problems:
1) A doctor treated a noble man and his slave for smallpox. The treatment was successful. Mushkenum paid the doctor 4 shekels of silver. The doctor filed a complaint with the court, in which he stated that he was not paid extra. Will the court grant the doctor's claim? Why?
2) Two bairums were at enmity for many years. Once one of them hit the pregnant daughter of the second with a stick. The woman had a miscarriage, her family filed a complaint with the court. The judge was about to pass judgment. What decision did he have to make? But at that moment he was informed that the unfortunate woman had died of grief. What will be the decision of the judge according to the laws of Hammurabi now?
3) Vaishya sued a kshatriya for giving gifts to his wife and flirting with her. What is the punishment for a kshatriya? How does the court according to the laws of Manu qualify his actions?
Task number 2
solve the test
1. Systematic method in relation to the science of the history of the state and law of foreign countries:
1. Requires consideration of historical and legal phenomena as elements of a certain system; functional characteristics of the elements of the structure, its analysis and synthesis.
2. Requires the use of statistical techniques in historical and legal research.
3. Requires the use of techniques and methods of sociological science in historical and legal research.
2. After the death of the ruler, the court over him was arranged in:
1. Ancient Babylon;
2. Ancient Rome;
3. Ancient Greece;
4. Ancient Egypt.
3. What was the title of royal judges in Ancient Egypt:
1. "priests of the goddess of truth";
2. "priests of the goddess of justice";
3. "priests of the god of truth";
4. "priests of the god of revenge."
4. Taboo is:
1. caution;
3. persuasion;
4. permission.
5. According to the laws of the Babylonian king Hammurabi, marriage was:
1. A written contract concluded between the future husband and the father of the bride.
2. Verbal agreement between the bride and groom, confirmed by the parents of the parties.
3. A written contract between the parents of the bride and groom.
4. Written permission from the king or vizier to conclude a marriage, without which the marriage was not considered valid.
6. The ancient Indian state in the Magadh-Maurian era is characterized by:
1. Autonomy of the Indian community with its subsistence economy.
2. Varnovo-caste system in once and for all a certain place of a person in it.
3. Equality of people before the law, regardless of varno-caste affiliation.
4. A high level of development of agriculture and production, which made it possible to provide the population with everything necessary outside of cultural and trade exchange.
7. According to the reform of the social structure carried out by the Roman king Servius Tullius in the middle of the 5th century BC:
1. The plebeians were granted political rights and the right to elect a people's tribune.
2. The entire free population of Rome was divided into six property categories and into hundreds - centuries. The division was based on the size of the land plot owned by a person.
3. Institutes of patronage and clientele were established.
8. According to the law of Lucius Valerius and Mark Horace in 449, the people's tribune received the right:
1. Dissolve the Senate.
2. To challenge the decision of any magistrate, except the dictator.
3. Declare war and make peace.
What were the names of the comitia (people's meetings), whose competence included: the adoption of laws, the election of the highest officials of the republic, the declaration of war, the consideration of complaints against sentences to death.
1. Centuriate.
2. Tribute.
3. Curiat.
4. These powers were the competence of the Senate.
10. The Roman family included:
1. Relatives by blood or by marriage.
2. Relatives by blood or due to marriage ties; freedmen, slaves, clients.
3. Relatives by blood or due to marriage ties; freedmen, slaves; clients were not part of the Roman family, since they were subjects of another group of relations: patronage and clientele.
11. The principle "the vassal of my vassal is not my vassal" meant:
1. The system of relations in a feudal society, characterized by the equality of all their participants;
2. The system of relations of subordination in feudal society, in which the feudal lords, who stood on the lower rungs of the feudal ladder, were not subordinate to the feudal lords, whose vassals were their immediate lords.
3. The system of relations of subordination in feudal society, in which the feudal lords, who stood on the lower rungs of the feudal ladder, were politically and economically dependent on the feudal lords, whose vassals were their immediate lords.
12. The code of customary laws of the Salic Franks, compiled by order of King Clovis at the end of the 5th century, was called:
1. "Salic Truth".
2. Burgunskaya Pravda.
3. "Ripuarian truth."
13. The head of state in medieval England was:
2. Emperor.
3. King.
Usually, the inhabitants of Ancient Rome associate with famous myths and ancient architecture. Heroic men in golden armor and on chariots, charming ladies in tunics and democratic emperors ate grapes in their lounge chairs. But the reality in Ancient Rome, as historians testify, was not so rosy and glamorous. Sanitation and medicine were at an embryonic level, and this could not but affect the life of Roman citizens.
1. Mouthwash
In ancient Rome, small needs was such a developed business that the government introduced special taxes on the sale of urine. There were people who made a living just by collecting urine. Some collected it from public urinals, while others went from house to house with a large vat and asked people to fill it. Ways to use the collected urine today is even difficult to imagine. For example, her clothes were cleaned.
The workers filled the vat with clothes, and then filled them with urine. After that, one person climbed into the vat and trampled on the clothes to wash them. But that's nothing compared to how the Romans brushed their teeth. In some areas, people used urine as a mouthwash. It has been claimed to make teeth shiny and white.
2. Common sponge
In fact, when going to the toilet, the Romans took with them special combs designed to comb out lice. And the worst happened after people relieved themselves of great need. Each public toilet, which was usually used by dozens of other people at the same time, had only one sponge on a stick, which was used for wiping. At the same time, the sponge was never cleaned and was used by all visitors.
3. Methane explosions
Every time a person entered a Roman toilet, he risked death. The first problem was that the creatures living in the sewer system often crawled out and bit people while they were urinating. An even worse problem was the accumulation of methane, which sometimes accumulated in such quantities that it ignited and exploded.
The toilets were so dangerous that people resorted to magic to try and stay alive. The walls of many of the toilets were covered with magical spells meant to ward off demons. Also, in some toilets there were statues of the goddess of fortune Fortuna, whom people prayed at the entrance to.
4. Blood of gladiators
There were many eccentricities in Roman medicine. Several Roman authors wrote that after gladiator fights, the blood of dead gladiators was often collected and sold as medicine. The Romans believed that gladiatorial blood could cure epilepsy and drank it as medicine.
And it was still a relatively civilized example. In other cases, the liver of dead gladiators was completely cut out and eaten raw. Ironically, some Roman physicians actually report that this treatment worked. They claim to have seen people who drank human blood and were cured of epileptic seizures.
5. Cosmetics made from dead flesh
While the defeated gladiators became a cure for epileptics, the winners became a source of aphrodisiacs. In Roman times, soap was quite rare, so athletes would clean themselves by covering their bodies with oil and scraping off dead skin cells, as well as sweat and dirt, with a tool called a strigil.
As a rule, all this dirt was simply thrown away, but not the case with gladiators. Their scrapings of dirt and dead skin were bottled and sold to women as an aphrodisiac. Also often this mixture was added to the face cream, which was used by women in the hope that they would become irresistible to men.
6. Erotic art
The volcanic eruption that buried Pompeii has left this city perfectly preserved for archaeologists. When scientists first began excavating at Pompeii, they found things that were so obscene that they were hidden from the public for years. The city was full of erotic art in the craziest forms.
For example, one could see a statue of Pan copulating with a goat. In addition, the city was full of prostitutes, which was reflected on ... the sidewalks. And today you can visit the ruins of Pompeii and see what the Romans saw every day - penises carved into the roads that pointed the way to the nearest brothel.
7. Penises "for good luck"
The topic of penises was quite popular in Rome, in contrast to modern society. Their images could be found literally everywhere, they were even often worn around the neck. In Rome, it was considered fashionable among young men to wear copper penises on a necklace. It was believed that they were not only fashionable and stylish, but also could "prevent harm" that they could do to people who wore them.
Also penises "for good luck" were painted in dangerous places to protect travelers. For example, on dilapidated and shaky bridges in Rome, images of penises were painted almost everywhere.
8. Exposing the buttocks
Rome is unique in that for the first time in history, written evidence of the exposure of the buttocks was recorded in it. The Jewish priest Joseph Flavius first described the demonstration of the buttocks during the riot in Jerusalem. During Passover, Roman soldiers were sent to the walls of Jerusalem to watch for an uprising.
One of these soldiers, according to Josephus, "turned his back to the wall of the city, lowered his trousers, bent down and emitted a shameless sound." The Jews were furious. They demanded that the soldier be punished and then started throwing stones at the Roman soldiers. Soon riots broke out in Jerusalem, and the gesture survived for thousands of years.
9. Artificial vomiting
The Romans took the concept of excess in everything to a new level. According to Seneca, the Romans ate at banquets until they simply "got no more" and then artificially vomited to keep eating. Some people vomited into bowls they kept near the table, but others didn't "bother" and vomited right on the floor next to the table, after which they continued to eat.
10 Goat Dung Drink
The Romans did not have bandages, but they found an original way to stop bleeding from wounds. According to Pliny the Elder, people in Rome smeared their abrasions and wounds with goat dung. Pliny wrote that the best goat droppings were collected during the spring and dried, but fresh goat droppings were also suitable in emergencies. But this is far from the most disgusting way that the Romans used this "product".
The charioteers drank it as a source of energy. They either diluted boiled goat dung in vinegar or stirred it into their drinks. Moreover, it was not only poor people who did this. According to Pliny, the biggest fanatic of drinking goat dung was the emperor Nero.
Topic 1
1. Political thought of the ancient worldancient east, ancient greece, rome2. Political thought of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance3. Political thought of modern times (Hobbes, Hegel, Marx, Fourier, Jean-Jacques Rousseau)
1. Political thought of the ancient world Ancient East, ancient Greece, Rome
Political thought of the Ancient East
In the East, India and China made a particularly large contribution to the development of ideas about the state and law. With all the originality of their political ideas (Indian thought, with the exception of treatises on the art of government - arthashastra, which are mainly secular in nature, is purely religious and mythological, and Chinese thought is rationalistic), both systems reflected the social and political system based on the so-called Asian mode of production. . It is characterized by: the supreme state ownership of land and the exploitation of free peasants - community members through taxes and public works. Oriental despotism became a typical state form. Paternalistic ideas about power have become widespread. The monarch was bound only by custom, tradition. At the same time, it was emphasized that the goal of the state is the common good, the king is the father of subjects who are not entitled to make any demands on him. The ruler is responsible to the gods, not to the people. The political thought of the East is imbued with faith in the wisdom of the old institutions and traditions, in their perfection.
Ancient India gave us Buddhism, the most ancient world religion, preaching the cycle of rebirth of the human soul through suffering. It was there that the caste system of dividing society arose (there were 4 castes: brahmins - sages and philosophers, kshatriyas - warriors, vaishyas - farmers and artisans, shudras - servants).
In ancient India, the country was ruled with the help of "dharma" and "danda". “Dharma” is the righteous fulfillment of one’s duties (dharmashastras wrote about the nature and content of “dharma”), and “danda” is coercion, punishment” (arthashastras wrote about it). The essence of the government was to maintain the "dharma" with the help of "danda". The ancient Indian scholar Kautilya in the 1st century BC said that the activity of a wise sovereign lies in the ability to rule with the help of law, war and diplomacy.
1) A special place in the history of ancient Indian political thought is occupied by a treatise called "Arthashastra" ("Instruction on the benefits"). Its author is considered to be the Brahmin Kautilya.
"Arthashastra" is the science of how to acquire and maintain power, in other words, instruction on the art of the ruler. His discourses on the art of government are free from theology, rationalistic and real.
The purpose of society is the welfare of all living beings. The common good was not considered through the prism of the interests of the individual, human rights. It was understood as the preservation of the social order created by divine providence, which is achieved by the fulfillment by each person of his dharma. However, dharma does not act on its own without compulsion.
The king, declared the viceroy of the gods, forces his subjects to obey the dharma with the help of punishment - danda. A weak king strives for peace, and a strong one for war. And the good of man is to submit to the power of the king, this is his sacred duty.
2) Fundamental role in all history ethical and political thought of China was played by the teachings of Confucius (551-479 BC). His views are set forth in the book "Lun Yu" ("Conversations and Sayings"), compiled by his students. For many centuries, this book has had a significant impact on the worldview and lifestyle of the Chinese. It was memorized by children, adults appealed to its authority in family and political matters.
Based on traditional views, Confucius developed the patriarchal-paternalistic concept of the state. The state is interpreted by him as a big family. The power of the emperor (“son of heaven”) is likened to the power of the father, and the relationship between the ruling and subjects is likened to family relations, where the younger ones depend on the elders. The socio-political hierarchy depicted by Confucius is based on the principle of inequality of people: “dark people”, “common people”, “low”, “junior” must obey “noble men”, “best”, “higher”, “senior”. Thus, Confucius advocated the aristocratic concept of government, since the common people were completely excluded from participation in government.
Mohists (representative of Mo Tzu) opposed some provisions of Confucianism (predestination of fate), calling on a person to help others, to live in accordance with the principles of universal love in a world without wars and violence.
Another direction of political thought - legalists advocated strict regulations, observance of laws, punishments. Their representative Shang Yang (400-338 BC) believed that the state is a war between rulers and subjects, that people need to be constantly monitored. Officials were forced to take state exams, confirming their competence. A state monopoly reigned in the field of industry and trade. Shang Yang believed that the people are a simple material from which anything can be done, the weakening of the people leads to the strengthening of the state, his main goal was to strengthen the military power of the state. In the end, he fell victim to his own laws, as the owner of the inn refused him lodging for the night (the law forbade strangers to spend the night in the inn) and he was killed by robbers.
Finally, Taoism (representative of Lao Tzu - 11th century BC) said that everything obeys the natural law of things themselves - Tao. A person should not interfere with this law and change it, because, in the end, justice will prevail anyway, and the weak will eventually become strong. And whoever tries to change the course of events will fail. This brought to life a paradoxical statement - a person should do nothing, not interfere in anything. The main method of government is non-action, withdrawal from political life. This is what leads to stability, order and well-being.
· The basis of political and legal thought was the religious and mythological worldview inherited from the tribal system. Religion was given a leading place (ruled mainly by the priesthood). The political and legal teachings of the Ancient East remained purely applied. Their main content was questions relating to the art of government, the mechanism for exercising power and justice.
· The formation of the political and legal thought of the Ancient East was greatly influenced by morality, so many concepts are ethical and political doctrines, and not political and legal concepts. (An example is Confucianism as more ethical than political and legal doctrine).
The socio-political theories of the Ancient East were complex ideological formations, consisting of religious dogmas, moral ideas and applied knowledge about politics and law.
Political thought of ancient Greece
1 period - 9th - 11th centuries BC. This is the era of the formation of Greek statehood. Among the scientists of that time, one should name Hesiod, Heraclitus, Pythagoras, among the statesmen - the archon Solon, who published the code of the first Athenian laws.
Pythagoras has priority in developing the concept of equality, Heraclitus was the first to say: "Everything flows, everything changes, and you cannot enter the same river twice."
II period - X - XI centuries BC - is the heyday of political thought and democracy in Ancient Greece. This time gave the world glorious names - Democritus, Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, Pericles.
Democritus(460 - beginning of the 9th century BC) - a native of the Thracian city-polis of Abdera, from a wealthy family. Democritus remained for centuries as the creator of the atomistic theory. He considered politics as the most important art, the task of which is to ensure the common interests of free citizens in a democracy. He was an active supporter of democracy and wrote: "Poverty in a democracy is as much preferable to the so-called well-being of citizens under kings as freedom is better than slavery."
Socrates(469-399 BC) lived between two wars - the Persian and the Peloponnesian. His youth just coincided with the defeat of Athens in the Peloponnesian war against Sparta, the crisis, and then the restoration of Athenian democracy and its heyday. Socrates was 7 years old when democracy was restored. All his life he fought against it and at the age of 70 he voluntarily drank poison according to the verdict of the Athenian court, who accused him of speaking out against democracy. The ideal of Socrates was the aristocratic Sparta and Crete, where the laws were observed and the government was carried out by educated people. The arbitrariness of one he called tyranny, the arbitrariness of the rich - plutocracy. Socrates saw the lack of democracy (the power of all) in incompetence. He said - we do not choose a carpenter or a helmsman with the help of beans, why should we choose our rulers with the help of beans? (In ancient Greece, people voted with beans - "for" - white beans, "against" - black). The philosopher did not write down his statements, this was done later by his students.
One of the most talented students of Socrates - Plato(427 - 347 BC) was born into an aristocratic family on the island of Aegina. In the field of politics, he wrote many studies - "The State", "Politician", "Laws". He considered timocracy to be imperfect types of states ( form of government in which the right to participate in government is distributed according to property or income.), oligarchy, tyranny, democracy. And the ideal type of state is the competent government of wise men - philosophers, aristocrats, in which the warriors would perform the protection functions, and the peasants and artisans would work. Since the family and property seemed to him a source of opposing interests, he spoke out against personal property, for the community of wives and the state education of children.
Great philosopher of antiquity Aristotle(384 - 322 BC) was the son of the court physician of the Macedonian king Philip Nikomachus, later became the teacher of Alexander the Great. In his work Politics, he was the first to single out political knowledge, theoretical, empirical (experimental), and normative approaches to politics. He said that man is a political animal, he considered the development of society from the family to the community, the village, and then to the state (city-polis). Aristotle believed that the whole precedes the part, the person is only a part of the state and is subordinate to it. Citizens must be free, have private property. The larger the middle class, the more stable the society. And the cause of all coups is property inequality. Aristotle singled out three correct forms of government, striving for the common good (monarchy, aristocracy and polity), and three incorrect ones, focused on personal benefit (tyranny, oligarchy, democracy).
III period - called the Hellenic. His representatives Epicurus, Polybius and the Stoics preached apoliticality, non-participation in public affairs, and the main goal of the state was to overcome fear and ensure the safety of people. Polybius wrote about the perfection of the Roman system, which combined the advantages of the kingdom (consul), aristocracy (senate) and democracy. Ancient Greece is in decline and city-states, policies disappear, giving way to Ancient Rome.
Political thought of ancient Rome
The political and legal theory of Ancient Rome developed under the influence of the already existing theory of Ancient Greece (Plato, Aristotle, Socrates, Epicureans, Stoics). However, in this case, one cannot speak only of a simple borrowing of the provisions of their predecessors,
since the Romans developed their theory, taking as a basis all the most rational from the ancient Greeks.
Ancient Rome in the field of politics has left us two great achievements - these are Cicero and Roman law. The great orator, writer and statesman of antiquity, Mark Thulius Cicero (106 - 43 BC) believed in the justice of the law, the natural rights of people, sacredly observed duty himself and called others to do so. The ancient Greeks talked about him - he stole from us the last thing Greece could be proud of - oratory. Cicero considered the best form of government to be mixed, which dominated in ancient Rome - the power of the king, the optimates and the people.
Speaking as an eclectic thinker, Cicero tried to combine in his theory the most diverse views of ancient thinkers. The state in Cicero has a natural origin, growing out of the family as a result of the development of people's natural inclinations to
communication. The essence of such a state is to protect the property interests of citizens. Its fundamental principle is law. Cicero derives the law itself from the direct natural law, “for the law is a force of nature, it is the mind and consciousness of an intelligent person, it is the measure of right and injustice.” Cicero sees the political ideal in a mixed form of government: an aristocratic senatorial republic, connecting the beginning
monarchy (consulate), aristocracy (senate) and democracy (national assembly). Paying attention to slavery, Cicero speaks of it as a phenomenon caused by nature itself, which gives the best people dominion over the weak for their own benefit. The person in charge of the affairs of the state must be wise, just and well-versed in the doctrines of the state, possess the basics of law. Cicero's legal principle states that everyone must be subject to the law.
If the legal document of Greece was Draco, then the legal document created by Cicero for the Romans was called “Roman Law”.
Three parts are distinguished in the composition of Roman law: natural law - the right of peoples to marriage, family, to raise children, to a number of other natural needs given to man by nature itself; the law of peoples is the attitude of the Romans towards other peoples and states, including military events, international trade, questions of the foundation of a state; the right of citizens, or civil law, is the relation between civilized Romans. In addition, the law in ancient Rome was divided into public, which refers to the position of the state, and private, relating to the benefit of private individuals.
Roman law is the main legacy that Ancient Rome left to Europe. It was born in the 1st-11th centuries BC. The essence of Roman law was that private property was declared sacred and inviolable. Private law became the civil law of the entire Roman people In the early period of the formation of Roman law, a large role in this matter belonged to the lawyer of antiquity Gaius, who compiled his “Institutions”. In this work, he divided Roman law into three parts: 1. The right of individuals in terms of freedom, citizenship and position in society. 2. Law from the point of view of a person - the owner of this or that thing. 3. Procedure, the type of action that is carried out in relation to people-owners and things. The value of Gaius' taxonomy for Roman law was very great; it formed the structure of all private law. Subsequently, the theory of Roman law was developed and improved by Paul Ulpian and Emperor Justinian. By the end of the history of ancient Rome, it consisted of the following parts: Roman law for elementary education; digests - 38 passages from Roman jurists; collection of imperial constitutions.
