Bourgeois revolution in the Netherlands and England.

The bourgeois revolution that took place in 1566-1579 in Holland, became the world's first successful bourgeois revolution. In the Netherlands, by this time, contradictions had already matured between the nobility and the bourgeoisie, as well as between the propertied classes and the working people of the city and countryside; the class struggle reached here by the end of the 16th century. the greatest strength. Besides, the people of the country began a national liberation struggle against the oppression of feudal Spain, which received up to 40% of its income from the exploitation of the Netherlands. Spanish King Philip II (1527-1598) introduced the Inquisition in the Netherlands and mercilessly persecuted heretics. All this caused unrest in the country. Armed clashes with Spanish soldiers take place in the cities. In 1566, a popular uprising broke out, a bourgeois revolution began in the Netherlands. The attempts of Philip II to stop the resistance of the Dutch people by executions and atrocities did not break his will to fight. The main milestones of revolutionary events: the popular iconoclastic uprising of 1566 in the southern provinces; the general uprising of 1572 in the northern provinces; an uprising in 1576 in the southern provinces; Creation of the Union of Utrecht in 1579

ended Dutch bourgeois revolution the liberation of the northern provinces from Spanish domination and the formation of the bourgeois republic of the United Provinces, although Philip II kept the Southern Netherlands under his rule. Seven provinces united into one state with a common government, treasury and army. Holland, as the most economically developed province, became the head of the Republic of the United Provinces. The new state became known as Holland.

England.

The reasons:

1. Development of capitalist relations in agriculture
2. Development of manufactories
3. Development of trade
4. Bank development
5. The development of capitalism was hindered by the old order. In the cities there were workshops with their monopoly and detailed regulation of production.
6. Feudal exploitation of peasants continued in many areas. In England, in the last third of the 15th - the first quarter of the 16th century, an agrarian revolution took place. The essence of the agrarian revolution is that the peasants were deprived of arable land. The demand for English wool increased. It was more profitable for the feudal landowners to breed sheep than to farm.
7. In England, all power was in the hands of the feudal nobility, whose interests were represented by the king.

Supporters of the revolution:

1. Commercial and industrial bourgeoisie
2. New nobility (gentry)
3. Artisans
4. Most of the peasants

Counter-revolutionary camp:

1. old nobility
2. Anglican clergy
3. King

Religious contradictions.

The consignment presbyterian advocated the cleansing of the church from the dogmas of Catholicism and demanded that the church be transferred under the control of presbyters (elected leaders). The Presbyterian camp included the big bourgeoisie and the new nobility. The political ideal is a parliamentary monarchy, in which parliament would have legislative power, and the king would have executive power.

The consignment independents believed that the church should be independent of both the Anglican clergy and the presbyters.

The consignment Leveler it included the petty bourgeoisie, the petty new nobility and a significant part of the peasants. It was believed that it was necessary to abolish estate privileges and restrictions and establish equal political rights.

The consignment Diggers (diggers) dreamed of abolishing private ownership of land and making land a national property.

1640 - the beginning of the revolution.

1640 - 1642 - Parliamentary revolution

AT April 1640 Charles I convenes Parliament, which was supposed to authorize the imposition of new taxes. Parliament refused. King dispersed Parliament. AT November 1640 Charles convened a new Parliament, which existed over 12 years (Long Parliament). Parliament more does not obey the king, Will be make laws that the king is bound to abide by. Were canceled medieval workshops, regulations, everything that hindered the development of trade and entrepreneurship. England embarked on the path of parliamentarism. 1642 - 1646, 1648 - civil war. 1649 - 1653 - Independence Republic. Oliver Kron - leader of the Independents, defeated the troops of Charles I, expelled all Presbyterians from Parliament and established the Independent Republic . January 30, 1649 - CharlesIwas executed.

1649 England was proclaimed a republic. Parliament became unicameral. All legislative power belonged House of Commons, and at the head The executive power was a council led by Cromwell.

1653 - 1658 - Cromwell protectorate.

1658 - death of Cromwell, restoration of the Stuarts.

1660 - 1685 - KarlII.

1685 - 1689 - JacobII

1688 - 1689 - coup d'etat "Glorious Revolution". The crown was given to the ruler of Holland, William of Orange.

The result of the revolution: a regime of a limited constitutional monarchy with a strong Parliament was established in England, which secured the access of the bourgeoisie to state power, the foundations of civil society and the rule of law are beginning to take shape.

European revolutions of the XVI-XVIII centuries.

The grandiose changes in the socio-economic sphere that took place in Europe in modern times, the disintegration of medieval institutions, the transformations that began in religious life, which for a long time was the spiritual basis of society, led to a series of serious social cataclysms, expressed in the clash of old and new phenomena. Revolutions took place in a number of European countries, in which the new, bourgeois strata of society played a decisive role. These events, which affected the most developed countries - the Netherlands, England and France, led not only to socio-economic changes, but also radically transformed the political system of these states. The third estate, hitherto completely disenfranchised, becomes the leading one after these revolutions; his rights are enshrined in the Constitutions, new legal elements based on the ideology of humanism and the Enlightenment begin to take root in political life.

The first bourgeois revolution in the history of Europe took place in Netherlands. This country, which was one of the provinces of the vast Habsburg empire, had an extremely developed economy in the second half of the 16th century. The goods produced here were considered the highest quality in Europe, and cities such as Amsterdam, Bruges

ge or Antwerp were already then the largest centers of pan-European trade. The Netherlands annually brought more than 2 million guilders to the imperial treasury (twice as much as all of Germany and four times as much as Spain). Emperors Charles V and Philip II actively used this, constantly increasing the amount of taxes, which hindered the development of trade and entrepreneurship. The uncontrolled domination of imperial henchmen infringed on the national feelings of the local population. At the same time, the catalyst for revolutionary events was the persecution of supporters of one of the varieties of the Protestant religion - Calvinism, which had become widespread in the Netherlands since the middle of the 16th century. As a result, in 1566 ᴦ. a spontaneous uprising began throughout the country, accompanied by the destruction of Catholic churches. The mass protest movement was supported by the local nobility, who were dissatisfied with the dominance of the Spanish henchmen, who pushed them away from the most important posts and positions, as well as by the bourgeoisie, seeking to free themselves from the tax burden. The movement had a pronounced national liberation character, since the main demand was initially the restoration of traditional Dutch autonomy, and then complete separation from the empire. At the same time, Emperor Philip II took an extremely tough position. Troops are sent to the Netherlands under the leadership of the Duke of Alba, appointed governor of this province with unlimited powers. The Spanish army, then the best in Europe, inflicts a number of serious defeats on the rebels. The massacre of the rebels begins. Looting and devastation inflicted by the troops, mass executions, emergency taxes imposed by Alba, threatened the Netherlands with a complete economic disaster. A partisan struggle is unfolding throughout the country, the participants of which called themselves gezes (ragamuffins). They were tacitly supported by England and the Lutheran principalities of Germany. After the successful actions of the Gezes, who captured in 1572 ᴦ. the fortresses of Bril and Vlissingen, the Northern Netherlands are completely liberated from the occupying troops and proclaim Prince William of Orange as their ruler. As a result of the long struggle that took place

with varying degrees of success, the Netherlands was divided in two. The southern provinces, whose nobility and bourgeoisie were less radical, remained part of the Empire, acquiring some internal autonomy. As for the Northern provinces, they continued to fight for independence in 1588 ᴦ. proclaimed themselves an independent state - the Republic of the United Provinces.

The withdrawal of the Northern Netherlands from the Habsburg Empire contributed to the rapid economic development of the republic. The bourgeoisie, which grew rich on world trade and the export of high-quality manufactured goods, began to play a decisive role in the political life of the country.

If in the Netherlands the revolutionary events were, first of all, of a national liberation character, then in England they immediately acquired an anti-feudal coloring. The reasons for the large-scale social protest that swept England in the middle of the 17th century lay in the very essence of the absolutist system. The unlimited power of the monarch, the actual lack of rights of most of society hindered the development of the state along the bourgeois path. In England, during the reign of Charles I Stuart (1625-1648), all the conditions for the start of the revolution were formed: financial measures of the government, leading to an increase in taxes and duties, the foreign policy of the king, aimed at rapprochement with the main enemy of the country - Spain, persecution to the English Puritan Calvinists. The House of Commons of the English Parliament became the center of discontent and the ideological basis of the protest was puritanism. Parliament was the only institution through which society could declare its interests to the king. At the same time, for more than 10 years (1629-1640) it was not convened, and Charles I ruled unanimously. Only in 1640 ᴦ., when the king needed new means to suppress another uprising in Scotland, parliament was again convened. He immediately took a very radical position: the closest advisers to the king were sentenced to death, in 1641 the Great Remonstrance was compiled, which listed the abuses of the monarch and called for the authorities to rule ʼʼin agreement with parliamentʼʼ, that is, in fact, to limit the rights of the king. After an unsuccessful attempt at an armed coup, Charles I

sorry for the north of the country. The civil war begins. The society turned out to be split into supporters of parliament and royalists supporting the king. A long and bitter civil conflict became the main feature of the English bourgeois revolution. The war can be divided into two stages: the first (1642-1643 rᴦ.), during which the royal troops clearly outnumbered their opponents and slowly moved towards the center of resistance - Lon-don, and the second (1644-1646 rᴦ.), when the parliamentary army , reorganized by O. Cromwell, a member of parliament, one of the most active figures in the revolution, won brilliant victories at Marston Moor (1644 ᴦ.) and Naseby (1645 ᴦ.). In 1646 ᴦ. Charles I was handed over to Parliament and the civil war ended.

During the war years, the feudal structure of land ownership was destroyed: the lands of the king, royalists, churches were confiscated, which were transferred for free sale (that is, they actually completely became the property of the big bourgeoisie). In 1646 ᴦ. the principle of "knight's holding" was abolished, according to which landowners were exempted from state payments. The big bourgeoisie has achieved the realization of all its goals, having achieved political and economic dominance in the country.

The next stage of the revolution (1646-1653) is characterized by growing contradictions between various socio-political forces, which differently imagined the future development of England. In Parliament, from the very beginning of the revolution, there were two groups: Presbyterians and Independents, who received their names because of differences in understanding religious issues. At the same time, the difference between them was not limited exclusively to questions of religion. The more moderate Presbyterian majority, which was based on representatives of the big bourgeoisie and the "new" landowners, believed that the revolution had already achieved its goal and at this stage it was extremely important to seek a compromise with the defeated party. The Independents, who demanded deepening reforms, proposed to reform the electoral system in order to increase the representation of cities, to include in the competence of the parliament the highest judicial

power and command of the troops. If the Presbyterians were in favor of the dissolution of the army, then the Independents, on the contrary, were looking for support in it. The situation was aggravated by the fact that in the 1940s a movement arose that raised the interests of ordinary members of society. His supporters were called ʼʼlevellersʼʼ (equalizers), since the basis of their program was the demand for equality of rights (primarily electoral) for all strata of society. The positions of the Levellers were an example of a secular legal worldview, since they did not operate with religious concepts, but appealed to reason. Charles I took advantage of serious differences within the revolutionary camp, who managed to escape from custody and start a new war against parliament. At the same time, the forces were unequal, and in the very first major battle at Preston (1648 ᴦ.), the king's troops were defeated, he himself was captured in January 1649 ᴦ. beheaded by the verdict of Parliament. For the first time in European history, a monarch was tried and executed by his subjects. In May of the same year, a republic was proclaimed in England. Nevertheless, internal disagreements in the country's leadership did not stop. In the early 50s. the fight between the Independents and the Levellers is assuming the sharpest forms. At the same time, the public, already tired of instability and hostility, begins to strive to establish a strong government in the country, which would preserve all the gains of the revolution, but would not strive to expand and deepen it. The personification of such aspirations was the army and its head - Oliver Cromwell. In December 1653 ᴦ. Parliament was dissolved, and Cromwell was proclaimed head of state with the title of Lord Protector. The protectorate regime, which lasted until 1660 ᴦ., and the temporary restoration of the royal Stuart dynasty (1669 - 1688 ᴦ.) did not change the essence of the conquests that the country achieved during the revolution. The events of the ʼʼGlorious Revolutionʼʼ 1688 ᴦ., during which the last Stuart - James II was overthrown and the ruler of Holland - William III of Orange took the throne, drew a line under all revolutionary transformations in England in the 17th century. English society has undergone dramatic changes. The economic and political positions of the commercial and industrial bourgeoisie and the "new" double

ryanism. In the British mentality, the idea is rooted that the authorities must rely on the law and act strictly within its framework, and the law itself must draw its authority from the consent of its subjects. These provisions became the basis of civil society, ĸᴏᴛᴏᴩᴏᴇ develops in England in the following centuries,

At the same time, the most important for Western civilization was Great French bourgeois revolution. She dealt a powerful blow to the feudal foundations, crushing them not only in France, but throughout Europe. French absolutism has been going through a serious crisis since the middle of the 18th century: constant financial difficulties, foreign policy failures, growing social tension - all this undermines the foundations of the state. Tax oppression, along with the preservation of the old feudal duties, made the position of the French peasantry unbearable. The situation was aggravated by objective factors: in the second half of the 1980s, crop failures hit France, the country was gripped by famine. The government was on the verge of bankruptcy. In the context of growing dissatisfaction with the royal power, the King of France, Louis XVI, convenes the States General (a medieval class-representative body that has not met in France since 1614 ᴦ.). The States General, consisting of representatives of the clergy, nobility and the third estate (bourgeoisie and peasants), began their work 5 May 1780 ᴦ. Events began to take on a character unexpected for the authorities from the moment when the deputies from the third estate achieved a joint discussion of issues and the adoption of decisions on the real number of votes instead of voting by estate. All these phenomena marked the beginning of the revolution in France. After the States General proclaimed themselves the National Assembly, that is, the body representing the interests of the entire nation, the king began to gather troops to Paris. In response to this, a spontaneous uprising broke out in the city, during which on July 14 the fortress - the Bastille prison - was captured. This event became a symbol of the beginning of the revolution, was the transition to an open struggle against the ruling regime. Historians, as a rule, distinguish several stages in the course of the French bourgeois revolution:

out (summer 1789 ᴦ. - September 1794 ᴦ.) - constitutional stage; the second (September 1792 ᴦ. - June 1793 ᴦ.) - the period of the struggle between the Jacobins and the Girondins; the third (June 1793 ᴦ. - July 1794 ᴦ.) - the Jacobin dictatorship and the fourth (July 1794 ᴦ. - November 1799 ᴦ.) - the decline of the revolution.

The first stage is characterized by the vigorous activity of the National Assembly, which adopted in August 1789 ᴦ. a number of important decrees destroying the foundations of feudal society in France. According to the acts of parliament, church tithes were canceled free of charge, the remaining duties of the peasants were subject to redemption, and the traditional privileges of the nobility were also eliminated. August 26, 1789 jr. The ʼʼDeclaration of the Rights of Man and Citizenʼʼ was adopted, within the framework of which the general principles of building a new society were proclaimed - natural human rights, equality of all before the law, the principle of popular sovereignty. Later, laws were issued that met the interests of the bourgeoisie and aimed at the elimination of the guild system, internal customs barriers, the confiscation and sale of church lands. By the autumn of 1791 ᴦ. The preparation of the first French Constitution was completed, which proclaimed a constitutional monarchy in the country. The executive power remained in the hands of the king and the ministers appointed by him, and the legislative power was transferred to the unicameral Legislative Assembly, elections in ĸᴏᴛᴏᴩᴏᴇ were two-stage and limited by property qualification. At the same time, in general, the loyal attitude towards the monarch, demonstrated by the Constitution, was significantly shaken after his failed flight abroad.,

An important feature of the revolution in France was that the counter-revolution acted mainly from outside. The French nobility, who fled the country, formed an ʼʼinvading armyʼʼ in the German city of Koblenz, preparing to return the ʼʼold regimeʼʼ by force. In April 1792 ᴦ. France started a war against Austria and Prussia. The defeat of the French troops in the spring and summer of 1792 ᴦ. exposed the country to the threat of foreign occupation. Under these conditions, the positions of the radical circles of French society strengthened, not without reason accusing the king of relations with Austria and Prussia and demanding the overthrow of the monarchy.

On August 10, 1792, an uprising took place in Paris; Louis XVI and his entourage were arrested. The Legislative Assembly changed the electoral law (elections became direct and universal) and convened the National Convention on September 22, 1792 ᴦ. France was proclaimed a republic. The first stage of the revolution is over.

The events in France at the second stage of the revolutionary struggle were largely of a transitional nature.
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In conditions of the most acute domestic and foreign political crisis, the activation of counter-revolutionary forces, economic difficulties associated with inflation and the growth of speculation, the most radical grouping of the Jacobins occupies the leading positions in the Convention. Unlike their opponents, the Girondins, the Jacobins, led by M. Robespierre, placed the principle of revolutionary extreme importance above the principles of freedom and tolerance proclaimed in 1789. Between these factions there is a struggle on all the most important issues. To eliminate the threat of monarchist conspiracies within the country, the Jacobins seek the condemnation and execution of Louis XVI, which shocked the entire monarchist Europe. On April 6, 1793, the Committee of Public Safety was created to fight against the counter-revolution and wage war, which later became the main body of the new revolutionary government. The radicalization of French society, along with the unresolved economic problems, leads to a further deepening of the revolution. On June 2, 1793, the Jacobins, who had broad support from the social lower classes of Paris, managed to organize an uprising against the Girondins, during which the latter were destroyed. More than a year-long Jacobin dictatorship began. The revised Constitution (June 24, 1793 ᴦ.) completely abolished all feudal duties, turning the peasants into free owners. Although formally all power was concentrated in the Convention, in reality it belonged to the Committee of Public Safety, which had virtually unlimited powers. With the coming to power of the Jacobins, France was swept by a wave of large-scale terror: thousands of people, declared ʼʼsuspiciousʼʼ, were thrown into prison and executed. Not only nobles and supporters fell into this category.

opposition, but also the Jacobins themselves, who deviated from the main course determined by the leadership of the Committee of Public Salvation in the person of Robespierre. In particular, when one of the most prominent Jacobins J. Danton in the spring of 1794 ᴦ. declared the extreme importance of stopping the revolutionary terror and consolidating the results achieved by the revolutions, he was recognized as an "enemy of the Revolution and the people" and executed. In an effort, on the one hand, to solve economic problems, and on the other hand, to expand their social base, the Jacobins by emergency decrees introduce a firm maximum in food prices and the death penalty for speculation in the country. Largely due to these measures, the French revolutionary army, recruited on the basis of universal military service, in 1793 - 1794. was able to win a series of brilliant victories, repelling the offensive of the English, Prussian and Austrian interventionists and localizing a dangerous royalist uprising in the Vendée (in northwestern France). At the same time, the radicalism of the Jacobins, the incessant terror, all kinds of restrictions in the field of business and trade caused growing dissatisfaction with broad sections of the bourgeoisie. The peasantry, ruined by constant "extraordinary" requisitions and suffering losses due to government price controls, also ceased to support the Jacobins. The party's social base was steadily shrinking. The deputies of the Convention, who were not satisfied and frightened by the cruelty of Robespierre, organized an anti-Jacobin conspiracy.
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July 27, 1794 ᴦ. (9 Thermidor on the revolutionary calendar) he was arrested and executed. The Jacobin dictatorship fell.

The Thermidorian coup did not mean the end of the revolution and the restoration of the ʼʼold orderʼʼ. It only symbolized the rejection of the most radical version of the reorganization of society and the transfer of power into the hands of more moderate circles, whose goal was to protect the interests of the new elite that had already formed during the years of the revolution. In 1795 a new constitution was drafted. The Legislative Assembly was re-created; executive power passed into the hands of the Directory, consisting of five members. In the interests of the big bourgeoisie, all emergency economic decrees of the Jacobins were cancelled.

In the revolution, conservative tendencies are increasingly felt, aimed at consolidating the ᴦ that had developed by 1794. status quo. During the years of the Directory, France continues to wage successful wars, which gradually turn from revolutionary to predatory. Grandiose Italian and Egyptian campaigns (1796 - 1799) are being undertaken, during which the young talented general Napoleon Bonaparte is gaining immense popularity. The role of the army, on which the Directory regime relied, is constantly growing. In turn, the authority of the government, which had discredited itself by wavering between monarchists and Jacobins, as well as open acquisitiveness and corruption, was steadily declining. On November 9 (18 Brumaire), 1799, a coup d'état took place, led by Napoleon Bonaparte. The regime established during the coup acquired the character of a military dictatorship. The French bourgeois revolution is over.

In general, the bourgeois revolutions of the 17th and 18th centuries put an end to the feudal system in Europe. The political, economic, social image of the world civilization has undergone cardinal changes. Western society has been transformed from feudal to bourgeois.

European revolutions of the XVI-XVIII centuries. - concept and types. Classification and features of the category "European revolutions of the XVI-XVIII centuries." 2017, 2018.

Major bourgeois revolutions in Europe

Netherlands

At the end of the 15th-16th centuries. in the Netherlands, feudal relations were disintegrating, the process of so-called primitive accumulation was underway, and the capitalist mode of production was emerging. In the northern provinces - Holland - the population was engaged in agriculture, cattle breeding. Most of the peasants were free. The share of feudal landownership was only 20-25%.

The southern provinces, in addition to agriculture, had a developed industry of the manufactory type. The iron ore industry has reached significant development. Capitalist entrepreneurship spread to cloth-making, brewing, fishing, shipbuilding, and related industries. A national market has been formed. Successfully developed trade of the Netherlands with Italy, France, England and the Baltic countries. Fundamental changes took place in the structure of agrarian relations. Areas of commercial agriculture have developed, and highly productive dairy farming has sprung up in Holland and some other areas. In economically developed regions, cash rent and various types of short-term leases have spread; There was a layer of farmers who ran the economy on an entrepreneurial basis. The bourgeois class was formed, the proletariat was born.

The main brake on the further development of capitalism was the yoke of Spanish absolutism, which economically exploited and politically oppressed the Netherlands in the interests of the reactionary Spanish nobility and the Habsburg dynasty. The policy of the Spanish government had a detrimental effect on the economic development of the country, dooming the masses to hunger, poverty and lack of rights. The brutal inquisition of the population of the Protestant northern provinces of the Netherlands, high taxes on merchants, industrialists, restrictions on trade and entrepreneurship - all these economic and social factors led to mass discontent and, finally, to a revolution that had a national liberation character.

The revolution and the war of liberation won only in the northern provinces, which on July 26, 1581 declared their full independence (Spain recognized the independence of the Netherlands only in 1609). The liberation from Spanish feudal rule was an additional stimulus for the economic growth of Holland. The revolution did not completely destroy feudal land ownership, however, farm and peasant property received priority in the agricultural sector. Holland was the first of all the other countries of Western Europe to show that capitalism is not able to get along with the ossified and obsolete political and social orders, against which there is a very effective remedy - revolution.

England

By the beginning of the XVII century. British industry has made great strides. Cloth production occupied a special place in the industry. England began to supply only finished woolen products to the foreign market. At the same time, new industries developed - the production of cotton and silk fabrics, glass and paper, etc. The guild system of the urban craft was still alive and defended the old forms of production, but the decisive role was transferred to a new form of labor organization - manufactory. Enclosures, which deprived the peasants of land, contributed to the emergence of more and more new manufactories. Landless peasants became factory workers. Large manufactories were created in the mining, shipbuilding, weapons, and other branches of production.

England in the 17th century found itself at the crossroads of major trade routes. The volume of trade with other countries grew rapidly.

The demolition of the feudal system in the English countryside began much earlier than in the city. The countryside has long been firmly connected not only with the internal, but also with the external market. Sheep breeding has long been developed here - the raw material basis of cloth making; the first manufactories arose here; there were no those restrictions and prohibitions on production that were still in effect in the guild system of cities.

Capitalism, gaining ever stronger positions in agriculture, industry and trade, changed the structure (structure) of English society. New people come to the fore. A new class was formed - gentry nobles, entrepreneurs, merchants, wealthy farmers who owned significant capital, but for a number of reasons were deprived of political power.

Thus, by the beginning of the XVII century. feudal orders in England began to hamper the development of industry, trade and agriculture more and more. All land was considered the property of the king. The nobility had to pay a certain amount of money to the royal treasury when transferring land by inheritance or selling it. The nobles (they were still called knights in the old way) were considered the holders of the royal land, and not its full owners. An obstacle to the transformation of land from conditional, “by the will of the king” (feudal) property into private (capitalist) property was the royal power of the Stuart dynasty (since 1603). The royal power stood on the side of the old, obsolete feudal orders. Royal exactions, arbitrary taxes and fines, numerous restrictions and prohibitions prevented the accumulation of capital in the hands of the bourgeoisie and the "new nobles", and limited the freedom of trade. Peasants, artisans, and factory workers suffered the most from the preservation of the feudal system.

An increase in taxes, the introduction of exactions and a clear desire to rule without a parliament, a foreign policy that runs counter to the interests of the bourgeoisie and the "new" nobility, caused an ever louder and more resolute protest of the opposition. The conflict between absolutism and parliament on the most important issues of domestic and foreign policy was the main prerequisite for the revolution.

Capitalism again appears as an adversary and an active fighter against absolutism. However, in England, the royal power was somewhat stronger than in Holland. In 1629, King Charles I of the Stuart dynasty, stubborn and headstrong, convinced of the “divine” nature of his power, dissolved parliament in 1629 and began to rule independently, imposing arbitrary requisitions and taxes on the population. But such a victory for absolutism could not last long. In 1640, Charles I was forced to convene a parliament. It was called "Long" because. meeting in the fall, it sat for 12 years. The opening day of its meetings (November 3, 1640) is considered the day the English Revolution began. The House of Commons consisted of representatives of the "new nobility" and the bourgeoisie, whose goal was to end feudal relations and deal a decisive blow to royal absolutism. As a result of the revolution, feudal ownership of land was abolished. New classes gained access to state power. The freedom of industrial and commercial enterprise was proclaimed, and the main obstacles to economic progress were eliminated. As a result, the volume of diversified manufactory production began to increase, which became dominant in the industry of England. In terms of pace and scale, English industry at the end of the 18th century. took first place in Europe.

English Revolution in the 17th century was the most important event in modern history. The revolution decisively put an end to the feudal order and thereby opened up scope for the development of a new mode of production and new social relations. Thus, the connection of these events with the economic rise of England, the growth of its power on the seas and in the colonies becomes obvious.

France

By the middle of the XVIII century. France was one of the most powerful states in the world. An important force that kept France high was the monarchy. In terms of the level of industrial development, France was in no way inferior to England, however, handicraft production prevailed here, and the guild device was actively supported by the state. Agrarian relations developed slowly. In the 16th - 18th centuries France maintained large landholdings.

The Great French Revolution was a natural result of a long and progressive crisis of the feudal-absolutist system, reflecting the growing conflict between the old, feudal production relations and the new, capitalist mode of production that had grown up in the depths of the feudal system. The expression of this conflict was the deep irreconcilable contradictions between the third estate, which constituted the overwhelming majority of the population, on the one hand, and the ruling privileged classes, on the other. Despite the difference in class interests of the bourgeoisie, peasantry and urban plebeians (manufactory workers, urban poor), which were part of the third estate, they were united in a single anti-feudal struggle by an interest in the destruction of the feudal-absolutist system. The leader in this struggle was the bourgeoisie, which at that time was a progressive and revolutionary class.

The history of the great revolution will begin 15 years before the storming of the Bastille, when Louis XVI takes over the French throne in 1774. His predecessors will leave him a well-established system of absolute power as a legacy: he can issue and repeal any laws, establish and collect any taxes, declare war and conclude peace, decide at his own discretion all administrative and judicial cases.

The main contradictions that predetermined the inevitability of the revolution were exacerbated by the state bankruptcy, which began in 1787 with a commercial and industrial crisis and lean years that led to famine. In 1788-89 a revolutionary situation developed in the country. Peasant uprisings that engulfed a number of French provinces were intertwined with plebeian uprisings in the cities. Unsuccessful attempts by the royal government to reform the system of archaic privileges based on nobility and family ties exacerbated the dissatisfaction of the nobles with the fall of their influence and encroachments on their primordial privileges. In search of a way out of the financial impasse, the king was forced to convene the States General (May 5, 1789), which had not met since 1614. The deputies proclaimed themselves the National Assembly, refused to obey the royal decree on their dissolution and on July 9 called themselves Constituent, proclaiming their goal to develop constitutional foundations of a new political order. The threat of the dissolution of the Constituent Assembly caused an uprising in Paris. The fortress-prison Bastille, a symbol of absolutism, was taken by storm. This day is considered the date of the beginning of the revolution.

As a result of this revolution, radical changes took place in France. It had a significant impact on the economic life of the country. Medieval orders were abolished - feudal privileges, peasant duties, other personal coercion of peasants, as well as their debts to feudal lords. Subject to demolition: tribute, feudal courts, sale of government posts, etc. The workshop structure and state regulation of industrial production were abolished. Free trade was proclaimed. Slavery was abolished in the French colonies. On August 26, 1789, the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen was approved. Property was declared sacred and inviolable. The tax policy changed radically - all citizens were subject to taxation. Church property was proclaimed the property of the state. During and after the revolution, industry began to develop successfully. The wars waged by France contributed to the expansion of the production of weapons, saltpeter, gunpowder, leather, footwear, and textiles. The agrarian legislation of the period of the revolution contributed to the transformation of the peasants into small proprietors of an industrial society.

In general, the Great French Revolution of 1789-1794. had a great influence on the further development of Europe and the world, became a turning point in the transition from a traditional, agrarian-handicraft society to an industrial one.

The Great French Revolution had more political and social significance than economic. What was so significant that happened during her period, for which she was called the Great? It seems to me that this great "incident" was the first public execution of Louis XVI in Europe. This event had a great resonance all over the world. Speaking of economic consequences, there has not been a grandiose change. In France, as well as in England and Holland, a rather high level of economic development before the revolution predetermined the economic consequences after it. Just as in these countries, capitalism has triumphed over absolutism.

History of European revolutions 16th-20th centuries

Now in Russia the word "revolution" has become almost a dirty word. This is explained by the fact that the revolution of 1917 is considered by many to be a disaster for Russia; in addition, after the revolutionary August 1991, the Russians, as is commonly believed, began to live worse.

Meanwhile, in the past, revolutions in most cases changed people's lives for the better. Consider, as an example, 12 revolutions of the 16th-20th centuries.

The Dutch revolution of the 16th and 17th centuries against Spanish rule led to the emergence of the first bourgeois republic in Europe (Republic of the United Provinces). The state structure of this republic was archaic and disordered, but the first bourgeoisie appeared, which ensured the “golden age” of this republic. This revolution did not lead to a significant change in social institutions.

The English Revolution of 1640-1688 gave rise to new social institutions. In 1689, the "Bill of Rights" was adopted, which became one of the first documents that legally approved human rights. This document formulated such rights of citizens of England, such as freedom from fines and confiscations without a court decision, freedom from cruel and unusual punishments, from excessively large fines, freedom of speech and debate, the ability to choose parliament (for wealthy citizens), freedom to petition the king, etc.

The rights of the king were partially limited. The result of this revolution was the rapid economic development of England, which in the 18th century became the “mistress of the seas” and the “workshop of the world”. The English bourgeoisie began to develop rapidly.

The American Revolution of 1775-1783 gave the people the "US Declaration of Independence".

In addition, the American colonies adopted local “bills of rights”, which proclaimed freedom of speech, conscience, assembly, personal integrity, etc.

The Great French Revolution of 1789 was the most important of the bourgeois-democratic revolutions, so it should be focused on.

In the course of this revolution, the social institutions of France changed the most - from feudal to bourgeois-democratic. In 1789, the “Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen” was adopted, which was based on the concept of equality and freedom given to everyone from birth.

Individual freedom, freedom of speech, freedom of opinion, the right to resist oppression were declared natural rights of man and citizen.

Before the revolution, the exploitation of the common population intensified in France: serfdom, the right of the first night, etc. at least a fact, if not a right). In addition, natural disasters and crop failures pushed for the revolution.

In 1789, the Constituent Assembly of France, which had gained power through the revolution, abolished personal feudal duties, seigneurial courts, ecclesiastical tithes, privileges of individual provinces, cities and corporations, and declared equality of all before the law in paying state taxes and in the right to occupy civil, military and ecclesiastical positions. Independent courts were introduced.

Mark Twain later wrote (“A Connecticut Yankee”) “ It seemed as if I was reading about France and the French before their eternally memorable and blessed revolution, which in one bloody wave washed away a millennium of such abominations and exacted an ancient debt - half a drop of blood for each barrel of it, squeezed by slow torture from the people during a millennium of untruth, disgrace and torments, which cannot be found even in hell.". By abominations here is meant serfdom, and so on.

As is usually the case in history, after something light, unpleasant things come to the fore that discredit this light. A campaign of “de-Christianization” began, mockery of Christian shrines; the terrible Jacobin terror began, in terms of crime comparable to the Nazi terror.

The terror ended with the fall of the Jacobins (Robespierre) and the coming to power of the “committee of public safety”, further the Directory (Thermidorians), who quickly became famous for their corruption. The executioner Sanson wrote in his memoirs about Robespierre: “ Robbers… He was right: he had already sent all honest Republicans under my ax a long time ago.”

Poverty and hunger reigned in the country (this was primarily due to the destruction of old social institutions, when the new ones had not yet had time to establish themselves).

Over France hung a real threat of the end of the revolution, a return to the past. Counter-revolutionary sentiments in society were extremely strong. And then France was lucky: in 1899, Napoleon Bonaparte came to power.

Napoleon turned out to be a reasonable ruler (at first), and with energetic measures (but without great terror), he brought order to the country. He carried out a number of successful reforms (foundation of the French Bank, adoption of the civil code, etc.).

Napoleon was a dictator, and there was no democracy left in France under him; but the life of ordinary French people in general has become much better. Historian Edward Radzinsky wrote:

“He easily took freedom from the French. It turned out that the crowd does not like freedom at all, their only idol is equality (it is not for nothing that it is connected by secret ties with despotism). And Bonaparte truly equalized all the French - both in rights and in injustice. Only one person in France had the right to his own opinion.”.

We can say that of the three famous words of the French Revolution - "Liberty, Equality and Fraternity" the first one disappeared, but the other two remained.

Napoleon gave the French about 14 prosperous years. But over time, due to his greatness, he lost his sense of reality, got involved in military adventures and, as a result, completely “bankrupt”. After the defeat of France at Waterloo, the old (monarchist) forces in Europe, in a certain sense, took revenge on the revolutionary (republican).

But thanks to the 14 years of Napoleon's reign, the ideas of the revolution were not discredited: the French (and to some extent other peoples) believed that the revolution could make their lives better.

In 1830, a new revolution took place in France (as well as Belgium). Then in Europe the “Holy Alliance” (Russia, Prussia and Austria) ruled, which aimed to prevent revolutions. But this alliance was unable or unwilling to crush the new revolution. As far as the author can judge, this happened for three reasons:

1) In Prussia and Austria, there were also internal unrest, revolutionary unrest;

2) A major uprising took place in Poland, which Russia was able to suppress only in 1831;

3) The French Revolution did not set as its goal a new terror (apparently the French learned from their mistakes) and even the establishment of a republic; instead, the French, as it were, simply changed the ruling dynasty. Therefore, the Holy Alliance did not have enough motivation to go to war with France.

E. Tarle (“Napoleon”) wrote about the unrest in Prussia:

“It is clear that he remained in the same moods that we have noted more than once. But suddenly - towards the very end, under the clear impression of the news that came to St. Helena from Europe through newspapers and oral reports about German revolutionary ferment, about student unrest, about liberation movements in Germany, etc. - the emperor abruptly changed front and declared (it was already in 1819) to the same Montolon something diametrically opposed to his previous statements.<Я должен был бы основать свою империю на поддержке якобинцев>. Because the Jacobin revolution is a volcano through which Prussia can be easily blown up. And as soon as the revolution had won in Prussia, it seemed to him that all of Prussia would be in his power and all of Europe would fall into his hands (<моим оружием и силой якобинизма>). True, when he spoke of a future or possible revolution, his thought did not go beyond the petty-bourgeois<якобинизма>and did not imply a social upheaval. The Jacobin revolution began to appear to him at times already as an ally, which he pushed away in vain.”

Having come to power, the new emperor of France, Louis-Philippe, went on some liberal reforms, abolished excessive court brilliance. The life of the French has become a little more comfortable. In the future, he, like many other rulers, began to abuse his power, get too close to the Holy Alliance, and this led to the revolution of 1848.

This time the revolution took place throughout Europe. The success of the 1830 revolution made Europeans increasingly believe in the revolution, that it could change lives for the better. Unrest swept the Italian and German states, Austria, Romania. The Holy Alliance has practically lost its power.

The uprising in Prussia did not overthrow the monarchy, but the king had to make concessions to the population, and Prussia became a constitutional monarchy. The same thing happened in other German states.

As a result of the revolution, France received universal suffrage, civil liberties, the unemployed were employed in road and earthworks, improved houses and city streets. True, after 1848 the bourgeois-democratic transformations were suspended. Later, Louis Napoleon Bonaparte (Napoleon III) came to power, restoring the monarchy for some time.

The defeat of France in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-1871 led to another revolution, as a result of which a new republican government came to power. In 1871, elections were held for the national assembly, and Adolphe Thiers was elected head of the executive branch.

The Thiers government managed to quickly rebuild France after the defeat in the war. Again, freedom of speech came to the country, etc. Then a constitution was adopted and France became a republic for a long time.

In general, the general pattern of revolutions turned out to be something like this: having come to power, the new government was initially afraid of popular anger and therefore carried out constructive reforms and made concessions to the population. Over time, having entered the taste of power, it began to discredit itself and a new revolution took place.

The revolutions of the 19th century constantly “remembered” the experience of the French Revolution of 1789, returning to the transformations of that time. Lenin said: Take the great French Revolution. It's called great for a reason. For her class, for which she worked, for the bourgeoisie, she did so much that the entire 19th century, the century that gave civilization and culture to all mankind, passed under the sign of the French Revolution. In all parts of the world, he only did what he carried out, carried out in parts, completed what the great French revolutionaries of the bourgeoisie had created”(V. I. Lenin, I All-Russian Congress on Out-of-School Education. It is about deceiving the people with the slogans of freedom and equality. May 19, Soch., vol. 29, p. 342.).

The intellectuals of the 19th century admired the French Revolution and downplayed the terror that discredited it. Here is how Mark Twain wrote about it (“The Connecticut Yankees”): “ It must be remembered and not forgotten that there were two "reigns of terror"; during one - the murders were committed in the heat of passion, during the other - in cold blood and deliberately; one lasted a few months, the other a thousand years; one cost the lives of ten thousand people, the other a hundred million. But for some reason we are horrified by the first, least, so to speak, momentary terror; meanwhile, what is the horror of instant death under an ax in comparison with slow dying throughout life from hunger, cold, insults, cruelty and heartache? What is instant death by lightning compared to slow death at the stake? All the victims of that Red Terror, about whom we have been so zealously taught to shed tears and be horrified, could fit in one city cemetery; but the whole of France could not contain the victims of that ancient and genuine terror, inexpressibly more bitter and terrible; however, no one has ever taught us to understand the full horror of it and to tremble with pity for its victims.”.

The author believes that in the 19th century Europe and Russia talked about the Jacobin terror no less than they talked about the Nazi terror in the 20th century. But in Soviet history textbooks, this side of the French Revolution was rather silent.

This historical experience speaks of a clear paradox: on the one hand, the saying “the romantics make the revolution, and the scoundrels use its fruits” is absolutely true; and on the other hand, despite all this, revolutions in most cases were good for society.

England in the 19th century also went in the direction of democratization, only this happened without revolutions. This is explained simply - the ruling elite of England understood that if it did not make concessions to the population, it would receive the same that the French elite received. The author has already written about this principle - the government works better and does not allow itself to fall into despotism if it is afraid of revolution.

Thanks to these transformations, the entire 19th century was full of optimism and faith in progress. In addition, then people believed in revolution, this word was very popular. In Russia there was a party of social revolutionaries, which enjoyed great support from the population.

And for this reason, two revolutions took place in Russia at the beginning of the 20th century - they took place despite the fact that there was no serious famine and other similar problems in the country.

The first revolution took place in 1905. Edward Radzinsky writes (“Nicholas II”) that this revolution could well destroy the ruling dynasty, and the tsar was saved only by concessions to the people - the adoption of the constitution. Freedom of speech and elections came to Russia.

Probably, this revolution can also be attributed to the successful ones. Although formally Russia has remained a monarchy, the standard of living of the Russian people has risen a little - freedom of speech and the ability to influence the government always raises the level of trust among the population. The rapid economic growth of Russia in 1906-1916 also contributed to this.

In 1917, the well-known February Revolution took place. The historian Felix Razumovsky (program “Who are we?”) calls it “Russian absurdity”, because the objective prerequisites for the revolution did not seem to exist: there was no famine in the country, the Russian army began to win the war (Brusilovsky breakthrough). The explanation of this "absurdity", in the opinion of the author, is as follows:

1) Then everyone believed that the revolution could change people's lives for the better. And the experience of the 1905 revolution, as mentioned above, also confirmed this;

2) It should not be assumed that the life of Russians at the beginning of the 20th century was so prosperous. Most likely, then all those “dark sides” of capitalism that we are seeing in Russia now were already shining through. As far as the author knows, in the 1960s the crime rate in the USSR was several times lower than in Russia before the revolution. There was malnutrition in the countryside of tsarist Russia, and unemployment and epidemics in the cities.

And one more thing: when we say that the government of Nicholas II worked well, this should be supplemented with one consideration - it worked because it was afraid of a new revolution (although even this did not save him).

In 1918, revolutions took place in Germany and Austria, after the defeat in the war. We can say that this ended the history of the confrontation between the bourgeois-democratic and estate-monarchist system; however, it must be added to this that history continues uninterruptedly, so in it the end of one period means the beginning of another.

We can summarize: of the 12 revolutions listed, only two seemed to end in failure: the French in 1789 and the Russian in 1917. At the same time, the French revolution, one might say, still won more than a hundred years after it began.

8 revolutions ended successfully, quickly leading to positive changes. About 2 more revolutions - the German and Austrian 1918 - it is difficult to say something unambiguous: on the one hand, life in the German Weimar Republic, which appeared after the revolution, was very difficult, which led to the Nazis coming to power; on the other hand, after the defeat of the Nazis in the Second World War, Germany and Austria again became republics, and life improved there.

In general, the European revolutions managed to change the world for the better. The second half of the twentieth century, as the author sees it, was the most prosperous period in the history of mankind, and this is due to revolutions.

In the 21st century, two revolutions took place in Ukraine, which at first had high hopes. So far, these hopes have not been justified, but perhaps the time has not yet come to reap their fruits? The history of European revolutions lasted 5 centuries, probably in Ukraine the history of new revolutions will last long enough.

It can be assumed that in the future in Ukraine there will no longer be revolutions, but changes in the ruling elites, who managed to compromise themselves, as a result of elections.

When European revolutions took place, their main goal was the elimination of class differences and the exploitation of the lower strata of the population. The current revolutions have other issues on the agenda - for example, the effective fight against corruption. Our time is full of all sorts of social problems (for example, Internet addiction), which politicians simply do not talk about yet.

The main idea of ​​the Ukrainian Maidan - the population should change the government until the government gets used to responsibility - has so far remained unrealized. But one can hope that Maidan will eventually form a generation of responsible politicians who will effectively solve such problems.

Sources :

1) Wikipedia.

2) Mark Twain. A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's court.

3) Edward Radzinsky. Walking with the executioner.

4) Edward Radzinsky. The kingdom of the executioner.

5) E. Tarle. Napoleon.

6) Lenin V.I. Complete Works.

7) Edward Radzinsky. Nicholas II.

8) Felix Razumovsky. Program "Who are we?".

9) E. Gaidar. State and evolution.

Bourgeois revolutions of the 17th and 18th centuries in Europe.
Revolution is a rapid and deep change in the basic foundations of the political, social and cultural order, carried out with the overcoming of the resistance of entire social groups.
Causes of the bourgeois revolutions of the XVII-XVIII centuries.
The development of the capitalist structure in the economy, which came into conflict with feudal remnants in agriculture and industry.
The formation of new classes - the bourgeoisie and the proletariat, which came into conflict with the outdated class structure of society.
Strengthening the economic position of the bourgeoisie, its desire for political power.
The inability of absolutist regimes to solve pressing socio-economic problems.
The plight of the lower classes of society, the unwillingness of the ruling circles to change the situation for the better.
Lack of political rights and freedoms, opportunities for legal struggle for their interests among the majority of the population.
Ideas of the Enlightenment: the theory of natural law, the contractual theory of the emergence of the state, the theory of social progress, etc.
Revolution in the Netherlands (1566 - 1579).
The reasons. In addition to the above, the Dutch Revolution was caused by the desire to free themselves from the oppression of Spain, which received 40% of its income from the exploitation of Dutch possessions. Philip II of Spain introduced the Inquisition in the Netherlands, which actively fought against the Protestants. Spanish garrisons stood in the Dutch cities, their presence aroused the indignation of the people.
War of the Gueuzes with the Spaniards.
The Geuzes are supporters of the independence of the Netherlands from Spain. This nickname was given to Protestant nobles for their discreet dark clothes. There was a beggar's sum on the coat of arms of the gueuzes. Prince William of Orange, nicknamed the Silent, headed the gozes.
The beginning of the war was an iconoclast uprising, suppressed by the authorities. The common people destroyed 5.5 thousand churches, dispersed the monasteries and seized their lands. Spain took advantage of the pretext to send a punitive army and deal with the gueuzes forever. The army was led by the Duke of Alba, nicknamed "bloody".
The Duke of Alba entered the Netherlands and carried out a massacre. 8,000 people were executed, taxes were raised, Spanish soldiers raped the inhabitants. Some of the Dutch went into the forests and became "forest gozes", others on ships began to attack the Spaniards as "sea gozes". England provided its ports for the base of the Dutch rebels, but then they were ordered to leave Britain. The Geuzes fleet liberated the port of Brile, then a general offensive began. Under the leadership of William of Orange, the Gyoze united. The army of the Duke of Alba laid siege to Leiden, where a terrible famine began. Then the Gyoza destroyed the dams and caused a flood, freeing the city.
In 1579, the Union of Utrecht was signed by the northern and central provinces of the Netherlands to continue the fight against Spain. The war ended in 1648 with a complete victory for the United Provinces. The Netherlands became a bourgeois republic, the richest and most developed country in Europe at that time. The Netherlands conquered many overseas territories, taking over the eastern trade.
English bourgeois revolution (1640 - 1660).
The beginning of the revolution.
Conflict of King Charles I with Parliament. The king dissolved parliament and did not convene it for 11 years, he turned the Star Chamber into a High Commission to fight his political opponents. In 1640, Charles convened the Short Parliament to raise money to continue the war with Scotland, but dissolved the same year. He was forced to assemble the Long Parliament (1640 - 1653), which dissolved the Star Chamber and the High Commission, introduced a ban on the dissolution of the House of Commons and obliged the king to convene Parliament at least once every 3 years.
The Long Parliament in 1641 passed the Great Remonstrance, a document about the abuses of the king. The king fled to the North and began to gather troops.
Civil War in England (1642-1649).
Failures of the Army of Parliament (1642-1643).
During the first period of the war, the army of Parliament suffered defeat from the royal troops, as it was less armed and trained. The discipline in the revolutionary army was weak, the command unprofessional. In this regard, in 1642-1643, the royal troops won a series of victories and almost captured London.
Oliver Cromwell's New Model Army.
In 1643, MP Oliver Cromwell, a prosperous gentry brewer, began to form a new type of Puritans from among the Puritans. He established the strictest discipline in them, introducing the death penalty for looting, drunkenness and cowardice. The army was well trained, well equipped, and most importantly, it was soldered by faith in God, as it consisted of Puritans. Cromwell's soldiers were called "iron-sided" for their equipment. In 1645, at the Battle of Naseby, the royal troops were defeated, Charles I fled to Scotland, but was handed over to Parliament.
Levellers. Many commoners believed that it was not enough to defeat the royal troops and restore Parliament. They demanded that taxes be lowered, that the monarchy and the House of Lords be abolished altogether, that all Englishmen be allowed to be elected to parliament, and so on. For demanding equal rights, they were nicknamed the Levellers. In the beginning, Cromwell was allied with the Levellers against the supporters of the king, but the Levellers created a Council of the Army, which captured London and effectively took power into their own hands. Cromwell was forced to dissolve the Army Council and became an opponent of the Levellers.
Pride purge of parliament.
Parliament was dominated by moderates - Presbyterians, who constantly tried to establish control over Cromwell's army. In the end, Colonel Pride appeared in parliament and let only independents into the meeting, as a result of which parliament agreed with Cromwell's actions.
King's execution.
The king agreed on support with the Scots, they invaded England. Cromwell defeated them and accused the king of treason. A trial took place, at which it was proved that Charles I turned to France and Spain for help. A specially created Supreme Tribunal sentenced the king to death. January 30, 1649 Charles was beheaded.
5. Results of the revolution and civil war:
5.1. liquidation of the monarchy.
5.2. Establishment of a republic in the form of Cromwell's dictatorship.
5.3. Strengthening the positions of the gentry and the bourgeoisie.
5.4. Strengthening the positions of the Puritans.
6. Reign of Oliver Cromwell (1649-1658).
6.1. Conquest of Ireland and Scotland.
Oliver Cromwell brutally suppressed the attempts of the Irish and Scots to free themselves from the rule of England. He first invaded Ireland with an army, which was annexed to England, except for Ulster. Then the Scots were conquered. Huge lands in Ireland and Scotland fell into the hands of the Independents, who became landowners, turning local peasants into farm laborers or tenants.
6.2. War with the Netherlands.
The war was caused by a clash of commercial interests and was fought despite the fact that both the British and the Dutch were Protestants. As a result of the war, the Navigation Act was recognized, according to which all goods to England were to be delivered either on English ships or on ships of producing countries.
6.3. Digger movement. Gerard Winstanley, The Law of Freedom.
The digger movement arose in 1649, it was egalitarian. The leader of the diggers, Gerard Winstanley, called for the abolition of private property, so they arbitrarily dug up the wasteland. The authorities and local landowners treated the diggers as dangerous troublemakers and dispersed their communities.
6.4. Protectorate of Cromwell (1653 - 1658).
Oliver Cromwell dissolved Parliament and assumed the title of Lord Protector. Cromwell introduced a tough dictatorial regime, dispersed parliament twice, and brutally suppressed any opposition. He divided the country into military districts headed by generals whose duty it was to ensure the obedience of the population. Until his death, Cromwell was in fact the all-powerful ruler of England, although formally the country was a republic.
7. Restoration of the Stuarts and the Glorious Revolution.
7.1. Reign of Charles II and James II Stuarts (1660 - 1688). Charles II was called to the English throne by the bourgeois and gentry, hoping for a stable development of the country. However, both Charles and his successor, James II, did not want to cooperate with parliament, passed laws that limited the country's economic development, and lost wars. As a result, in 1688, Parliament called the stadtholder of Holland, William of Orange, to the English throne. He arrived in England with a fleet and was proclaimed king.
7.2. Constitutional monarchy in England.
7.2.1. Political parties: Tories and Whigs.
7.2.2. "Habeas Corpus Act".
7.2.3. "Bill of rights".