Lecture 3 Features of written speech in business communication. Types of documents, their design, language and style Plan1. Document norms (text and language).2. Speech etiquette of the document.3. Language and style of private documents.4. Language and style of service documentation.Currently

I. V. Vlasova. Tolerance as a prerequisite for effective communication

THE MOST IMPORTANT MEANS OF COMMUNICATION In ancient Greece and Rome, the culture of the native word was already developing. The ancient world brought up wonderful poets, writers, playwrights - masters of artistic speech. This world has given stories of outstanding speakers who raised and decided important issues.

3. The language of bureaucracy and the language of autobiography Opicin appears in many respects as a unique and stand-alone personality. He was in the service of the papal court in Avignon, but there is no record of any of his human connections. It's his social loneliness

The means of communication include, first of all, language, intonations of speech and emotional expressiveness, facial expressions and gestures, postures.

Language as a means of communication between individuals is closely interconnected with society, its culture and individuals who live and work in it, while using the language in a diverse and extensive way.

Communication or communication is the transmission from one individual to another of any information with a different purpose. Communication is a consequence of the communicative interaction of two or more persons in specific circumstances and in the presence of a universal means of communication.

Language is the main means of human communication. The purpose of a language to be a mechanism for communication is called its communicative function. Interacting with each other, individuals broadcast their own thoughts, worldviews, emotions and emotional unrest, mutually influence each other in a certain direction, and reach a common understanding. With the help of language, the subjects of interpersonal interaction understand each other. It enables them to establish collective work in all areas of human activity. Language is the force that determines the existence and development of individuals and society as a whole. And the communicative function is the leading social function of the language. However, it is far from its only function. Its specialized functions include cognitive, expressive, nominative and accumulative.

The ability to express information, broadcast it and influence the interlocutor is called the expressive function of the language. This function is considered as a unity of expression and translation of data, feelings and emotional experiences, the will of the speaker.

Cognitive function is interconnected with the presence of human consciousness in linguistic signs. Language is a kind of tool of consciousness, reflecting the results of a person's cognitive activity. Linguistic bickering about what comes first, mental activity or language, will probably never stop. The only true judgment is the assertion that language has an inseparable connection with thinking, since humanity not only expresses its own thoughts in words, but also thoughts are formulated in the form of words - a person thinks in words. The cognitive function of the psyche is intended to fix the consequences of mental activity and apply them in communication. This function contributes to the knowledge of the world and its verbalization.

A person thinks with the help of categories, and in the course of cognition, she discovers and names new phenomena and concepts for herself, which is the nominative function of language. It has a close connection with the cognitive, since everything known must necessarily have its own name. It also has a connection with the ability of linguistic signs to give designation to things. It is this ability that allows the individual to create a world of symbols. However, in the modern world there are many things that do not have names.

The accumulative function is closely related to the collection and storage of information. After all, it is no secret to anyone that language has existed much longer than people and people. A vivid example of this is the dead languages ​​that outlived their speakers. Language, whether it exists today or not, keeps the memory of generations and the centuries-old history of mankind. After all, even with the loss of oral speech, one can master the ancient writings and draw certain conclusions about the past life of the nation.

Language is also spoken and written. The leading form of the language is its sound component. Unwritten languages ​​may also exist. When there is only written fixation, and there is no voicing, then the language becomes dead.

Non-verbal means of communication

Which of us has not encountered a feeling of vague anxiety when communicating with a person when he claimed one thing, but subconsciously you felt his falsity. You will say that this is intuition and good for those who have it. In fact, it is easy to develop intuition by observing the interlocutor and, knowing the specific meaning of gestures, draw the right conclusions.

An example of non-verbal communication

An experiment was conducted in a psychology class at a university. The audience, which consisted of married couples, was divided into two groups by gender and allowed to watch videos of various types of crying babies. Then they were asked to explain their meaning. Most women who have had children accurately deciphered them (hunger, wet diapers, pain, etc.), while men did not see much difference in the options for crying. This led to the conclusion that women, being more sensitive and observant, are easier to interpret non-verbal gestures. It is more difficult for men to do this, they need specifics, and not all sorts of sentimental experiences. Of course, there are also exceptions.

This case also explains why it is difficult for the stronger sex to tell a lie to his wife, who seems to read the real state of affairs in her eyes.

So, consider non-verbal means of communication.

To clearly understand their diverse structure, we present their classification:

1. Expressive movements (body posture, facial expressions, gestures, gait).
2. Tactile movements (handshake, patting on the back or shoulder, touching, kissing).
3. Visual-contact gaze (direction of gaze, its duration, frequency of contact).
4. Spatial movements (orientation, distance, placement at the table).

In this part of the article, we will dwell on the first two groups of means of non-verbal communication and try to characterize their meaning. It should be remembered that to interpret a single gesture without a combination of other body signals means to mislead oneself. Therefore, before drawing specific conclusions, it is necessary to take into account all the nuances of the behavior of the interlocutor, as well as his physical and psychological state.

openness

The hands of the interlocutor are turned palms up and widely spread to the sides. The head is straight, the shoulders are straight. The look is straight. Facial expression is natural, without tension and stiffness. This posture of friendliness, as a means of non-verbal communication, speaks of openness, sincerity. She is also spoken about by a handshake with a grasp of her with two of her hands. Men can unbutton their shirt or jacket while talking. Communicating with such a person, you involuntarily relax and feel trust in him.

Sympathy

In non-verbal communication, there is the concept of mental contact, which is expressed in involuntary copying of each other's gestures or the entire behavior. A signal is sent to each other: "I understand you perfectly." And indeed, if you take a look at the peacefully talking couple at the table, we will see similar poses, the same arrangement of hands up to the mirror. If you want to convince another person of unconditional sharing of his opinion, just copy his body position.

If we observe the gait of a happy man in love, we note the flying gait, which is very striking. It is also characteristic of self-confident, energetic people. It seems that they do not care about all the problems.

Deception

Have you seen how someone hides their hands in a conversation? It is likely that he is telling a lie, since the human brain subconsciously sends signals to the body and when a lie is told, there is a strong desire to put his hands in his pocket, scratch his nose, rub his eyes. All these are typical signs to explain the meaning of non-verbal gestures in the aggregate. A person suffering from a runny nose can scratch his nose, rub his eyes - a child who has just woken up, etc.

Defense

Arms crossed on the chest, legs crossed in standing and sitting positions - a classic gesture of closeness, inaccessibility. Frequent blinking is a sign of protection, confusion. The emotional status of a person does not allow you to feel free and at ease. If you try to negotiate something with such an interlocutor, it is likely that you will be refused.

Concentration

It is expressed in tingling of the bridge of the nose with closed eyes. When the person with whom you communicate decides what to do or what to do, in general thinks about solving a certain issue, at this time he can rub his chin.

criticality

If a person holds his hand at his chin, with his index finger stretched along his cheek, and with the other hand he supports his elbow, his left eyebrow is lowered - you will understand that he has matured a negative assessment of what is happening.

Positivity

It is interpreted as a slight tilt of the head forward and a slight touch of the cheek with the hand. The body is tilted forward. Here is a person who is interested in what is happening, positively related to information.

Mistrust

You probably noticed how some students, listening to the speaker, cover their mouths with their palms? This gesture indicates disagreement with the lecturer's opinion. They seem to hold back their statements, suppress true feelings and experiences. If your friend suddenly makes a gesture of disbelief in a conversation, stop and think about what words caused such a reaction from him? Observing the behavior of the boss, the subordinate will understand what needs to be said, and what is better to remain silent. Distrust quickly turns into rejection, and then into rejection.

Uncertainty

A non-verbal gesture such as scratching or rubbing the back of the ear or neck may indicate that the person does not fully understand what they want from him or what you mean in a conversation. How to interpret such a gesture if you were told about full understanding? Here, preference should be given to the non-verbal signal of the body. In this case, the person did not understand anything. The hand clasping the other behind the elbow also speaks of uncertainty, probably its owner is in an unfamiliar society.

Boredom

The interlocutor props up his head with his hand. It is clear that he is indifferent to what is happening. If he is sitting in the audience, we can say with confidence: the material presented by the lecturer is completely uninteresting.

Disapproval

Shaking off non-existent hairs, straightening the folds of clothes, tugging at the skirt in non-verbal communication is a sign of your opponent's disagreement with the stated point of view. You will quickly realize the need to switch to neutral topics. However, if a thread really sticks to the sleeve of the jacket, the clothes are wrinkled, you should not regard this as a gesture of disapproval.

Willingness to leave

Can be identified by signs such as drooping of the eyelids (loss of interest), scratching the ear (fencing off the flow of speech), sipping the earlobe (does not want to speak out), turning the whole body towards the door or pointing the foot in this direction. The gesture in the form of removing glasses also gives a signal to end the conversation.

Irritation

When a person tells a blatant lie and realizes that you have seen through him, he will experience irritation from your rightness, which may manifest itself in an involuntary loosening of a tie or collar. In non-verbal communication, this can also manifest itself in rubbing the neck, unnecessary hand movements, pinching a lady's handbag, mechanical drawing on paper.

Superiority

The so-called "director's pose" or "boss pose" in a sitting position. Hands lie behind the head, one foot on the other. If the eyelids are barely closed or the corners of the eyes are slightly squinted, the gaze is directed downward - you have arrogance, neglect. This position of the body as a means of non-verbal communication is often taken by bosses, people in leadership positions. They are self-confident, demonstratively express their importance to others. An attempt to copy this gesture threatens with an early dismissal from work.

Equality

A similar gesture is used by almost all men, women are much less. The nature of the handshake can say a lot, first of all, it will reveal the intentions of the other person. If at the moment of connecting two hands one is higher with the back side, its owner demonstrates his leading position. You can check how firmly he defends his status as a leader in a simple way: turn his hand up. If you feel resistance, then you will not be able to convince him to take equality between you.

Sexual gestures

When a man likes a woman, he shows thumbs in his belt, puts his hands on his hips, or spreads his legs wide. Gazing at a woman is usually intimate, and can linger on selected parts of the body for a long time. A man can involuntarily straighten his tie or collar with his hand.

If a woman seeks to interest, she unconsciously tosses her head, straightens her hair, straightens her blouse. A more subtle art of seduction through non-verbal communication consists of exposing the wrists, spreading the legs in a sitting or standing position. If a woman demonstrates an intimate look in combination with an accidentally slipped shoulder strap, half-dressed shoes on a crossed leg, be sure that she wants to start flirting. A parted mouth and wet lips are typical of sexual appeal.

Tactile movements

These include hugs, handshakes, pats on the shoulder or back, touching, kissing.

Embrace

By the nature of the hugs, their strength, duration, they determine the meaning of the feelings expressed by a person.

Bosom friends, who were in a long separation, at the meeting almost strangle each other in a strong embrace. Lovers linger in gentle embrace for a long time. Hugs between distant relatives, depending on previously maintained contacts, can be both restrained, cold, and ardent. Between close people, they have a soft sincere meaning. In wrestling matches, for example, the competitors briefly hug and part ways.

Such a means of non-verbal communication as hugs is more common among representatives of the strong half of humanity, between women they are a little less common. Now you can see two teenage girls on the streets running towards each other with open arms. At this age, the frequency of such contacts, both between boys and girls, is expressive, when you want to throw out an excess of joy, delight and admiration for the meeting. If you see same-sex couples walking slowly down the sidewalk in an intertwined embrace, it can unwittingly suggest homosexuality.

Handshakes

Handshakes, as one of the means of non-verbal communication, also differ in the way they are performed, strength and duration. A strong, energetic shaking of the interlocutor's hand, coupled with a joyful exclamation, speaks of the sincerity of the partner, his desire to continue the conversation. The girth of one's hand in the form of a "glove" also speaks of friendliness. But if an inanimate hand is extended to you, like a dead fish, they do not want to contact you.

A cold hand in a shake can signal that its owner is either cold or very worried. Sweaty palms speak of a nervous experience. A hand shaking palm down indicates a desire to dominate another person. If, on the contrary, it is turned palm up, its owner unconsciously recognizes himself as a subordinate to the interlocutor.

Patting on the back or shoulder

Patting on the back or shoulder is mostly characteristic of men. These non-verbal gestures are often interpreted as a sign of friendship, concern, or encouragement. They can be seen in almost all age categories. Patting, as it were, demonstrates masculine strength and the readiness of its owner to come to the rescue.

By the way, this gesture should not be confused with that used in medical practice. A newborn child is slapped on the back to make him scream and expand his lungs, a choking person is slapped from behind. Patting is a type of technique in massage practice. That is, the specific meaning of this gesture depends on the current situation.

touch

Touch is widely used in the world of non-verbal communication. In educational activities, it helps to stop a naughty naughty person, in the case of a deaf person, to attract his attention, in medical practice, with the help of this gesture, a state of health is diagnosed, the massage technique is built on a combination of methods of touching the body, in the intimate sphere between spouses they serve as a prelude to the connection. Different types of touch are an indicator of the partner's unexpressed feelings. They can be gentle, affectionate, light, strong, rough, hurting, etc.

kisses

Kissing, as a kind of tactile gesture, is widely used in all aspects of human life. In relation to a specific object, the nature of kisses changes. The mother kisses the child tenderly and with love, between loving people they can vary from a light touch of the lips to a passionate kiss. Here we note that kisses can be both sincere manifestations of feelings, and formal, cold, traditional. Kiss at a meeting and goodbye, kiss at the time of birth.

Verbal means of communication

Of course, in addition to the transmission of specific “dry” information, during verbal communication, people interact with each other emotionally and influence each other, conveying their feelings and emotions in words.

In addition to verbal, non-verbal communication is also distinguished (transmission of information without words, through facial expressions, gestures, pantomime). But this distinction is conditional. In practice, verbal and non-verbal communication are directly related to each other.

Body language always complements, “illustrates” speech. Pronouncing a certain set of words and trying to convey some idea to the interlocutor through them, a person speaks with a certain intonation, facial expression, gesticulating, changing posture, and so on, that is, helping himself in every possible way and supplementing speech with non-verbal means of communication.

Despite the fact that speech is a universal, rich and expressive means of information exchange, very little information is transmitted through it - less than 35%! Of these, only 7% are directly related to words, the rest is intonation, tone and other sound means. More than 65% of information is transmitted using non-verbal means of communication!

The priority of non-verbal means of communication is explained by psychologists by the fact that the non-verbal communication channel is simpler, evolutionarily older, spontaneous and difficult to control (after all, non-verbal is unconscious). And speech is the result of the work of consciousness. A person realizes the meaning of his words during their pronunciation. Before you say something, you can always (and should) think, but controlling your facial expression or a spontaneous gesture is an order of magnitude harder.

In personal, emotional-sensory communication, non-verbal means of communication predominate (are more priority and important). In business interaction, the ability to correctly, clearly, clearly convey one’s ideas verbally is more important, that is, the ability to competently build one’s monologue, conduct a dialogue, understand and correctly interpret, first of all, the speech of another person.

The ability to competently express yourself, your personality through speech is very important in a business environment. Self-presentation, interviews, long-term cooperation, resolving disagreements and conflicts, finding compromises and other business interactions require the ability to communicate effectively through words.

If personal relationships are impossible without emotions and feelings, then business communication is mostly unemotional. If emotions are present in it, then they are either hidden or expressed in the most restrained, ethical form. The literacy of speech and the culture of verbal communication are valued mainly.

But in matters of the heart, the ability to talk and negotiate is very important! Long-term love, friendships and, of course, a strong family are built on the ability to speak, listen and hear each other.

Oral speech is the main and very important means of verbal communication, but not the only one. Written speech and inner speech (dialogue with oneself) are also distinguished as separate verbal means of communication.

If you don’t need to learn non-verbalism (these are innate skills), then verbal means of communication involve the development of certain skills, namely:

perceive speech,
listen and hear what the interlocutor says,
speak competently (monologue) and conduct a conversation (dialogue),
write well,
conduct an internal dialogue.

The following communication skills are highly valued:

The ability to speak concisely, clearly articulating an idea,
the ability to speak briefly, to the point,
the ability not to deviate from the topic, to avoid a large number of “lyrical digressions”,
the ability to inspire, motivate, convince, motivate speech,
the ability to interest in speech, to be an interesting interlocutor,
honesty, the habit of telling the truth and not uttering unverified information (which may turn out to be a lie),
attentiveness during communication, the ability to accurately retell what was heard,
the ability to objectively accept and correctly understand what is said by the interlocutor,
the ability to “translate” the words of the interlocutor, determining for themselves their very essence,
the ability to take into account the level of intelligence and other individual psychological characteristics of the interlocutor (for example, not to use terms whose meanings the interlocutor probably does not know),
mood for a positive assessment of the speech of the interlocutor and his personality, the ability to find good intentions of a person even in negative words.

There are many other communication skills that are important for anyone who wants to be successful in their profession and happy in their personal lives.

What an excellent interlocutor it would not be possible to become, it must be borne in mind that human speech is imperfect.

Verbal communication is a mutual exchange of information, in which there are always several barriers. The meaning of words is lost, changed, misinterpreted, deliberately changed, and so on. This is because the information coming from the mouth of one person, coming to the second, overcomes several barriers.

Psychologist Predrag Mitsich in the book “How to conduct business conversations” described a scheme for the gradual impoverishment of information during verbal communication.

The complete information (all 100%) that needs to be conveyed to the interlocutor is contained only in the mind of the speaker. Inner speech is more varied, richer and deeper than outer speech, therefore, already during its transformation into external speech, 10% of information is lost.

This is the first barrier to verbal communication, which Mitsich called "The Limit of the Imagination." A person cannot express everything he wants through words because of their limitations (compared to thoughts).

The second barrier is the "Barrier of Desire". Even a thought that is ideally formulated to oneself is not always possible to express out loud the way one wants for various reasons, at least due to the fact that one has to adapt to one’s interlocutor and take into account the situation of communication with him. At this stage, another 10% of information is lost.

The fourth barrier is purely psychological - the “Attitude Barrier”. What and how one person hears, listening to another, depends on his attitude towards him. As a rule, out of 70% of the information heard, the interlocutor understands only 60% precisely for the reason that the need to logically comprehend what is heard is mixed with a personal attitude towards the speaker.

And finally, the last barrier is “memory volume”. This is not so much a barrier to direct verbal communication as human memory. In memory, on average, only about 25-10% of the information heard from another person remains.

This is how out of 100% of the information that was originally in the mind of one person, only 10% is transmitted to another.

That is why it is so important to convey your thought as accurately and fully as possible, to convey it clearly and unambiguously, to express it in words understandable to the interlocutor, to try to make him hear, understand and remember what was said.

Language as a means of communication

Language is a historically formed system of meaningful forms, with its help people can turn their thoughts into a kind of public property and even into the spiritual wealth of society.

We all think we can communicate, but more often than not, our communication is just a banal exchange of information. However, everyone knows that the concept of "communication" can be much broader, deeper. This becomes clear when looking into the past. Educated people, since the sixteenth century, have communicated at a level that we simply cannot communicate at. Language served as a means of communication, but not only - it was a means of knowledge, a real art. Now we console ourselves, justifying ourselves with a lack of time, and continue to communicate, alas, at a fairly low, limited level.

The nature of language as a means of communication

Such a means of communication as language was formed historically, as human society and its needs developed. The nature of the language is symbolic, which means that every word that is a sign has a clear connection with objects and phenomena of the outside world. For each word, as a sign, historically, for several millennia, a certain meaning was assigned, understandable only to that group of people who know and use this language.

The nature of language stands out in its dual function: it is both an instrument of thought and a way of communication for people. Language also keeps the spiritual values ​​of society, works as a mechanism of social, cultural heredity.

With the development of technical and social progress, mankind slowly but surely expanded the range of its needs, because of this, the language also improved and developed, its vocabulary increased, its grammatical essence became more perfect. All this today allows society to transmit not only absolutely any information, but also many details of the information object, any of its shades.

Language is a means of communication and knowledge, but not only. It is also a means of accumulating and transferring social experience. Thanks to communication using language, the reflection of reality in the minds of one person is supplemented by what was in the minds of other people, because of this process, opportunities for information exchange grow.

Language and other means of communication

Communication with the help of words (verbal) is the main, most perfect form of communication. The level of language proficiency, culture and richness of speech determine the possibilities of communication, its effectiveness. But, in addition to language, there are other means of communication, these are: gestures, facial expressions, pauses, intonations, manners and even the appearance of a person. Communication, being a live communication of subjects, quite naturally shows the emotions of those who communicate, while it creates a non-verbal aspect of the exchange of information, information.

Non-verbal communication is a special language of feelings, a product of human development. It tends to significantly enhance the meaningful effect of verbal communication. Sometimes, under certain circumstances, non-verbal communication can replace verbal communication. For example, silence can sometimes be more eloquent than words, and glances can convey more feelings than sentences.

And the means of communication can be musical sounds, deeds and actions, images, drawings, drawings, symbols, signs and even mathematical formulas! The sign language of the deaf and dumb is also a means of communication. The main thing that people should remember when using means of communication is that it is important to maintain clarity of thought, and then the language of communication will always be clear.

Communication Development Tool

Thus, there are three aspects to communication:

Communication (information exchange),
interaction (organization of interaction),
social perception (perception and knowledge of each other by partners).

In communication, content, purpose and means are distinguished.

Means of communication - ways of encoding, transmitting, processing and decoding information (through the senses, tactile contact, sign contacts).

Types of communication:

Direct (with the help of natural human organs);
- indirect (with the help of special means and tools);
- indirect (through intermediaries);
- interpersonal;
- role (participants-carriers of certain roles);
- verbal;
- non-verbal.

When they talk about communication in the narrow sense of the word, they mean that people communicate in the course of joint activities with their ideas, ideas, moods, feelings, attitudes. However, human communication is not limited to the transfer of information: information in the conditions of human communication is not only transmitted, but also formed, refined, and developed.

Firstly, communication cannot be understood only as sending information to some transmitting system and receiving it by another system, since, unlike the simple movement of information, we are dealing with the relationship of two active individuals, and their mutual informing involves the establishment of joint activities. When sending information to another participant, it is necessary to focus on him, that is, to analyze his motives, goals, attitudes, and contact him. Schematically: S=S (communication is an intersubjective process). It must also be assumed that in response to the information sent, new information will be received from the other partner.

In the communication process, there is not only the movement of information, but also an active exchange of it. The significance of information plays a special role for each participant in communication: after all, people do not just share knowledge, but also strive to develop a common meaning. This is possible only if the information is not just accepted, but also understood, comprehended, not just information, but a joint comprehension of the subject. Therefore, in each communication process, communication, activity and cognition are presented in unity.

Secondly, the exchange of information involves the impact on the partner's behavior. The effectiveness of communication is measured by how successful this impact was. When exchanging information, there is a change in the very type of relationship that has developed between the participants in communication.

Thirdly, communicative influence is possible only when the person sending the information (communicator) and the person receiving it (the recipient) have a single or similar codification system (everyone must speak the same language). Even the meaning of the same words is not always understood by people in the same way. The exchange of information is possible only when the signs and, most importantly, the meanings assigned to them, are known to all participants in the communication process (then they will be able to understand each other).

Thesaurus is a common system of meanings understood by all members of a group. The reason for the unequal understanding of the same words can be social, political, age characteristics of people. “Thought is never equal to the direct meaning of words” (L.S. Vygotsky). If what a person has conceived for the statement is taken as 100%, then only 90% is clothed in verbal forms (sentences), and only 80% is expressed. 70% is listened to from the planned, only 60% is understood, and 10-24% remains in memory.

Communicators also need the same understanding of the situation of communication (this is possible only if communication is included in a certain general system of activity). For example, a husband greeted at the door by his wife's words, "I bought some light bulbs today" should not be limited to their literal interpretation: he should understand that he needs to go to the kitchen and change the light bulb.

Fourthly, in the conditions of human communication, specific communication barriers may arise:

The transfer of any information is possible only through sign systems. Verbal communication uses human speech as a sign system. Speech is the most universal means of communication, since when information is transmitted using speech, only the style of the message is lost.

Speech has two functions:

1) communicative (means of communication),
2) significative (the form of the existence of thought).

With the help of speech, information is encoded and decoded: the communicator, in the process of speaking, encodes his intention with the help of words, and the recipient, in the process of listening, decodes this information. Disclosure of the meaning of the message is unthinkable outside the situation of joint activity. The accuracy of understanding can become obvious to the communicator only when the recipient himself turns into a communicator and, by his statement, lets know how he revealed the meaning of the received information. The success of verbal communication in the case of dialogue is determined by the extent to which the partners provide the thematic orientation of information, as well as its two-way nature.

How to increase the effect of speech impact?

A set of special measures aimed at improving the effectiveness of speech impact is called "persuasive communication".

Here are some persuasive communication techniques as an example. The speaker must have the ability to include the attention of the listener, if he resists the acceptance of information, to attract him with something, to confirm his authority, to improve the manner of presenting the material. An important factor in influencing the audience is the interaction of information and attitudes of the audience.

There are 3 positions of the communicator:

Open - the communicator openly declares himself a supporter of the stated point of view, cites facts to support it;
- detached - the communicator is emphatically neutral, comparing conflicting points of view, does not exclude orientation towards one of them, but does not openly declare it;
- closed - the communicator is silent about his point of view, even hides it, resorting to special measures.

Each of the positions has a certain efficiency to increase the effect of the impact, its choice depends on the purpose and objectives of the communication impact.

To fully describe the process of mutual influence of people on each other in the process of communication, it is necessary to refer to those sign systems that are included in communication in addition to speech. It is known that the transmission of information occurs due to words by 7%, sound means (tone of voice, intonation, sound) - by 38% and by non-verbal means 55%. If the verbal channel is used to convey information, then the non-verbal channel is used to "discuss" interpersonal relationships, and sometimes instead of verbal messages.

Non-verbal communication includes the following sign systems:

1. Optical-kinetic system (gestures, facial expressions, pantomimics). The motility of various parts of the body reflects the emotional reactions of a person, giving communication various nuances that may be ambiguous in different national cultures;
2. Paralinguistic system - vocalization system (voice quality, range, tonality). Extralinguistic system - the inclusion in speech of pauses, crying, laughter, coughing, the very pace of speech;
3. Organization of space and time of the communication process. Proxemics (founded by E. Hall) is a special area dealing with the norms of the spatial and temporal organization of communication.

Here are the distances of communication characteristic of American culture (each has a certain system of communication):

Intimate distance (0-45 cm) - intimate and friendly contacts, struggle, protection, communication with a small child.
Personal (45-120 cm) - friendly conversation, family conversation.
Social (120-400 cm) - the distance at which we keep with unfamiliar and unfamiliar people.
Public (400-750) - an appeal to a group of people, a ceremony.

Placement of partners carries a great semantic load. For example, placing partners face to face contributes to the emergence of contact, symbolizes attention to the speaker. Yelling at the back can evoke negative feelings.

Visual contact indicates readiness to support or prevent communication, encourages the partner to continue the dialogue, helps to more fully discover one's "I" or hide it. Addressing people usually look into each other's eyes (no more than 10 s). In the future, this period decreases and the more unpleasant the conversation, the less it is. An intrusive, persistent look causes a feeling of protest in people, as an invasion of the sphere of personal experiences, and is perceived by many as a sign of hostility.

Non-verbal means of communication are necessary in order to:

Create and maintain psychological contact,
give new shades to the verbal text,
express emotions, assessments, accepted role, meaning of the situation.

Non-verbal means are finely coordinated between themselves and words in general.

Means of speech communication

Speech communication organically enters into all kinds of activities of the individual, for example, professional or social, since activity is impossible without communication. Verbal communicative interaction can be realized between several individuals or at least two. Speech communication is mutual and purposeful, as well as social. The form of manifestation of verbal communication is speech behavior, the responses of communication partners.

Etiquette of speech communication

Speech etiquette and communication rules are a system of norms of verbal behavior and invariable formulas of polite communications. Mastering the etiquette of verbal communication helps to gain authority, gives rise to trust and respect. Mastering the canons of verbal etiquette, their observance, contributes to the feeling of being a confident person, not experiencing a sense of awkwardness and difficulties in communication.

Mandatory adherence to the etiquette of verbal communication in business interactions leaves the partners with a pleasant impression of the person and the company as a whole, maintains its positive and attractive image.

The etiquette of verbal communication is determined by national specifics, since each nation in the process of its evolution developed its own system of rules for verbal behavior. In our modern society, such qualities as correctness, tact, courtesy, tolerance, goodwill, endurance are of particular value.

Tactfulness is an ethical canon that implies understanding by the speaker of the interaction partner, avoiding inappropriate remarks and questions, and discussing unpleasant topics.

Courtesy implies the ability to anticipate possible interrogative remarks and wishes of a communication partner, the readiness to discuss in detail with him all the points that are essential for the conversation.

Tolerance implies a calm attitude towards possible differences in positions and views, avoidance of sharp criticism in judgments. It is necessary to respect the views of other individuals, to strive to comprehend why it was they who formed this or that position. Tolerance is closely related to such a personal quality as restraint, which is the ability to calmly and calmly respond to sudden or tactless and interrogative remarks of the interlocutor.

Goodwill is necessary not only in relation to communication partners, but also in the process of the conversation itself, in its form and content, in the choice of words and intonation.

The etiquette of verbal communications has a close relationship with ethics, which prescribes the canons of moral behavior. Etiquette involves the use of certain styles of behavior in verbal communications and outwardly expressed formulas of politeness in specific verbal actions.

Following the requirements of etiquette will be considered deception of others and hypocrisy in violation of ethical standards. At the same time, ethical behavior that is not accompanied by the observance of the canons of etiquette will inevitably make an unfavorable impression and lead to doubts about the moral qualitative characteristics of the individual. Therefore, in oral communications, it is necessary to follow a whole range of ethical and etiquette canons, which are closely interconnected. Such a complex presupposes, firstly, a respectful and benevolent attitude towards the interlocutor. It is strictly forbidden to inflict insults, insults, and express disdain on the interlocutor with the help of verbal means. It is also recommended to avoid direct negative assessments of the personality of the interlocutor in a conversation, only specific actions are allowed to be assessed, while observing tact.

In intelligent communication of educated individuals, the use of rude words, obscene expressions, arrogance, cheeky formulas of speech is unacceptable. In a practical aspect, such speech formulations are also considered inappropriate, since they will never lead to the achievement of the desired communication results.

Politeness in communicative interaction is aimed at understanding the situation as a whole, taking into account the age category, gender, professional and social status of the interlocutor. These factors determine the degree of official communications, determine the choice of etiquette formulas, suitable topics for discussion.

The speaking partner needs to be modest in self-assessment, try not to impose personal judgments, avoid excessive categoricalness and ultimatum in speech.

In addition, one should direct all attention to the communication partner, show interest in his personality, opinion, take into account his interest in a particular topic. It is also necessary to take into account the ability of the interlocutor to perceive and understand the meaning of the speaker's statements. Therefore, in the process of a monologue, you should give him time to “breathe” and concentrate. To this end, it is necessary to avoid too long statements, it is useful to make small intervals in the course of a conversation, to use verbal formulas for maintaining contact. Norms of communication also determine the behavior of the listener.

Speech etiquette and communication rules for the listener, firstly, suggest the need to spend time and postpone business in order to be able to listen to the speaker.

In the process of listening, a person should treat the speaker with respect and patience, while striving to carefully listen to all the information to the end. In official verbal communication, it is absolutely unacceptable to interrupt a communication partner, to insert various remarks during his monologue, especially those that negatively characterize the speaker's judgments and requests. The listener, as well as the speaker, should focus on his interlocutor, emphasize his own interest in interacting with him.

Speech etiquette, communication rules and ethics also cover written speech.

Speech means of communication

Verbal (sign) communicative interaction is realized with the help of words. Human speech is considered a verbal means of communication. Studies show that the modern "homo sapiens" pronounces approximately 30 thousand words per day, and about three thousand per hour. Words form a variety of speech texts that are formed depending on the goals of the communicants, for example, to inform or learn something, to express an attitude or to induce to something. Such texts are oral or written. They implement language systems, which are systems of signs and methods of their combination. Language systems serve as a kind of tool that contributes to the expression of thoughts, the manifestation of feelings and desires of subjects. They are the most important means of verbal communication.

Language as a means of verbal communication has various purposes. It acts as a core means of communicative interaction. Thanks to this purpose of language systems, people have the ability to fully interact in society as a whole and with subjects individually. This purpose of language systems is considered to be their communicative function. In addition to the function of communication, language as a means of verbal communication has a number of other functions, such as cognitive, accumulative, constructive, emotional, contact-establishing and ethnic.

The cognitive function of language is an expression of the activity of human consciousness. After all, people receive an essential part of information about the outside world through language.

The accumulative function involves the accumulation and preservation of experience, the storage of knowledge for use in later life. In everyday life, people are helped by keeping diaries or notebooks. And a kind of "notebooks", the heritage of all mankind is all kinds of monuments of writing and literature.

The constructive function is to form thoughts and various judgments. With the help of language systems, thought, as it were, acquires a material shell and a sound form. Expressed with the help of words, the thought becomes clear and understandable, first of all, for the individual who expressed it.

The emotional function is one of the tools for expressing feelings and emotional states. This function is realized through speech only under the condition of a direct expression of the individual's emotional attitude to the information that he reports. In this case, intonation plays a major role.

The contact-establishing function is expressed in establishing contact between individuals. At times, communication can be aimless, and its information content can be zero, which means preparing the ground for further productive and trusting communication.

The ethnic function lies in the unification of the people.

Speech and verbal communication

Speech is the most important component of the communicative interaction of people, which serves to express their thoughts, emotional moods, goals and plans. With the help of verbal communication, the individual has the opportunity to interact with the surrounding society. Any speech is focused on the intellect, feelings, intentions and desires of the listeners.

In the context of communicative verbal interaction, speech is characterized by a number of psychological properties that reflect the individual (personal) and group (collective) characteristics of people who have entered into verbal interaction. These include information content, clarity, content, expressiveness, impact. The listed properties are determined by various skills, such as speaking logically, achieving semantic unity of phrases, using paralinguistic means, using kinetic techniques, and using extralinguistic details of communication.

The external expression of feelings and emotional states, as well as the attitude of the speaker himself in relation to what he says, is called the expressiveness of speech. Expressiveness tools include facial expressions and gestures, rhythm, intonation, accents, intervals and stress, aphorisms and jokes. Some people, unfortunately, justify rude words and the use of obscene expressions during a conversation with this property of speech. They consider profanity an integral part of the language system, which leaves an imprint on speech culture and etiquette as a whole.

The informativeness of speech is due to the importance of the voiced message for the interlocutors. A vivid example of the low information content of the material is the following statements: “water is wet”, “fish is found in water”, etc. The informativeness of speech increases by 15% with the proper use of intonations and pauses.

The impact of speech is the possibility of its impact on communication partners, directs their thoughts and actions in the right direction.

Speech communication serves to express a specific communicative intention of the speaker and consists of communicative components that have different functions. The condition for effective communication is a complex, multifaceted category, which is a unity of linguistic understanding, cultural and social knowledge, and psychological experience.

Effective verbal communication involves not only mastering linguistic and linguistic skills, but also knowledge related to understanding the patterns of verbal communication in the integrity and interconnectedness of all its components, namely the material and spiritual culture of the language, the structural and content structure of communication activities; sociocultural canons and models of verbal communication, etc.

Types of speech communication

Speech is the main mechanism of verbal communication. Speech communication occurs with the help of language systems. Verbal communication can be both internal and external. External verbal communication, in turn, is oral and written. Oral verbal interaction is divided into monologue and dialogic speech.

Types of verbal communication are closely related. They are united by pronouncing words to themselves or aloud. Along with this, each of the types of verbal communication has subjective specific characteristics. A thought cannot be formulated without a language system and material verbal processes. In preparation for oral or written speech, an intermediate phase of pronouncing the text to oneself is distinguished. This phase is called inner speech.

External written speech is mediated by text. It is more concentrated in its content than colloquial. Verbal writing is understood as a verbal process with the use of written signs. Written speech is formed by a complex correlation of sounds that are formed due to the perception of letters by the hearing aid, visible to the eye, and speech movements reproduced by the individual. It follows that written speech is based on oral speech.

The audible speech spoken by someone is called oral speech. She is limited by space and time, which is imprinted on her character, since in general, communication partners are at a distance of visibility or hearing from each other. The nature of verbal communication during television broadcasting changes significantly, when the audience does not have the opportunity to respond.

Speech communication can be classified by content, namely material, cognitive (cognitive), conditional (emotional), motivational, activity. It can also be classified according to the interaction techniques used and depending on the tasks, namely the contact of masks, secular communication, formal role-playing and business communication, interpersonal, manipulative communication.

Material communication is the exchange of products of activity. Cognitive or cognitive communication involves the exchange of data, knowledge, experience. Emotional or conditional interaction contains the exchange of emotional moods between individuals who have entered into communication. Motivational interaction is an exchange of intentions, motives, tasks, interests, plans or needs. Activity communication covers the exchange of skills carried out as a result of joint activities.

The contact of masks is called formal communication, which consists in the absence of the desire to comprehend and take into account the characteristic features of the partner's personality.

The essence of secular communication lies in its pointlessness. In other words, communicating individuals do not talk about what they think, but about what is supposed to be said in the circumstances.

Formal role communication consists in regulation and content, where the main role is played by the social status of the interlocutor and his place in the official or social hierarchy.

Business communication is a process of interaction in which data and messages are exchanged in order to achieve the desired result.

Interpersonal communication, or it is also called intimate-personal communication, consists in revealing deep personal structures. Manipulative interaction is aimed at obtaining benefits from the interlocutor.

Culture of communication and speech etiquette

One of the main criteria of an individual's culture is the level of culture of his speech. Therefore, each person needs to strive to improve their own communication styles and speech etiquette. The level of speech culture depends not only on the ability to avoid mistakes in communications, but also on the desire to regularly enrich vocabulary, the ability to listen and the desire to understand a partner, respect his views, and the ability to choose the right words depending on the situation of interaction.

Speech is considered one of the most important characteristics inherent in personality. The impression that people make on the surrounding society depends on the style of communicative interaction.

The speech of an individual has the ability to attract society, other individuals to his personality or, conversely, repel them. Speech can also have a strong effect on the mood of communication partners. Thus, the culture of verbal communications is formed from the ability to listen to the speaker, speech etiquette, and following the rules of good manners.

Often, people, being carried away by the topic of conversation, forget about the culture of communication interaction. They try to impose their own judgments, positions and views on the topic of conversation on the partner, do not try to delve into the counterarguments that the opponent gives and simply do not listen to him, which ultimately leads to the neglect of speech etiquette and the cessation of monitoring what they say.

The culture of communication and speech etiquette categorically prohibits any pressure on a conversation partner. In addition to the fact that imposing one's own position looks rather ugly from the outside, it is also ineffectual. This style of behavior will most likely cause a defensive reaction on the part of the partner, which at best will lead to ineffective conversation, and at worst to conflict situations.

If a communication partner does not listen to his opponent, constantly interrupts him, not allowing him to finish his speech, then this will not only be a demonstration of the lack of culture of speech, but also a manifestation of disrespect for the personality of the partner, which will characterize the interlocutor who does not know how to listen, not at all positively. The ability to listen is an integral part of the culture of communicative interaction.

A verbal communication tool and speech etiquette are today considered two of the most important components of success, both in communication and in other activities. They contribute to establishing contacts with people, increasing the effectiveness of communication, inclining the mass audience to their own position. The influence of speech culture on the behavior of the speaker is invaluable.

Features of speech communication

Speech today is the most important mechanism of human communication. It goes from an individual to one individual, several or many. The communicative process itself can be simplified as follows: on the one hand, there is a speaking subject (sender of information), and on the other hand, a recipient of information or a listening subject (addressee). The sender and receiver interact to broadcast information represented as a sequence of signals consisting of a set of letters, sounds, etc. To receive information, there must be a certain system of adequacy of elementary messages and reality, which is familiar to both the speaker and the listener. Such a system of correspondences is called a language system or language.

The difference between language and speech is the presence of categories in language systems, while speech contains a continuous series (continuum). It follows that the communication process consists of six components: contact and message, sender and recipient, code and reality. The human personality is always the source of speech, since it is not the person who speaks, but his personality.

Features of verbal communication are marked by target settings, which can be many. After all, they are closely related to the needs of the individual in a communicative influence on the surrounding individuals, for example, the desire to force them to perform a certain action, to convince of something, to evoke some emotion, etc. They also distinguish between the target settings of the speech process, which are not in the general sense a communicative interaction, for example, a prisoner in a punishment cell makes a speech not for communication, but in order not to forget the words, the construction of sentences and their sound.

The main component of any target setting of the speech process should be an additional aspect of morality, which excludes conscious deception, lies, misinformation, etc.

Means of communication for preschoolers

The nature of communication, its individual and age characteristics, the mechanisms of flow and change have become the subject of study by philosophers and sociologists (B. D. Parygin, I. S. Kon), psycholinguists (A. A. Leontiev), specialists in social psychology (B. F. Porshnev, G. M. Andreeva), child and developmental psychology (V. S. Mukhina, Ya. L. Kolominsky). However, different researchers invest in the concept of communication is not the same meaning.

So, N. M. Shchelovanov and N. M. Aksarina call the affectionate speech of an adult addressed to a baby as communication; M. S. Kagan considers it legitimate to talk about the communication of man with nature and with himself.

Some researchers (G. A. Ball, V. N. Branovitsky, A. M. Dovgyallo) recognize the reality of the relationship between a person and a machine, while others believe that “talking about communication with inanimate objects (for example, with a computer) has only metaphorical meaning. It is known that many definitions of communication have been proposed abroad. So, referring to the data of D. Dens, A. A. Leontieva reports that by 1969 alone in the English-language literature, 96 definitions of the concept of communication had been proposed.

Communication is a complex and multifaceted process that can act at the same time as a process of interaction between individuals, and as an information process, and as the attitude of people to each other, and as a process of their mutual influence on each other, and as a process of empathy and mutual understanding of each other.

The subjects of communication are living beings, people. In principle, communication is characteristic of any living beings, but only at the human level does the process of communication become conscious, connected by verbal and non-verbal acts.

Communication is also characterized by the fact that here each participant acts as a person, and not as a physical object, a “body”. Examination by a physician of an unconscious patient is not communication. When communicating, people are tuned in to the fact that the partner will answer them, and count on his feedback. A. A. Bodalev, E. O. Smirnova and other psychologists pay attention to this feature of communication. On this basis, B. F. Lomov argues that "communication is the interaction of people entering into it as subjects," and a little further: "Communication requires at least two people, each of whom acts precisely as a subject." Communication is the interaction of two (or more) people aimed at harmonizing and combining their efforts in order to establish relationships and achieve a common result.

We agree with everyone who emphasizes that communication is not just an action, but precisely an interaction: it is carried out between the participants, each of whom is equally a carrier of activity and assumes it in his partners.

The concept of communication is closely related to the concept of communication. The act of communication is evaluated and analyzed according to the following components: the addressee - the subject of communication, the addressee - to whom the message is sent; message - transmitted content; code - the means of transmitting a message, a communication channel and a result - what is achieved as a result of communication.

This approach is presented in the works of Ch. Osgood, J. Miller, G.M. Andreeva, Yu.A. Sherkovin and others. This is a system-communicative-information approach.

Another common approach to communication, considering it as a psychological category, we interpret it as an activity, and therefore the term communicative activity is a synonym for communication for us.

Therefore, there are several approaches to understanding communication. It is most expedient to consider communication as an inseparable unity of communication and activity.

Several different theories of activity have been developed. The concepts of S. L. Rubinshtein, B. G. Ananiev, L. S. Vygotsky, A. N. Leontiev received the greatest recognition among them. The following aspects of communication are distinguished: communicative, interactive, perceptual. These aspects of communication appear simultaneously. The communicative side is manifested in the exchange of information, the interactive side - in the implementation of the interaction of communication partners, provided that they unambiguously encode and decode sign (verbal, non-verbal) communication systems, the perceptual side - in the "reading" of the interlocutor due to such psychological mechanisms as comparison, identification, apperception, reflection.

The most universal means of human communication is language and speech. Language is the main system by which we encode information and is the main tool of communication. With the help of language, knowledge of the world is carried out, self-knowledge of the individual is objectified in language. Language exists and is realized through speech.

In speech communication, such features as:

Meaning, meaning of words, phrases. The accuracy of the use of the word, its expressiveness and accessibility, the correct pronunciation of sounds, the expressiveness and meaning of intonation play an important role.

Speech sound phenomena: speech rate, voice pitch modulation, voice tonality, rhythm, timbre, intonation, diction.

Non-verbal influences include facial expressions, pantomime, gestures, as well as the distance at which the interlocutors communicate.

Monologue communication provides for interpersonal communication of unequal partners who do not have equal activity. Dialogue, on the other hand, presupposes conjugation and simultaneity of actions; change of positions of influencing and reflecting, mutual intellectual-volitional activity; exchange action.

There are two types of monologue communication: imperative and manipulative.

Role-playing communication involves some form of regulation of the content, means of communication; communication is carried out from the positions of the corresponding social roles. Personal communication is possible with the knowledge of the personality of the partner, the ability to anticipate his reactions, interests, beliefs, attitude.

Ritual communication is most often a prologue to building relationships, but it can also perform independent functions in the life of a modern person: strengthening the psychological connection with the group, increasing self-esteem, demonstrating one's attitudes and values, that is, in ritual communication a person confirms his existence as a member of society some important group. At its core, it is role-playing. A distinctive feature of ritual relations is their impersonality.

Dialogue communication is an equal subject-subject interaction aimed at mutual knowledge, self-knowledge and self-development of communication partners.

Relations on which social norms and rules have an unexpressed, indirect influence can be characterized as direct, contact, and the type of communication that creates them can be characterized as an interpersonal type of communication.

By means of communication can be direct and indirect, direct and indirect.

Direct communication is carried out with the help of natural organs given to a living being by nature: hands, head, torso, vocal cords, etc.

Mediated communication is associated with the use of special means and tools for organizing communication and information exchange. These are either natural objects (a stick, a thrown stone, a footprint on the ground, etc.), or cultural ones (sign systems, symbol recordings on various media, print, radio, television, etc.).

Direct communication involves personal contacts and direct perception of each other by communicating people in the act of communication itself, for example, bodily contacts, conversations of people with each other, their communication in those cases when they see and directly react to each other's actions.

Indirect communication is carried out through intermediaries, which can be other people (say, negotiations between conflicting parties at the interstate, international, group, family levels).

Among the types of communication, one can also distinguish business and personal, instrumental and targeted. Business communication is usually included as a private moment in any joint productive activity of people and serves as a means of improving the quality of this activity. Its content is what people are doing, and not those problems that affect their inner world. Unlike business personal communication, on the contrary, it is focused mainly around psychological problems of an internal nature, those interests and needs that deeply and intimately affect a person’s personality: the search for the meaning of life, the definition of one’s attitude to a significant person, to what is happening around, resolution some internal conflict, etc.

Communication can be called instrumental, which is not an end in itself, is not stimulated by an independent need, but pursues some other goal, in addition to obtaining satisfaction from the very act of communication.

Target - this is communication, which in itself serves as a means of satisfying a specific need, in this case, the need for communication.

In human life, communication does not exist as a separate process or an independent form of activity. It is included in individual or group practical activity, which can neither arise nor be realized without intensive and versatile communication.

The most important types of communication in humans are verbal and non-verbal. Non-verbal communication does not involve the use of spoken language, natural language, as a means of communication.

Non-verbal communication is communication through facial expressions, gestures and pantomime, through direct sensory or bodily contact. These are tactile, visual, auditory, olfactory and other sensations and images received from another person. Most of the non-verbal forms and means of communication in humans are innate and allow him to interact, achieving mutual understanding at the emotional and behavioral levels, not only with his own kind, but also with other living beings.

Verbal communication is inherent only to a person and, as a prerequisite, involves the acquisition of a language. In terms of its communicative capabilities, it is much richer than all types and forms of non-verbal communication, although in life it cannot completely replace it. And the very development of verbal communication initially certainly relies on non-verbal means of communication.

So, in the course of communication, people address each other in the hope of getting an echo, an answer. This makes it easy to separate acts of communication from all other acts. If the child, listening to you, looks into your face and, smiling in response to your kind words, looks into your eyes, you can be sure that you are communicating.

But then the child, attracted by the noise in the next room, turned away or tilted his head, looking with interest at the beetle in the grass - and communication was interrupted: it was replaced by the child's cognitive activity. Communication can be separated from other types of human activity into a separate episode.

This happens, for example, when people are concentrated, discuss their relationships, show each other opinions about their own or someone else's actions, actions.

In preschool children, communication, as a rule, is closely intertwined with the game, the study of objects, drawing and other activities and is intertwined with it. The child is either busy with his partner (adult, peer), then switches to other things. But even brief moments of communication are a holistic activity that children have a peculiar form of existence. Therefore, as a subject of psychological analysis, communication is a well-known abstraction. Communication is not completely reduced to the sum of the observed isolated contacts of the child with other people, although it is in them that it manifests itself and on the basis is constructed into an object of scientific study. Different types of communication are usually combined with each other in everyday life.

Thus communication is many-sided; includes many forms, types. Until now, there is no unity in the interpretation of the concept of "communication" and its mechanisms. This gives rise to various approaches to the study of communication, however, almost all researchers note that without human communication, the full development of the child is impossible; communication is the most important factor in the formation of personality, so communication is the best way to know yourself.

Means of communication with children

Traditionally, Russian psychology considers the process of mental development as the result of a person's appropriation of social experience. A. N. Leontiev wrote: “This is a process that results in the reproduction by an individual of historically formed human properties, abilities and ways of behavior.” A.N. Leontiev, comparing the mechanisms of development of the psyche of animals and humans, focused on the fact that the development of the human psyche is subject to the laws of socio-historical development.

For the first time, K. Marx and F. Engels wrote about the role of communication in the mental development of a person. F. Engels pointed out that the development of the human psyche took place under the influence of joint labor activity, where the transfer of the results of practical, theoretical activity to the older generations to the younger ones played a decisive role. Marx considered communication both as a condition for the existence of a person and as a condition for his development, he attached special importance to communication as a means of self-knowledge and self-understanding of a person.

Unique studies on the role of communication in the mental development of a child were carried out by employees of the Hungarian Methodological Center for Orphanages named after E. Pikler. In the works of E. Pickler, Y. Falk and others, the negative impact of impersonal communication between an adult and a child on the intellectual, emotional and social development of the child was proved, the “hospitalism syndrome” was studied and described in detail. As an alternative to the existing system of education in state guardianship institutions, a new system of raising children was created. This system is based on full-fledged, personal communication between an adult and a child, joint activities with the maximum activity of the child himself. E. Pickler considered it important for teachers to show love for children within the framework of high professionalism. Communication with children should not be impersonal, indifferent, stereotyped by an adult. However, the love of the educator for the child will not be able to replace his maternal love, and the teacher should not strive for this, you cannot promise the children what he is unable to do. At the same time, teachers should direct their efforts towards the overall development of the child, laying the foundation for emotional security for all children in the group without exception. E. Pickler considered the manifestation of the child's activity in situations of communication with an adult to be a significant condition for the overall development of children.

In modern domestic research, communication is considered as a condition for self-actualization and self-realization of a person, which is carried out in a single space of a person with other people (V. I. Slobodchikov, Z. I. Ryabikina, E. G. Somova, etc.). Self-realization is manifested in creative individuality in the processes of interaction with other people (M. S. Kagan, E. L. Zlobina, etc.).

Studies have appeared in which communication, meeting with the Other, coexistence is considered as an external prerequisite for the self-development of the individual (K. A. Albukhanova-Slavskaya, A. A. Bodalev, V. S. Mukhina, A. B. Orlov, I. S. Yakimanskaya and etc.).

However, in domestic science, studies of the role of communication as a condition for the socialization of a child are most common. The conceptual ideas of research in this direction were developed by L. S. Vygotsky. He believed that the higher mental functions are initially presented as external, arising as a result of cooperation with other people, and only gradually they become internal, turning from "interpsychic" into "intrapsychic". The child's internalization of joint activity with an adult is the main source of socialization, communication in this case is the mechanism of this process.

Emphasizing the importance of a child's communication with adults, M. I. Lisina points out that it appears much earlier than communication with a peer and "serves as the only possible context in which he comprehends and" appropriates "what people have previously obtained." Determining the importance of communication for the development of a child, M. I. Lisina wrote: “Communication with adults affects the development of children at all stages of early and preschool childhood. There is no reason to say that with the age of the child, the role of communication increases or decreases.

According to M. I. Lisina, communication with an adult can accelerate or slow down the course of a child’s development, correct defects that have arisen due to improper upbringing of a child. This position is confirmed in the studies of U.V. Ul'enkova, E.E. Dmitrieva, V.P. Kritskaya and others. The role of communication in the development of children with mild forms of psychological underdevelopment, as well as in the development of autistic children, has been proved.

We can talk about the effect of the complex developmental nature of communication on the mental development of preschool children on the basis of studies conducted in the domestic school of psychology. It has been proven that communication develops various areas of the child's psyche: the very field of communication (Kh. T. Belbaeva, E. O. Smirnova, M. I. Lisina); curiosity of children (D. B. Godovikova, T. D. Sartorius); emotional experiences (S. Yu. Meshcheryakova); formation of attitudes towards adults and peers (S. V. Kornitskaya, R. A. Smirnova); in the field of mastering speech (M. G. Elagina, A. G. Ruzskaya); in the sphere of personality and self-awareness of children (N. N. Avdeeva, M. I. Lisina, I. T. Dimitrov, A. I. Silvestru); in the field of arbitrary regulation and the internal plan of action (M. I. Lisina, G. I. Kapchelya); in the field of the formation of a child's general ability to learn (U. V. Ul'enkova, E. E. Dmitrieva).

The mechanisms of the influence of communication on the mental development of a child were studied by M. I. Lisina and her students. M. I. Lisina suggested that the development of a child’s personality is determined by the types of relationships that he develops in practical activities, and the appearance of neoplasms in otnogenesis occurs at the points of mutual intersection and mutual transformation of three lines of relationships: attitudes to the objective world, attitudes towards other people, attitudes to himself. M. I. Lisina considers communication in the context of the leading activity of the child, she believes that "the leading activity of the child is always associated with communication, which takes a form that is adequate to the leading activity." “Taking into account communication, one can come closer to understanding the mechanisms of change of leading activities. Communicating in the course of activities with older children and especially with adults, the child acts at a level that exceeds his usual norm. More precisely, he finds himself within the "zone of proximal development."

Analyzing the nature of the leading activity and the features of communication between a child and an adult, M. I. Lisina identifies several forms of communication with a child: situational-personal, situational-business, extra-situational-cognitive, extra-situational-personal.

Based on the works of M. I. Lisina, E. E. Dmitrieva, T. I. Chirkova and others, we presented in the table the ratio of the nature of the leading activity and the specific forms of communication with preschool children, it was also important for us to highlight the nature of the reinforcing and developmental influences of an adult.

Means of communicative communication

Communicative competence - the ability to establish and maintain the necessary contacts with other people. Effective communication is characterized by: achieving mutual understanding of partners, a better understanding of the situation and the subject of communication (achieving greater certainty in understanding the situation contributes to solving problems, ensures the achievement of goals with the optimal use of resources). Communicative competence is considered as a system of internal resources necessary to build effective communication in a certain range of situations of interpersonal interaction.

Reasons for poor communication can be:

A) stereotypes - simplified opinions about individuals or situations, as a result there is no objective analysis and understanding of people, situations, problems;
b) "preconceived notions" - the tendency to reject everything that contradicts one's own views, that is new, unusual ("We believe what we want to believe"). We rarely realize that another person's interpretation of events is just as legitimate as our own;
c) bad relations between people, because if a person's attitude is hostile, it is difficult to convince him of the justice of your view;
d) lack of attention and interest of the interlocutor, but occurs when a person realizes the meaning of in for himself: with the help of this information, you can get the desired or prevent an undesirable development of events;
e) neglect of facts, i.e. the habit of making conclusions in the absence of a sufficient number;
f) errors in the construction of statements: wrong words, complexity of the message, weak persuasiveness, illogicality, etc.;
g) the wrong choice of strategy and tactics of communication.

Communication strategies:

1) open - closed communication;
2) monologue-dialogical;
3) role-playing (based on the social role) - personal (heart-to-heart communication). Open communication is the desire and ability to fully express one's point of view and readiness to take into account the positions of others. Closed communication - unwillingness or inability to express clearly one's point of view, one's attitude, the available information.

The use of closed communications is justified in the following cases:

1) if there is a significant difference in the degree of subject competence and it is pointless to spend time and effort on raising the competence of the "low side";
2) in conflict situations, the opening of one's feelings, plans to the enemy is inappropriate. Open communications are effective if there is comparability, but not the identity of subject positions (exchange of opinions, ideas). “One-way questioning” is a semi-closed communication in which a person tries to find out the position of another person, and at the same time does not reveal his position. “Hysterical presentation of the problem” - a person openly expresses his feelings, problems, circumstances, not being interested in whether the other person wants to “enter into other people's circumstances”, listen to “outpourings”.

There are the following types of communication:

1) "Mask contact" - formal communication, when there is no desire to understand and take into account the personality of the interlocutor, the usual masks are used (politeness, severity, indifference, modesty, sympathy, etc.) - a set of facial expressions, gestures, standard phrases that allow hide true emotions, attitude towards the interlocutor. In the city, the contact of masks is even necessary in some situations so that people do not “hurt” each other unnecessarily in order to “isolate themselves” from the interlocutor.
2) Primitive communication, when they evaluate another person as a necessary or interfering object: if necessary, they actively make contact, if it interferes, they will push away or aggressive rude remarks will follow. If they received what they wanted from the interlocutor, then they lose further interest in him and do not hide it.
3) Formal-role communication, when both the content and the means of communication are regulated, and instead of knowing the personality of the interlocutor, knowledge of his social role is dispensed with.
4) Business communication, when the characteristics of the personality, character, age, mood of the interlocutor are taken into account, but the interests of the business are more significant than possible personal differences.
5) Spiritual, interpersonal communication of friends, when you can touch on any topic and it is not necessary to resort to the help of words, a friend will understand you by facial expression, movements, intonation. Such communication is possible when each participant has an image of the interlocutor, knows his personality, can anticipate his reactions, interests, beliefs, attitudes.
6) Manipulative communication is aimed at extracting benefits from the interlocutor, using different techniques (flattery, intimidation, “splurge”, deceit, de kindness, etc.) depending on the personality of the interlocutor.
7) Secular communication. The essence of secular communication is its pointlessness, that is, people do not say what they think, but what is supposed to be said in such cases; this communication is closed, because the points of view of people on a particular issue do not matter and do not determine the nature of communications.

Secular Communication Code:

1) politeness, tact - "observe the interests of another";
2) approval, consent - “do not blame another”, “avoid objections”;
3) sympathy - "be friendly, affable."

Code of business communication is different:

1) the principle of cooperativeness - “your contribution should be the one that the jointly accepted direction of the conversation requires”;
2) the principle of information sufficiency - "say no more and no less than what is required at the moment";
3) the principle of information quality - "do not lie";
4) the principle of expediency - "do not deviate from the topic, be able to find a solution";
5) “express the thought clearly and convincingly for the interlocutor;
6) “know how to listen and understand the right thought;
7) "be able to take into account the individual characteristics of the interlocutor for the sake of the interests of the case."

If one interlocutor is guided by the principle of "politeness", and the other - by the principle of cooperativeness, they can get into ridiculous, ineffective communication. Therefore, the rules of communication must be agreed upon and followed by both participants.

Communication tactics is the implementation of a communicative strategy in a specific situation based on the possession of techniques and knowledge of the rules of communication. Communication technique is a set of specific communicative skills of speaking and listening skills.

Functions of communication tools

1) the information and communication function consists in the exchange of information between individuals. The constituent elements of communication are: the communicator (transmits information), the content of the message, the recipient (receives the message). The effectiveness of information transfer is manifested in the understanding of information, its acceptance or rejection, assimilation. To implement the information and communication function, it is necessary to have a single or similar system for codifying/decodifying messages. The transfer of any information is possible through various sign systems;
2) incentive function - stimulation of the activity of partners for the organization of joint actions;
3) integrative function - the function of bringing people together;
4) the function of socialization - communication contributes to the development of skills for human interaction in society according to the norms and rules adopted in it;
5) coordination function - coordination of actions in the implementation of joint activities;
6) function of understanding - adequate perception and understanding of information;
7) the regulatory-communicative (interactive) function of communication is aimed at regulating and correcting behavior in the direct organization of joint activities of people in the process of their interaction;
8) the affective-communicative function of communication consists in influencing the emotional sphere of a person, which can be purposeful or involuntary.

Means of communication - ways of encoding, transmitting, processing and decoding information transmitted in the process of communication. They are verbal and non-verbal.

Verbal means of communication are words with meanings assigned to them. Words can be spoken aloud (oral speech), written (written speech), replaced by gestures in the blind, or spoken silently.

Oral speech is a simpler and more economical form of verbal means.

It is divided into:

1) dialogic speech, in which two interlocutors take part;
2) monologue speech - a speech delivered by one person.

Written speech is used when oral communication is impossible or when accuracy and accuracy of each word is necessary.

Non-verbal means of communication is a sign system that complements and enhances verbal communication, and sometimes even replaces it. With the help of non-verbal means of communication, about 55-65% of information is transmitted.

Non-verbal means of communication include:

1) visual aids:
a) kinesthetic means are visually perceived movements of another person that perform an expressive and regulatory function in communication. Kinesics includes expressive movements, manifested in facial expressions, posture, gesture, gaze, gait;
b) gaze direction and eye contact;
c) facial expression;
d) eye expression;
e) posture - the location of the body in space (“foot on foot”, cross of arms, cross of legs, etc.);
f) distance (distance to the interlocutor, angle of rotation to him, personal space);
g) skin reactions (redness, perspiration);
h) auxiliary means of communication (body features (sex, age)) and means of their transformation (clothes, cosmetics, glasses, jewelry, tattoos, mustaches, beards, cigarettes, etc.);
2) acoustic (sound):
a) related to speech (loudness, timbre, intonation, tone, pitch, rhythm, speech pauses and their localization in the text);
b) not related to speech (laughter, gnashing of teeth, crying, coughing, sighing, etc.);
3) tactile - associated with touch:
a) physical impact (leading the blind by the hand, etc.);
b) takevika (shaking hands, clapping on the shoulder).

One of the greatest treasures of mankind and the greatest pleasures of man is the opportunity to communicate with his own kind. The happiness of communication is estimated by everyone who, for one reason or another, had to lose it, to remain alone for a long time. Human society is inconceivable without communication between members of society, without communication. Communication- this is, first of all, the exchange of information, communication (from lat. communication- ‘to make common’). This is an exchange of thoughts, information, ideas, etc., this is an exchange of information, information interaction.

One of the first information needs of a person is to receive information from another person or transfer information to him, i.e. information exchange. The very formation of information often occurs in the process of information exchange between people. Information flows permeate all types of human activity - social, scientific, cognitive, etc.

Two layers of information accumulate in the mind of every person: scientific and everyday. There are also such two types of information as information that is part of the public consciousness and information that has uniqueness, originality, belonging only to this individual.

The concept of information is applicable when there is a system and some interaction during which certain information is transmitted. Without taking into account the consumer, even an imaginary, potential one, it is impossible to talk about information. Information is sometimes understood as a message. However, it is impossible to talk about information without regard to the process of perception of the message. Only by connecting with the consumer does the message "highlight" the information. By itself, it does not contain informational substance. The same message to one consumer can give a lot of information, but little to another.

Information has a producer and a consumer, a subject and an object. In the twentieth century the information model of communication has become widespread. Automatic (cybernetic) systems using (de)coding devices began to be used

Thanks to communication, the input information is reproduced at the other end of the chain. Information is converted into code signals, which are broadcast through a communication channel.

Human communication involves a sender (the speaker) and a receiver (the listener). The speaker and listener own a language (de)coding device and mental processors. This is a simplified understanding of human communication.

Information communication of a person with the outside world is two-way: a person receives the necessary information and, in turn, produces it. Man himself as a social individual develops due to the interaction of two information flows, genetic information and information that continuously comes to a person throughout his life from the environment.

Consciousness is not inherited. It is formed in the process of communicating with other people, learning their experience, as well as the experience accumulated by many generations. A person receives both live, momentary information, and information accumulated, stored in the form of books, paintings, sculptures and other cultural values. The acquisition of such information makes a person a social being. The information that is inherited in this way is called social information.

Linguists consider verbal information, information extracted from speech messages.

A natural (though not the only) way of exchanging information is verbal communication. Speech materializes consciousness, making it the property of not one person, but also other members of the collective, turns individual consciousness into a part of the social, individual information into public, and also reveals the information of the whole society for its individual members.

Among linguists, the speech communication scheme described by R. Jacobson is widespread. A communicative act, according to R. Jacobson, includes the following components: 1) message, 2) addresser (sender), 3) addressee (recipient). Both partners use 4) a code, "totally or at least partially shared." Behind the message is the context perceived by the addressee 5) (or referent, denotation). Finally, 6) contact is needed, understood as “a physical channel and a psychological connection between the addresser and the addressee, which determines the possibility of “establishing and maintaining communication”.

According to R. Jacobson, each of the identified communication factors corresponds to a special function of the language.

Sharing information means spreading it. By acquiring information, we do not deprive this information of its former owner.

The fixation of information in material carriers has a dual function: to remind the primary owner of the content of information and to serve as a means of transmitting information.

Speech is the materialization of information. However, speech is fleeting and short-range. At present, means of transmitting information over distances, means of fixing information have been invented.

A radical revolution in the development of means of fixing and transmitting information was the transition to the transfer by written means of the plan of expression of linguistic signs.

Communication of people is a symbolic interaction of communicants. In the process of communication, contact is established between people, an exchange of ideas, interests, assessments is carried out, the assimilation of socio-historical experience, and the socialization of the individual take place.

Communication is defined as the process of interconnection and interaction of individuals and their groups, in which there is an exchange of activities, information, experience, abilities, skills, as well as the results of activities. Communication is “one of the necessary and universal conditions for the formation and development of society and the individual” (Philosophical Encyclopedic Dictionary, 1983). Communication includes mental contact that occurs between individuals and is realized in the process of their mutual perception of each other, as well as the exchange of information through verbal or non-verbal communication and interaction and mutual influence on each other.

Communication- this is a process that flows through many channels: sound, visual, taste, olfactory, tactile (smile, handshake, kiss, smell of perfume, food, etc.). War, duel is anti-communication. The exchange of activity here is aimed at mutual destruction, at the termination of interaction, at the destruction of contact. These types of interaction can be called communication with a minus sign.

For a speech act, the situation is not typical when both the transmission and reception of a message is carried out by one person (for example, in the case of memorization, rehearsals, etc.). Sometimes it is possible for the same person to communicate with himself on the time axis. Sometimes people can, in search of an interlocutor, turn to someone who exists in the mind of the speaker, or to an object, an animal. In this case, it is important for the speaker to express his thoughts in a specific address.

A typical case of communication is the communication of two people. However, tuples (ordered limited sets) communicating are quite frequent and larger than two people. In conditions of free regulated communication, a cortege of two to four people is optimal. In the case of regulated communication (when there is a coordinator, for example, a chairperson, toastmaster, etc.), large tuples of communicating people are also possible (see Suprun 1996)

Biocommunication

Human communication is qualitatively different from animal communication ( biocommunications). Animal communication is based on innate responses to certain stimuli. Animal communication takes place only with a present stimulus, it is instinctive. The ability to communicate is inherited by animals and does not change. Animals have a signaling system by which individuals of the same species or different species can communicate. Animals do not go beyond the first signaling system. They react to the sound signal as a physical stimulus.

The sounds made by animals have no content, no meaning. They don't report anything about the outside world. They give only instructions on which of the possible options for behavior must be chosen at a given moment in order to survive.

No matter how complex the sound combination emitted by one or another animal (for example, the speech of a parrot), it always corresponds in its psychophysiological organization to speech learned by heart. The parrot pronounces the words like a tape recorder, not like a person. The cries emitted by the animal only join the behavior that already exists and without sound.

Do animals understand human speech? For example, a dog seems to understand a person. However, it turns out that the dog does not understand the word in the human sense at all. She does not hear in the word all the sounds that make it up, but reacts to the general sound appearance of the word, to the place of stress and, most importantly, to the intonation with which we speak.

American psychologists, the Gardners, tried to teach the chimpanzee Washoe human language. They taught Washoe sign language for the deaf and dumb. She learned to use 132 signs, and used these signs in situations less and less similar: water, liquid, drink, rain. Washoe learned to use combinations of signs. For example, to get a treat from the refrigerator, she reproduced three signs: “open - key - food”.

The sign communication activity of monkeys developed mainly against a mimic-gestural background, because the larynx of monkeys is poorly adapted to pronouncing sounds. This can be confirmed by the experiments of the Gardner spouses, who taught chimpanzees the language of the deaf and dumb. The chimpanzee Washoe studied 90 figures as signs of objects, actions and events. The deaf-mute acquaintances of the Gardners could accurately recognize up to 70% of her gestures.

The German scientist Keller described his observations of the behavior of chimpanzees. He notes that the intelligence of a chimpanzee is a practical intelligence, it manifests itself only in direct activity. A person plans his activities. His intellect, although connected with practical activity, is not directly woven into it, does not coincide with it. In an adult, practical thinking is combined with theoretical.

By studying the behavior of elephants, researchers using highly sensitive equipment found that animals communicate using "infrasonic language". It turned out that when “talking”, elephants, in addition to ordinary sounds, also use signals at a frequency of 14 hertz, which the human ear does not perceive. With the help of such a language, elephants can communicate at such distances at which even the most powerful roar is powerless. This immediately explains two old mysteries: how males detect a silent female who is out of sight, and how a herd can, without an explicit “audible” command, disciplinedly make a “turn all of a sudden”, take off, stop, leave the area of ​​​​the alleged danger.

Ants have a wide range of innate postures and signals that allow them to transmit information. With the help of postures, ants can “tell” about hunger, food, demand help, subjugate someone, etc. Ants learn quite well and are able to capture logical connections.

K. Firsch's observations of the so-called dances of bees proved that with the help of such dances, bees transmit information about the direction and distance to the food source. Bees can recognize classes of figures regardless of their size and mutual rotation, i.e. generalize figures on the basis of form.

The domestic cat has many vocal cues to express its feelings. Short jerky sounds express a willingness to communicate or a desire to get to know each other. Strangled sounds indicate resentment. High tones, screams speak of aggressiveness, readiness for a fight. Gentle, affectionate intonations are emitted by cat mothers in communication with kittens.

An interesting and very diverse form of sign communication is the ritual communication of animals, which has reached a very wide variety in birds. Courtship postures are very complex and varied, including decorating the nest, “gifting” and so on. Various postures used in ritual communication are informational signals that characterize the emotional mood and intentions of the partners. When studying the “language of birds”, computers come to the aid of the imperfect human ear, allowing ornithologists to instantly identify the song of a bird and decipher the meaning of its message. At present, it was possible to understand many bird musical phrases. For example, the language of thrushes became clear, consisting of 26 basic phrases, which in various combinations make up various musical themes. Scientists have found that birds also have their own dialects. The finch from Luxembourg, for example, does not understand well its counterpart from Central Europe.

The number of signals that animals use is limited; each animal signal conveys a complete message; the signal is inarticulate. The linguistic communication of people is based on the assimilation (spontaneous or conscious) of a particular language, not on innate, but on acquired knowledge. Human language consists of a finite set of language units of different levels that can be combined. Thanks to this, a person can produce an almost unlimited number of statements. A person can talk about the same thing in different ways. The speech of a person is creative. It is conscious in nature and is not only a direct reaction to an immediate stimulus. A person can talk about the past and the future, generalize, imagine. Human speech is not just a communication of any facts, but also an exchange of thoughts about these facts.

24 .Paralinguistics

Human communication can be verbal, i.e. communication using sound or graphic linguistic signs, and non-verbal, carried out in the form of laughter, crying, body movements, facial expressions, gestures, some changes in the sound signal - tempo, timbre, etc. A person uses means of non-verbal communication from the first days of life. In a person who has mastered the art of verbal communication, non-verbal communication accompanies verbal communication.

Means of non-verbal communication do not provide an opportunity to exchange thoughts, abstract concepts, compose texts, etc. All non-linguistic factors only accompany speech, play an auxiliary role in communication.

Non-linguistic factors that accompany human communication and participate in the transmission of information are studied by paralinguistics. The field of paralinguistics is non-verbal (non-verbal) human communication.

One of the sections of paralinguistics is kinesics, which studies gestures, pantomimes, i.e. expressive body movements involved in the communication process.

The attraction of paralinguistic means to participate in communication is dictated not by the inferiority of the language system, but only by external circumstances related to the nature of communication.

The use of paralinguistic means is characteristic of a particular speech activity, but paralinguisms can be studied as typified extralinguistic means used in communication.

Phonation is a paralinguistic phenomenon. Voice timbre, manner of speaking, intonation can tell a lot about a person. The voice is warm and soft, rough and gloomy, frightened and timid, jubilant and confident, malicious and insinuating, firm, triumphant, etc. There are hundreds of shades of voice that express a wide variety of feelings and moods of a person. The area of ​​expressive phonation is not included in the structure of the language, it is superstructure. In each language community, a certain stereotype of prosodic signs of communication is formed, associated with the expression of such aspects of communication as rudeness, delicacy, confidence, doubt, etc. Such stereotypical phonations are the subject of consideration in paralinguistics.

Another branch of paralinguistics is kinesics, body language. Oral communication makes extensive use of the physical manifestations of the speaking subject, aimed at orienting the listener to unambiguously perceive the statement. These means primarily include gestures (body movements) and facial expressions (facial expression of the speaker). Gestures can be international and national in nature. For example, a gesture of solidarity is a raising of a hand clenched into a fist, a gesture of agreement / disagreement is a nod of the head. Gestures include body movements such as shrugging the shoulders, shaking the head, spreading the arms, snapping fingers, waving the hand, etc.

The paralinguistic component of communication can acquire an independent meaning, and can be used without text. Such, for example, are gestures that replace words: bowing, raising the hat, nodding the head, shaking the head, pointing the direction with the hand, etc. Each society (public, social collective) develops its own system of paralinguistic means. They are used in conjunction with actual speech acts. The set of independently functioning paralinguistic signs mainly concerns the following conceptual and communicative circles: greetings and farewells, direction indications, calls to move and indications to stop, expressions of consent-disagreement, prohibition, approval, and some others.

The letter also uses specific paralinguistic signs, such as underscores, brackets, quotation marks, arrows.

25. Speech activity

Speech activity for the most part is an activity for the transfer of information. The essence of speech activity is that it serves the communication of people, the transfer of information. Speech activity has its own specifics in relation to other types of activity. The process of speech comes down to the fact that a certain thought of one person materializes in the form of phrases spoken or written by this person, which are perceived by another person, who extracts from the material shell the ideal content embedded in it by the first participant in communication.

In the process of speech activity, images-meanings are transmitted. Meaning is always the personal attitude of a particular individual to the content to which his activity is currently directed (Tarasov 1977). Meanings are units of the content of the language, and meanings are the units of the content of speech (text). In speech activity, there is a transfer of meanings, not meanings, or rather, the embodiment of meaning in meanings.

The content of speech is not reduced to the combinatorics of linguistic meanings, but is a system of images loaded with a certain meaning. These images are not fixed reflections of objective reality, attached to some linguistic meanings that exist in the form of frozen linguistic forms (signs). These images act as reflections of some specific fragments of reality; each time they add up to a special dynamic system, correlating with different linguistic meanings. But there must be some universal characteristics, otherwise linguistic communication would be impossible.

Speech activity suggests that the subject of activity must have a motive for activity and be aware of the purpose of the activity. The purpose of speech activity is to convey to someone (more precisely, to arouse in the mind of someone) a thought, some kind of image loaded with meaning. This idea is embodied in the word, in linguistic meanings. It is necessary to compare the result with the goal, i.e. see if the result matches the intended goal, i.e. whether the speech action is effective (effective). If the subject feels that the intended goal has not been achieved or has not been fully achieved, he can correct the action. The subject can judge the effectiveness of an action by the reaction to it from the addressee.

So speech action involves:

Goal setting (albeit subordinate to the overall goal of the activity);

Planning (drawing up an internal program);

Implementation of the plan;

Comparison of purpose and result.

Speech activity can occur in parallel with other activities or autonomously.

Like most other actions, speech activity is learned, although the ability to learn it is inherent in a person.

Speech activity is not directed at itself: we speak, as a rule, not just to speak, but in order to convey some information to others. And we usually listen to someone else's speech not just for the pleasure of listening, but in order to get information.

Speech activity can proceed in conjunction with other activities that do not require reflection, concentration. This is usually a mechanical, standard activity, familiar and familiar to the speaker, not distracting him from the conversation, i.e. a process that includes not only the actual speech act as such, but also its mental basis.

Two speech activities are not compatible. It is difficult to read one text and listen to another or speak and listen at the same time, participate in two dialogues at the same time. Mental activity is possible together with speech, when both of these activities proceed with very little stress.

Speech activity often occurs in conjunction with the movements of the hands, eyes, and various body movements, which is the paralinguistic component of speech activity.

Speech Component communication is its most important component. But this should not negate or belittle the importance of other components of communication. extremely important video sequence. We really miss the visual channel, for example, when talking on the phone.

The more complete the contact, the more open to each other those who communicate, the more emotional and rational prerequisites for communication they have, the more complete and exciting is the “luxury of human communication” (in the words of Antoine de Saint-Exupery). In the polyphonic orchestra of communication, speech communication plays the part of the first violin (Suprun 1996). It occupies such an indisputably leading role that sometimes communication is understood as its speech manifestation. When communication occurs in an ensemble of various means, including the speech form, it is on it that the most significant part of intersubjective interaction falls. The speech component of communication is considered to be the most important.

Speech activity is an object of study of the theory of speech activity, or psycholinguistics.

The minimum implementation of verbal communication (communication) is speech act. The totality of speech acts constitutes speech activity. In the process of a speech act, a speech (verbal) message is transmitted from one or more participants in communication to another or other participants in communication.

The communicative nature of the speech act suggests its two-way nature. A speech act has two sides: the production and reception of a speech message. Accordingly, we can talk about two participants in a speech act: a speaker and a listener, a writer and a reader, an addresser and an addressee. The addressee (speaker, writer) produces a speech message and transmits it to the addressee (listener, reader), who receives (perceives) it and understands it. The first encodes, encrypts, and the second decodes, decrypts the message; the first turns the idea of ​​the message into a speech chain, and the second extracts meaning from it.

In a speech act, the roles of the speaker and listener (addresser and addressee) are usually inconsistent. The addresser becomes the addressee and the addressee becomes the addressee. In some cases, one of the speakers is dominated by the role of the speaker, while the other is the listener. The more democratic the relations in a given society, in a given collective, between given participants in a speech act, the more natural is the change of roles and the more often it occurs (see Suprun 1996).

Speech acts are studied within the framework of the theory of speech acts developed by J. Austin, J. Searle and P. Strawson. The theory of speech acts proceeds from the fact that the main unit of communication is not a sentence or any other expression, but the performance of a certain kind of activity: statements, requests, thanks, apologies, etc.

The speech act is presented within the framework of the theory of speech acts as consisting of three links:

locution act - the act of utterance;

Illocutionary act - manifestation of the purpose of the statement;

Perlocution act - recognition of communicative intention, intention, addressee and his reaction to the speech act of the speaker.

The illocutionary force of an utterance can sometimes be expressed by an illocutionary verb, for example: I ask you to do it. Verb I beg expresses the illocutionary force of the request.

Statements containing illocutionary predicates of the type I swear, I promise, I declare etc., are called performative utterances. They kind of create a situation. No utterance I promise, there can be no act of promise. Such statements do not describe the situation, but express the intention of the speaker. Such predicates have performative power only if they are used in the 1st person singular. number, present tense, i.e. if they are related to the I-speaker. statement He promised to do it- does not have the performative power of a promise, it is a statement of the fact that a promise was accepted by some other person.

Some statements have illocutionary ambiguity. Such expressions are used in indirect speech acts which are understood as such speech acts that are expressed by language structures intended for a different type of speech acts, for example: Could you tell me how to get to the station? Naturally, the speaker does not expect an answer: I can. The speech act has the power of a polite request, although it has the form of a question. The addressee correctly establishes the illocutionary force of the utterance and adequately responds to the utterance as to a request.