II semester

Historical Geography of Ancient Greece.

Written sources on the history of Ancient Greece.

Minoan civilization in Crete.

Mycenaean Greece.

Trojan War.

Dark Ages" in the history of Greece.

Greek mythology: the main plots.

Poems of Homer.

Great Greek colonization.

Sparta as a type of polis.

Formation of the policy in Athens (VIII-VI centuries BC).

Solon's reforms.

Tyranny of Pisistratus.

Reforms of Cleisthenes.

Greco-Persian Wars.

Athenian democracy in the 5th century. BC.

Athenian maritime power in the 5th century. BC.

Peloponnesian War.

The Crisis of the Polis in Greece, 4th c. BC.

Greek culture of the archaic period.

Greek culture of classical times.

Rise of Macedonia.

Campaigns of Alexander.

Hellenism and its manifestations in economics, politics, culture.

Major Hellenistic States.

Northern Black Sea region in the classical and Hellenistic era.

Periodization of the history of Rome.

Historical Geography of Rome, Italy and the Empire.

Written sources on Roman history.

Etruscans and their culture.

The royal period of the history of Rome.

Early Republic: the struggle of patricians and plebeians.

Roman conquest of Italy.

Second Punic War.

Roman conquest of the Mediterranean in the 2nd century BC. BC.

Reforms of the Gracchi brothers.

Struggle between the optimates and the popular. Marius and Sulla.

Political struggle in Rome in the 1st half. 1st century BC.

Caesar's conquest of Gaul.

Rise of Spartacus.

The struggle for power and the dictatorship of Caesar.

Struggle between Antony and Octavian.

Principate of Augustus.

Emperors from the dynasty of Tiberius-Juliev.

Roman provinces in the I-II centuries. AD and their romanization.

Golden Age" of the Roman Empire in the II century. AD

Roman culture during the civil wars.

Roman culture of the era of the principate.

The era of "soldier emperors".

Reforms of Diocletian-Constantine.

Ancient Christian church. The adoption of Christianity in the IV century.

The onslaught of the Germanic tribes on the borders of the empire in the IV-V centuries.

Eastern provinces in the IV-VI centuries. Birth of Byzantium.

Fall of the Western Roman Empire.

Culture of the Late Empire.

Antique traditions in the culture of subsequent eras.

The main features of ancient civilization, its differences from the civilizations of the Ancient East.

Ancient civilization is an exemplary, normative civilization. Events took place here, which then only repeated, there is not a single event and reality, which were not meaningful, did not occur in Other Greece and Other. Rome.

Antiquity is clear to us today, because: 1. in antiquity they lived according to the principle of "here and now"; 2. religion was superficial; 3 the Greeks had no morals, conscience, they maneuvered through life; 4 private life was a person's private life, if not affect public morality.

Not similar: 1. There was no concept of ethics (good, bad). Religion was reduced to rituals. And not to assess good and bad.

1. In ancient civilization, man is the main subject of the historical process (more important than the state or religion), in contrast to the civilization of the ancient East.

2. Culture in Western civilization is a personal creative expression, in contrast to the Eastern, where the state and religion are glorified.

3. The ancient Greek hoped only for himself, not for God, nor for the state.

4. The pagan religion for antiquity did not have a moral standard.

5. Unlike the ancient Eastern religion, the Greeks believed that life on earth is better than in the other world.

6. For the Ancient civilization, the important criteria of life were: creativity, personality, culture, i.e. self-expression.

7. In ancient civilization there was basically a democracy (people's assemblies, a council of elders), in the Other East - monarchies.

Periodization of the history of Ancient Greece.

Period

1. Civilization of Minoan Crete - 2 thousand BC - XX - XII century BC

Old palaces 2000-1700 BC - appearance of several potential centers (Knossos, Festa, Mallia, Zagross)

The period of new palaces 1700-1400 BC - the palace at Knossos (Mitaur's Palace)

Earthquake XV - the conquest of Fr. Crete from the mainland by the Achaeans.

2. Mycenaean (Achaean) civilization - XVII-XII centuries BC (Greeks, but not yet ancient)

3. The Homeric period, or the Dark Ages, or the prepolis period (XI-IX centuries BC), - tribal relations in Greece.

Period. Antique civilization

1. Archaic period (archaic) (VIII-VI centuries BC) - the formation of a polis society and state. Settlement of the Greeks along the shores of the Mediterranean and Black Seas (Great Greek colonization).

2. The classical period (classics) (V-IV centuries BC) - the heyday of ancient Greek civilization, a rational economy, a polis system, Greek culture.

3. Hellenistic period (Helinism, postclassical period) - end. IV - I in BC (expansion of the Greek world, dwindling kul-ra, lightened historical period):

Eastern campaigns of Alexander the Great and the formation of a system of Hellenistic states (30s of the 4th century, BC - 80s of the 3rd century BC);

The functioning of Hellenistic societies and states (80s of the 3rd century BC, - the middle of the 2nd century BC);

The crisis of the Hellenistic system and the conquest of the Hellenistic states by Rome in the West and Parthia in the East (mid-2nd century - 1st century BC).

3. Historical geography of Ancient Greece.

The geographical boundaries of ancient Greek history were not constant, but changed and expanded as historical development progressed. The main territory of the ancient Greek civilization was the Aegean region, i.e. Balkan, Asia Minor, Thracian coast and numerous islands of the Aegean Sea. From the 8th-9th centuries. BC, after a powerful colonization movement from the Aeneid region, known as the Great Greek colonization, the Greeks mastered the territories of Sicily and South. Italy, which received the name Magna Graecia, as well as the Black Sea coast. After the campaigns of A. Macedon at the end of the 4th century. BC. and the conquest of the Persian state on its ruins in the Near and Middle East up to India, Hellenistic states were formed and these territories became part of the ancient Greek world. In the Hellenistic era, the Greek world covered a vast territory from Sicily in the west to India in the East, from the Northern Black Sea region in the north, to the first rapids of the Nile in the south. However, in all periods of ancient Greek history, the Aegean region was considered its central part, where Greek statehood and culture were born and reached their dawn.

The climate is Eastern Mediterranean, subtropical with mild winters (+10) and hot summers.

The relief is mountainous, the valleys are isolated from each other, which prevented the construction of communications and assumed the maintenance of nat-go agriculture in each valley.

There is an indented coastline. There was communication by sea. The Greeks, although they were afraid of the sea, mastered the Aegean Sea, did not go out to the Black Sea for a long time.

Greece is rich in minerals: marble, iron ore, copper, silver, wood, good quality pottery clay, which provided the Greek craft with a sufficient amount of raw materials.

The soils of Greece are stony, moderately fertile and difficult to cultivate. However, the abundance of sun and the mild subtropical climate made them favorable for agricultural activities. There were also spacious valleys (in Boeotia, Laconica, Thessaly), suitable for agriculture. In agriculture, there was a triad: cereals (barley, wheat), olives (olives), from which oil was produced, and its pomace was the basis of lighting, and grapes (a universal drink that did not spoil in this climate, wine 4 -5%). Cheese was made from milk.

Cattle breeding: small cattle (sheep, bulls), poultry, because there was nowhere to turn around.

4. Written sources on the history of Ancient Greece.

In ancient Greece, history is born - special historical writings.

In the 6th century BC, logographs appeared - word writings, the first prose, and a description of memorable events. The most famous are the logographs of Hecatea (540-478 BC) and Hellanicus (480-400 BC).

The first historical study was the work "History" by Herodotus (485-425 BC), who was called "the father of history" by Cicero in ancient times. "History" - the main type of prose, has public and private significance, explains the whole history as a whole, broadcasts, transmits information to descendants. The work of Herodotus differs from the chronicles, chronicles in that there are causes of events. The purpose of the work is to present all the information brought to the author. The work of Herodotus is devoted to the history of the Greco-Persian wars and consists of 9 books, which in the III century. BC e. were named after 9 muses.

Another outstanding work of Greek historical thought was the work of the Athenian historian Thucydides (about 460-396 BC), dedicated to the events of the Peloponnesian War (431-404 BC). The work of Thucydides consists of 8 books, they outline the events of the Peloponnesian War from 431 to 411 BC. e. (The work was left unfinished.) However, Thucydides does not confine himself to a thorough and detailed description of military operations. He also gives a description of the internal life of the belligerents, including the relationship between different groups of the population and their clashes, changes in the political system, while partially selecting information.

A diverse literary legacy was left by Thucydides' younger contemporary, historian and publicist Xenophon of Athens (430-355 BC). He left behind many different works: "Greek History", "Education of Cyrus", "Anabasis", "Domostroy".

The first Greek literary monuments - Homer's epic poems "Iliad" and "Odyssey" - are practically the only sources of information on the history of the dark ages of the XII - VI centuries. BC e., i.e.

Among the writings of Plato (427-347 BC), his extensive treatises "State" and "Laws", written in the last period of his life, are of the greatest importance. In them, Plato, starting from an analysis of the socio-political relations of the middle of the 6th century. BC e., offers his version of the reorganization of Greek society on new, fair, in his opinion, principles.

Aristotle owns treatises on logic and ethics, rhetoric and poetics, meteorology and astronomy, zoology and physics, which are informative sources. However, the most valuable works on the history of Greek society in the 4th c. BC e. are his writings on the essence and forms of the state - "Politics" and "The Athenian Poured".

Of the historical writings that give a coherent presentation of the events of Hellenistic history, the most important are the works of Polybius (the work details the history of the Greek and Roman world from 280 to 146 BC) and Diodorus' Historical Library.

A great contribution to the study of history Dr. Greece also has the works of Strabo, Plutarch, Pausanias, and others.

Mycenaean (Achaean) Greece.

Mycenaean civilization or Achaean Greece- a cultural period in the history of prehistoric Greece from the 18th to the 12th centuries BC. e., Bronze Age. It got its name from the city of Mycenae on the Peloponnese peninsula.

Internal sources are Linear B tablets deciphered after World War 2 by Michael Ventris. They contain documents on economic reporting: taxes, on the lease of land. Some information about the history of the Archean kings is contained in the poems of Homer "Iliad" and "Odyssey", the works of Herodotus, Thucydides, Aristotle, which is confirmed by archeological data.

The creators of the Mycenaean culture were the Greeks - the Achaeans, who invaded the Balkan Peninsula at the turn of III-II millennium BC. e. from the north, from the region of the Danube lowland or from the steppes of the Northern Black Sea region, where they originally lived. The aliens partially destroyed and devastated the settlements of the conquered tribes. The remnants of the pre-Greek population gradually assimilated with the Achaeans.

In the early stages of its development, Mycenaean culture was strongly influenced by the more advanced Minoan civilization, for example, some cults and religious rites, fresco painting, plumbing and sewage, styles of men's and women's clothing, some types of weapons, and finally, a linear syllabary.

The heyday of the Mycenaean civilization can be considered the XV-XIII centuries. BC e. The most significant centers of the early class society were Mycenae, Tiryns, Pylos in the Peloponnese, in Central Greece Athens, Thebes, Orchomenos, in the northern part of Iolk - Thessaly, which never united into one state. All states were at war. Male warlike civilization.

Almost all Mycenaean palaces-fortresses were fortified with Cyclopean stone walls, which were built by free people, and were citadels (for example, the Tiryns citadel).

The bulk of the working population in the Mycenaean states, as in Crete, were free or semi-free peasants and artisans, who were economically dependent on the palace and were subject to labor and natural duties in its favor. Among the artisans who worked for the palace, blacksmiths occupied a special position. Usually they received from the palace the so-called talasiya, that is, a task or lesson. Craftsmen who were involved in public service were not deprived of personal freedom. They could own land and even slaves like all other members of the community.

At the head of the palace state was a "vanaka" (king), who occupied a special privileged position among the ruling nobility. The duties of Lavagete (commander) included the command of the armed forces of the Pylos kingdom. C ar and military leader concentrated in their hands the most important functions of both economic and political nature. Directly subordinate to the ruling elite of society were numerous officials who acted locally and in the center and together constituted a powerful apparatus for the oppression and exploitation of the working population of the Pylos kingdom: carters (governors), basilei (supervised production).

All land in the kingdom of Pylos was divided into two main categories: 1) land of the palace, or state, and 2) land belonging to individual territorial communities.

Mycenaean civilization survived two invasions from the north with an interval of 50 years. In the period between the invasions, the population of the Mycenaean civilization united with the goal of dying with glory in the Trojan War (not a single Trojan hero returned home alive).

Internal reasons for the death of the Mycenaean civilization: a fragile economy, an undeveloped simple society, which led to destruction after the loss of the top. The external cause of death is the invasion of the Dorians.

Civilizations of the Eastern type are not suitable for Europe. Crete and Mycenae are the parents of antiquity.

7. Trojan War.

The Trojan War, according to the ancient Greeks, was one of the most significant events in their history. Ancient historians believed that it occurred around the turn of the XIII-XII centuries. BC e., and began with it a new - "Trojan" era: the ascent of the tribes inhabiting Balkan Greece to a higher level of culture associated with life in cities. Numerous Greek myths were told about the campaign of the Greek Achaeans against the city of Troy, located in the northwestern part of the peninsula of Asia Minor - Troad, later combined into a cycle of legends - cyclic poems, among them the poem "Iliad", attributed to the Greek poet Homer. It tells about one of the episodes of the final, tenth year of the siege of Troy-Ilion.

The Trojan War, according to the myths, began at the will and fault of the gods. All the gods were invited to the wedding of the Thessalian hero Peleus and the sea goddess Thetis, except for Eris, the goddess of discord. The angry goddess decided to take revenge and threw a golden apple with the inscription "To the most beautiful" to the feasting gods. Three Olympian goddesses, Hera, Athena and Aphrodite, argued which of them it was meant for. Zeus ordered the young Paris, the son of the Trojan king Priam, to judge the goddesses. The goddesses appeared to Paris on Mount Ida, near Troy, where the prince was tending herds, and each tried to seduce him with gifts. Paris preferred the love offered to him by Aphrodite to Helen, the most beautiful of mortal women, and handed the golden apple to the goddess of love. Helena, daughter of Zeus and Leda, was the wife of the Spartan king Menelaus. Paris, who was a guest in the house of Menelaus, took advantage of his absence and, with the help of Aphrodite, convinced Helen to leave her husband and go with him to Troy.

Offended, Menelaus, with the help of his brother, the powerful king of Mycenae Agamemnon, gathered a large army to return his unfaithful wife and stolen treasures. All the suitors who once wooed Elena and swore an oath to defend her honor came to the call of the brothers: Odysseus, Diomedes, Protesilaus, Ajax Telamonides and Ajax Oilid, Philoctetes, the wise old man Nestor and others. Achilles, the son of Peleus and Thetis. Agamemnon was chosen as the leader of the entire army, as the ruler of the most powerful of the Achaean states.

The Greek fleet, numbering a thousand ships, assembled at Aulis, a harbor in Boeotia. To ensure the fleet's safe navigation to the shores of Asia Minor, Agamemnon sacrificed his daughter Iphigenia to the goddess Artemis. Having reached Troas, the Greeks tried to return Helen and the treasures by peaceful means. Odysseus and Menelaus went as messengers to Troy. The Trojans refused them, and a long and tragic war began for both sides. The gods also took part in it. Hera and Athena helped the Achaeans, Aphrodite and Apollo helped the Trojans.

The Greeks could not immediately take Troy, surrounded by powerful fortifications. They built a fortified camp on the seashore near their ships, began to devastate the outskirts of the city and attack the allies of the Trojans. In the tenth year, Agamemnon insulted Achilles by taking away the captive Briseis from him, and he, angry, refused to enter the battlefield. The Trojans took advantage of the inaction of the bravest and strongest of their enemies and went on the offensive, led by Hector. The Trojans were also helped by the general fatigue of the Achaean army, which had been unsuccessfully besieging Troy for ten years.

The Trojans broke into the Achaean camp and almost burned their ships. The closest friend of Achilles, Patroclus, stopped the onslaught of the Trojans, but he himself died at the hands of Hector. The death of a friend makes Achilles forget about the offense. Trojan hero Hector dies in a duel with Achilles. The Amazons come to the aid of the Trojans. Achilles kills their leader Penthesilea, but soon dies himself, as predicted, from the arrow of Paris, directed by the god Apollo.

A decisive turning point in the war occurs after the arrival of the hero Philoctetes from the island of Lemnos and the son of Achilles Neoptolemus to the camp of the Achaeans. Philoctetes kills Paris, and Neoptolemus kills an ally of the Trojans, the Mysian Eurynil. Left without leaders, the Trojans no longer dare to go out to battle in the open field. But the powerful walls of Troy reliably protect its inhabitants. Then, at the suggestion of Odysseus, the Achaeans decided to take the city by cunning. A huge wooden horse was built, inside which a select detachment of warriors hid. The rest of the army took refuge not far from the coast, near the island of Tenedos.

Surprised by the abandoned wooden monster, the Trojans gathered around him. Some began to offer to bring the horse into the city. Priest Laocoön, warning about the treachery of the enemy, exclaimed: "Beware of the Danaans (Greeks), who bring gifts!" But the speech of the priest did not convince his compatriots, and they brought a wooden horse into the city as a gift to the goddess Athena. At night, the warriors hidden in the belly of the horse come out and open the gate. The secretly returned Achaeans break into the city, and the beating of the inhabitants taken by surprise begins. Menelaus with a sword in his hands is looking for an unfaithful wife, but when he sees the beautiful Elena, he is unable to kill her. The entire male population of Troy perishes, with the exception of Aeneas, the son of Anchises and Aphrodite, who received an order from the gods to flee the captured city and revive its glory elsewhere. The women of Troy became captives and slaves of the victors. The city perished in a fire.

After the death of Troy, strife begins in the Achaean camp. Ajax Oilid incurs the wrath of the goddess Athena on the Greek fleet, and she sends a terrible storm, during which many ships sink. Menelaus and Odysseus are carried by a storm to distant lands (described in Homer's poem "The Odyssey"). The leader of the Achaeans, Agamemnon, after returning home, was killed along with his companions by his wife Clytemnestra, who did not forgive her husband for the death of her daughter Iphigenia. So, not at all triumphant, the campaign against Troy ended for the Achaeans.

The ancient Greeks did not doubt the historical reality of the Trojan War. Thucydides was convinced that the ten-year siege of Troy described in the poem was a historical fact, only embellished by the poet. Separate parts of the poem, such as the "catalog of ships" or the list of the Achaean army under the walls of Troy, are written as a real chronicle.

Historians of the XVIII-XIX centuries. were convinced that there was no Greek campaign against Troy and that the heroes of the poem are mythical, not historical figures.

In 1871, Heinrich Schliemann began excavations of the Hissarlik hill in the northwestern part of Asia Minor, identifying it as the location of ancient Troy. Then, following the instructions of the poem, Heinrich Schliemann conducted archaeological excavations in the "gold-abundant" Mycenae. In one of the royal graves discovered there, there were - for Schliemann there was no doubt about this - the remains of Agamemnon and his companions, strewn with gold ornaments; Agamemnon's face was covered with a golden mask.

The discoveries of Heinrich Schliemann shocked the world community. There was no doubt that Homer's poem contains information about real events and their real heroes.

Later, A. Evans discovered the palace of the Minotaur on the island of Crete. In 1939, the American archaeologist Carl Blegen discovered the "sandy" Pylos, the habitat of the wise old man Nestor on the western coast of the Peloponnese. However, archeology has established that the city that Schliemann took for Troy existed for a thousand years before the Trojan War.

But it is impossible to deny the existence of the city of Troy somewhere in the northwestern region of Asia Minor. Documents from the archives of the Hittite kings testify that the Hittites knew both the city of Troy and the city of Ilion (in the Hittite version of "Truis" and "Vilus"), but, apparently, as two different cities located in the neighborhood, and not one under a double title, like in a poem.

Poems of Homer.

Homer is considered the author of two poems - the Iliad and the Odyssey, although the question of whether Homer actually lived or whether he is a legendary person has not yet been resolved in modern science. The totality of the problems associated with the authorship of the Iliad and the Odyssey, their origin and fate until the moment of recording, was called the "Homeric question".

In Italy, G. Vico (17th century) and in Germany, fr. Wolf (18) recognized the folk origin of the poems. In the 19th century, the “theory of small songs” was proposed, from which both poems subsequently arose mechanically. The Grain Theory assumes that the Iliad and the Odyssey are based on a small poem, which over time has acquired details and new episodes as a result of the work of new generations of poets. Unitarians denied the participation of folk art in the creation of Homeric poems, they considered them as a work of art created by one author. At the end of the 19th century, a theory of the folk origin of poems was proposed as a result of the gradual natural development of collective epic creativity. Synthetic theories arose in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, according to which the Iliad and the Odyssey appear to be an epic edited by one or two poets.

The plots of both poems date back to the Mycenaean time, which is confirmed by numerous archaeological materials. The poems reflect the Cretan-Mycenaean (the end of the 12th century - information about the Trojan War), Homeric (XI-IX - most of the information, because the information about the Mycenaean time did not reach oral form), early archaic (VIII-VII) era.

The content of the Iliad and the Odyssey was based on legends from the cycle myths about the Trojan War, that took place in the 13th-12th centuries. BC uh. The plot of the Iliad is the anger of the Thessalian hero Achilles at the leader of the Greek troops besieging Troy, Agamemnon, because he took away his beautiful captive. The oldest part of the Iliad is the 2nd song about the "Lists of ships". The plot of the Odyssey is the return of the island of Ithaca by Odysseus to his homeland after the Greeks destroyed Troy.

The poems were written down in Athens under the tyrant Peisistratus, who wanted to show that there was a sole power in Greece. The poems acquired their modern form in the 2nd century BC during the Alexandrian monsoon (the Hellenistic era).

Meaning of the poems: a book for the study of literacy, the "desk book" of the Greeks.

One of the most important compositional features of the Iliad is the "law of chronological incompatibility" formulated by Thaddeus Frantsevich Zelinsky. It consists in the fact that “In Homer the story never returns to the point of its departure. It follows from this that Homer's parallel actions cannot be depicted; Homer's poetic technique knows only a simple, linear dimension. Thus, sometimes parallel events are depicted as sequential, sometimes one of them is only mentioned or even hushed up. This explains some imaginary contradictions in the text of the poem.

A complete translation of the Iliad into Russian in the size of the original was made by N. I. Gnedich (1829), the Odyssey by V. A. Zhukovsky (1849).

Sparta as a type of polis.

The Spartan state was located in the south of the Peloponnese. The capital of this state was called Sparta, and the state itself was called Laconia. Polis could not be conquered, but only destroyed. All policies developed, but only Sparta in the 6th century. mothballed.

The main sources on the history of the Spartan state are the works of Thucydides, Xenophon, Aristotle and Plutarch, the poems of the Spartan poet Tyrtaeus. Archaeological materials acquire significance.

During the IX-VIII centuries BC, the Spartans waged a stubborn struggle with neighboring tribes for dominance over Laconia. As a result, they managed to subdue the area from the southern borders of the Arcadian Highlands to the Capes Tenar and Malea on the southern coast of the Peloponnese.

In the 7th century BC, an acute land hunger began to be felt in Sparta, and the Spartans undertook an aggressive campaign in Messenia, also inhabited by the Dorians. As a result of two Messenian warriors, the territory of Messenia was annexed to Sparta, and the bulk of the population, with the exception of the inhabitants of some coastal cities, was turned into helots.

The fertile lands in Laconia and Messenia were divided into 9,000 allotments and were distributed to the Spartans. Each allotment was processed by several families of helots, who were obliged to support the Spartan and his family with their labor. The Spartan could not dispose of his allotment, sell it or leave it as an inheritance to his son. Nor was he the master of the helots. He had no right to sell or release them. Both the land and the helots belonged to the state.

Three population groups formed in Sparta: the Spartans (the conquerors themselves were Dorians), the perieks (the inhabitants of small towns scattered at some distance from Sparta, along the borders, called periekami ("living around"). They were free, but did not have civil rights) and helots (dependent population).

ephors - in the highest control and administrative body of Sparta. Elected for a year in the number of 5 people. They monitor the behavior of citizens, being overseers in relation to the enslaved and dependent population. They declare war on the helots.

The constant threat of a helot rebellion, looming under the ruling class of Sparta, demanded from him maximum unity and organization. Therefore, simultaneously with the redistribution of land, the Spartan legislator Lycurgus carried out a whole series of important social reforms:

Only a strong and healthy person could become a real warrior. When a boy was born, his father brought him to the elders. The baby was examined. A weak child was thrown into the abyss. The law obliged each Spartiate to send their sons to special camps - agels (lit. Herd). Boys were taught to read and write only for practical purposes. Education was subordinated to three goals: to be able to obey, courageously endure suffering, win or die in battles. . The boys were engaged in gymnastic and military exercises, learned to wield weapons, live in a Spartan way. They walked all year round in one cloak (himation). They slept on hard cane, plucked with bare hands. They fed them starving. To be dexterous and cunning in war, teenagers learned to steal. The boys even competed to see which of them would endure the beatings longer and more worthily. The winner was praised, his name became known to everyone. But some died under the rods. The Spartans were excellent warriors - strong, skillful, brave. The laconic saying of one Spartan woman who accompanied her son to war was famous. She gave him a shield and said: "With a shield or on a shield!"

Sparta also paid great attention to the education of women, who were highly respected. To give birth to healthy children, you need to be healthy. Therefore, the girls did not do household chores, but gymnastics and sports, they knew how to read, write, and count.

According to the law of Lycurgus, special joint meals were introduced - sisstia.

The principle of equality was put at the heart of the "Lykurgov system", they tried to stop the growth of property inequality among the Spartans. In order to withdraw gold and silver from circulation, iron obols were put into circulation.

The Spartan state forbade all foreign trade. It was only internal and took place in local markets. The craft was poorly developed, it was carried out by the perieks, who made only the most necessary utensils for equipping the Spartan army.

All transformations contributed to the consolidation of society.

The most important elements of the political system of Sparta are the dual royal power, the council of elders (gerousia) and the popular assembly.

The people's assembly (apella), in which all full-fledged citizens of Sparta took part, approved the decisions taken by the kings and elders at their joint meeting.

Council of Elders - Gerousia consisted of 30 members: 28 geronts (elders) and two kings. Gerontes were elected from Spartans no younger than 60 years old. The kings received power by inheritance, but their rights in everyday life were very small: military leaders during military operations, judicial and religious functions in peacetime. Decisions were made at a joint meeting of the council of elders and kings.

The city of Sparta itself had a modest appearance. There were not even defensive walls. The Spartans said that the best defense of a city was not the walls, but the courage of its citizens.

By the middle of the 6th c. BC. Corinth, Sicyon and Megara were subordinated, as a result of which the Peloponnesian Union was formed, which became the most significant political association of Greece at that time.

Solon's reforms

Solon went down in history as an outstanding reformer, who largely changed the political face of Athens and thus made it possible for this policy to outstrip other Greek cities in its development.

The socio-economic and political situation in Attica continued to deteriorate for almost the entire 7th century. BC e. The social differentiation of the population led to the fact that already a significant part of all Athenians eked out a miserable existence. The poor peasants lived in debt, paid huge interest, mortgaged the land, gave their rich fellow citizens up to 5/6 of the harvest.

The failure in the war for the island of Salamis with Megara at the end of the 7th century added fuel to the fire.

Solon. came from an ancient but impoverished noble family, was engaged in maritime trade and was thus connected both with the aristocracy and with the demos, whose members respected Solon for honesty. Pretending to be crazy, he publicly called on the Athenians for revenge in verse. His poems caused a great public outcry, which saved the poet from punishment. He was instructed to assemble and lead the fleet and army. In a new war, Athens defeated Megara, and Solon became the most popular man in the city. In 594 BC. e. he was elected the first archon (eponym) and was also instructed to perform the functions of aisimnet, that is, he was supposed to become an intermediary in settling social issues.

Solon resolutely undertook reforms. To begin with, he conducted the so-called sisachfia (literally "shaking off the burden"), according to which all debts were canceled. Mortgage debt stones were removed from the mortgaged land plots, for the future it was forbidden to borrow money against the mortgage of people. Many peasants got their plots back. The Athenians sold abroad were redeemed at public expense. These events in themselves improved the social situation, although the poor were unhappy that Solon did not carry out the promised redistribution of the land. On the other hand, the archon established the maximum maximum rate of land ownership and introduced freedom of will - from now on, if there were no direct heirs, it was possible to transfer property by will to any citizen, allowing land to be given to non-members of the clan. This undermined the power of the tribal nobility, and also gave a powerful impetus to the development of small and medium landownership.

Solon carried out a monetary reform, making the Athenian coin lighter (reducing the weight) and thereby increasing the monetary circulation in the country. He allowed olive oil to be exported abroad and wine was forbidden to export grain, thus contributing to the development of the most profitable sector of Athenian agriculture for foreign trade and preserving scarce bread for fellow citizens. A curious law was adopted to develop yet another progressive branch of the national economy. According to the law of Solon, sons could not provide for their parents in old age if they had not taught the children some trade in their time.

The most important changes took place in the political and social structure of the Athenian state. Instead of the former estates, Solon introduced new ones based on the property qualification he had carried out (census and income records). From now on, the Athenians, whose annual income was at least 500 medimns (about 52 liters) of bulk or liquid products, were called pentakosiamedimns and belonged to the first category, at least 300 medimns - horsemen (second rank), at least 200 medimns - zeugites (third rank) , less than 200 medimns - feta (fourth category).

From now on, the Areopagus, the bule and the People's Assembly were the highest state bodies. The bule was a new organ. It was the Council of Four Hundred, where each of the four Athenian phyla elected 100 people. All issues and laws were to be discussed in the bule before they were subject to consideration in the National Assembly. The National Assembly itself (ekklesia) under Solon began to gather much more often and acquired greater importance. The archon decreed that during the period of civil strife, every citizen should take an active political position under the threat of deprivation of civil rights.

The modern world owes a lot ancient greece. This relatively small state had a huge impact on the development of all areas of human life. Take, for example, myths that are a reflection of human life, both in those days and today. Ideas about the world - about man, medicine, politics, art, literature - on a global scale originated precisely in Greece. This state was located in the south of the Balkan Peninsula and on the islands of the Aegean Sea. Accordingly, in such a relatively small area there was a small amount of the population, but, as Alexander the Great said, “One Greek is worth a thousand barbarians.” Greece stood out from other states - Babylonia, Egypt and Persia - and not without reason.

Map of ancient Greece

Ancient times of ancient Greece

Territory of ancient Greece It is conventionally divided into three parts: Southern, Middle and Northern. Lakonika, better known as Sparta, was located in the southern part. Athens - the main city of Greece - was located in the middle part of the state, along with such areas as Attica, Aetolia and Fokis. This part was separated from the North by almost impassable mountains and separated Athens and Thessaly, which today itself is a major historical center.

About the population of ancient Greece can be judged by the numerous examples of art that have been preserved almost in their original form - these are sculptures, frescoes and elements of painting. In any museum in the world you will find a hall of ancient Greek art, where you will see many images of tall, slender people with a perfect physique, with fair skin and dark curly hair. Ancient historians call them Pelasgians - the people who inhabited the islands of the Aegean Sea in the III millennium BC. Despite the fact that their occupations were no different from those of other ancient peoples and included cattle breeding and agriculture, it should be noted that their land was difficult to cultivate and required the use of special skills.

The peoples of Greece and their development

Those who inhabited Greece almost five thousand years ago were expelled from their lands exactly in the same millennium in which they appeared. The reason for this was the Achaeans who invaded from the north, whose state was also located on the island of Peloponnese with its capital in Mycenae. This conquest was of an epochal nature, as it marked the beginning of the Achaean civilization, which suffered the same sad fate - at the end of the 13th century BC, just as the Achaeans invaded the Greek lands, the Dorians came to this territory. Unfortunately, the conquerors destroyed almost all the cities and the entire Akhian population, although they themselves, at the same time, were at a lower stage in the development of civilization. This fact could not but affect the culture of Ancient Greece. The most ancient writing, created by the Pelasgians, was forgotten, not to mention the fact that the construction and development of tools stopped. This period, which is deservedly called "dark", lasted neither more nor less than from the 12th to the 9th centuries AD. Among the cities, Athens and Sparta still stood out, where two antagonistic societies were located.

So, in Laconia (Sparta) the governors were two kings who ruled by passing their power by inheritance. Nevertheless, despite this, the real power was in the hands of the elders, who made laws and were engaged in judging. The love of luxury in Sparta was severely pursued, and the main task of the elders was to prevent the class stratification of society, for which each Greek family received a plot of land from the state, which they had to cultivate without the right to receive additional territories. Soon the Spartans were forbidden to engage in trade, agriculture and crafts, the slogan was proclaimed that "the occupation of every Spartan is war", which was supposed to fully provide the population of Laconica with everything necessary for life. The morals of the Spartans are eloquently evidenced by the fact that the soldiers could be expelled from the detachments only because he did not fully eat his portion of food at a common meal, which indicated that he dined on the side. Moreover, the wounded Spartan had to die on the battlefield in silence, without showing unbearable pain.

The main rival of Sparta was the current capital of Greece - Athens. This city was the center of the arts, and the people who inhabited it were the exact opposite of the rough and tough Spartans. Nevertheless, despite the ease and carelessness of life, it was here that the word "tyrant" appeared. Initially, it meant “ruler”, but when the authorities of Athens began to openly rob the population, this word acquired the connotation that it has to this day. Peace was brought to the devastated city by King Solon, a wise and kind ruler who did a lot to improve the lives of the townspeople.

The VI century brought new trials to the inhabitants of Greece - the danger came from the Persians, who quickly conquered Egypt, Media and Babylonia. In the face of the Persian state, the peoples of Greece united, forgetting about the age-old strife. Of course, the center of the army was the Spartans, who devoted their lives to military affairs. The Athenians, in turn, took up the construction of the flotilla. Darius underestimated the power of the Greeks and, having lost the very first battle, which is immortalized in history by the fact that a joyful messenger ran from Marathon to Athens to report the good news of victory, and, having covered 40 km, fell dead. It is with this event in mind that the athletes run the “marathon distance”. Xerxes, the son of Darius, having enlisted the support and help of the conquered states, nevertheless, lost a number of important battles, and abandoned any attempt to conquer Greece. Thus, Greece became the most powerful state, which gave her a number of privileges, especially Athens, which became the capital of trade in the Eastern Mediterranean.

Sparta united with Athens the next time in the face of the Macedonian conqueror Philip II, who, unlike Darius, quickly broke the resistance of the Greeks, establishing power over all areas of the state, except for Sparta, which refused to obey. Thus, the Classical period of the development of the Hellenic states ended and the flowering of Greece as part of Macedonia began. Thanks to Alexander the Great, Greeks and Macedonians by 400 BC became sovereign masters of the whole of Asia Minor. The Hellenistic era ended in 168 BC, when the large-scale conquests of the Roman Empire began.

The role of Greek civilization in the history of the development of the world

Historians agree that the cultural development of the world would not have been possible without the heritage that left us by ancient Greece. It was here that the fundamental knowledge about the universe that modern science uses was laid. The first philosophical concepts were formulated here, defining the basis for the development of the spiritual values ​​of all mankind. The Greek philosopher Aristotle laid the foundations for ideas about the material and non-material world, Greek athletes became the first champions of the first Olympic Games. Any science or field of art is somehow connected with this great ancient state - be it theater, literature, painting or sculpture. The Iliad, the main work that has survived to this day, tells very vividly and colorfully about the historical events of those times, about the way of life of the ancient Eleans, and, more importantly, is dedicated to real events. The contribution to the development of history was made by the famous Greek thinker Herodotus, whose works were devoted to the Greco-Persian wars. The contribution of Pythagoras and Archimedes to the development of mathematics cannot be overestimated. Moreover, the ancient Greeks were the authors of numerous inventions that were used primarily in the course of military operations.

The Greek theater deserves special attention, which was an open area with a round structure for the choir and a stage for artists. Such an architecture implied the creation of excellent acoustics, and the audience, sitting even in the back rows, could hear all the cues. It is noteworthy that the actors hid their faces under masks, which were divided into comic and tragic. Tremulously revering their gods, the Greeks created their statues and sculptures, which still amaze with their beauty and perfection.

Special place Ancient Greece in world ancient history makes it one of the most mysterious and amazing states in the ancient world. The progenitor of sciences and arts, Greece to this day attracts the attention of everyone who is fond of world history.

periods of ancient Greece. The history of development

Early period (1050-750 BC)

Following the final, who knew writing, - the last of the glorious civilizations of the Aegean Bronze Age, mainland Greece and the islands off its coast entered an era called by some historians "Dark Age". However, strictly speaking, this term rather characterizes a break in historical information that relates to the time interval that began around 1050 BC. e., rather than the lack of knowledge or historical experience among the then population of Hellas, although writing was lost. In fact, it was precisely at this time, the time of the transition to the Iron Age, that the political, aesthetic and literary features that were then inherent in classical Hellas began to appear. Local leaders, who called themselves pariahs, ruled small, closely interconnected communities - the forerunners of the ancient Greek city-states. The next stage in the development of painted ceramics is obvious, which has become simpler in form, but at the same time stronger; her appearance, as evidenced by vessel shown at right, acquired a new elegance, harmony and proportion, which became the hallmarks of later Greek art.

Taking advantage vague memories, Trojans and others, wandering singers composed stories about gods and mere mortals, giving poetic imagery to Greek mythology. By the end of this period, the Greek-speaking tribes borrowed the alphabet from and adapted it to their language, which made it possible to write down many legends that had long been kept in oral tradition: the best among them that have come down to us are the Homeric epics " 776 BC e., is considered to be the beginning of the subsequent continuous rise of Greek culture.

Archaic period (Archaic) (750-500 BC)

In the 8th century, prompted population growth and wealth emigrants from ancient Greece, in search of new agricultural land and trading opportunities, spread throughout the Mediterranean. Greek settlers in foreign countries, however, became not just subjects cities that founded colonies, but separate, autonomous political entities. The spirit of independence that owned the settlers, as well as the need for joint action to maintain each community, gave rise to such a political unit as the policy. Throughout the Greek world, there were supposedly up to 700 similar city-states. The foreign cultures with which Hellas came into contact during this period of expansion affected the Greeks in a variety of ways.

The geometric painting of ceramics gave way to images of animals and plants in the oriental style, as well as detailed mythological scenes of a new black-figure style of vase painting (see below in the photo gallery below). Artists working with stone, clay, wood and bronze began to create monumental human sculptures. Typical for archaic statue of kouros(left photo) bears clear traces of Egyptian influence, but at the same time shows an emerging desire for symmetry, lightness and realism. In the seventh century the first truly Greek temples appear, decorated with extended friezes and Doric columns (see below in the photo gallery). Lyrical and elegiac poetry, deeply personal and emotionally rich, comes to replace the grandiloquent verses of the past. The development of trade contributes to the widespread coinage invented by the Lydians. On the mainland at the same time Sparta introduces a political system that emphasizes strict government and discipline, and as a result becomes the largest and most powerful city-state of that period. Athens on the contrary, they change and codify the laws, taking care of justice and equality, open access to the ruling bodies to an increasing number of citizens and lay the foundations of democracy.

Classic period (500-323 BC)

The classical period in ancient Greece, when it is incredibly fast here blossomed arts, literature, philosophy and politics, limited by the time of wars with two foreign powers - Persia and Macedonia. Hellenes victory over the Persians gave rise to a new spirit of cooperation between the various city-states and Athens, whose fleet played a decisive role in providing a favorable turning point in the struggle against the so-called barbarians. The tribute that went from the allies to the Athenian treasury in exchange for military protection provided the Athenians with the opportunity to increase their already significant wealth and guaranteed this city political, cultural and economic supremacy throughout the Mediterranean. Virtually all citizens of Athens, regardless of financial status, were provided with access to elected office, and for the performance of relevant duties they received remuneration. At public expense, sculptors, architects and playwrights worked on works that still remain the highest creative achievement of mankind. Shown, for example, on the right is a bronze Zeus statue 213 centimeters high gives in a concentrated form an idea of ​​the skill of the artists of classical Hellas (ancient Greece), who reproduced the human body in their works with extraordinary dynamism. Greek philosophers, historians, and natural scientists left examples of rational theoretical analysis.

In 431, the long-standing enmity between Athens and Sparta resulted in a war that lasted almost 30 years and ended in the defeat of the Athenians. Decades of incessant battles have led to a weakening of political influence in many city-states, where fierce feuds have not stopped. Calculating and ambitious Macedonian King Philip II managed to profit from such chaos and soon became the master of the entire territory of ancient Greece. Philip did not manage to complete the construction of the empire, he was killed, and his son ascended the throne Alexander. Just 12 years later, Alexander the Great (Macedonian) died, but left behind a power that stretched from the Adriatic to Media (see below in the photo gallery).

Hellenistic period (323-31 BC)

On the ruins of Alexander's empire, after almost 50 years of fierce struggle for his inheritance, three major powers arose: Macedonia, Ptolemaic Egypt and the Seleucid state stretching from present-day Turkey to Afghanistan. That strikes that from the Macedonian capital of Pella in the west to Ai-Khanum in the east, the language, literature, political institutions, fine arts, architecture and philosophy in the cities and settlements that arose as a result of Alexander's campaigns remained unconditionally Greek after his death. Subsequent kings emphasized their kinship with Hellas, especially with Alexander: the figure on the left shows Thracian silver coin, on which he is depicted with the ram horns of Zeus-Amon, a god who has roots in both the East and the West. Possessing a common language, finding, under the influence of constant trade contacts, preserving written texts and attracting numerous travelers, the Hellenistic world became more and more cosmopolitan.

Education and enlightenment flourished, libraries were created - among them was Great Library of Alexandria, where there were about half a million volumes. But the Greek ruling classes refused to admit ordinary subjects into their ranks, and vast new kingdoms were shaken everywhere by internal turmoil. Steadily weakening and impoverished Macedonia in 168 BC. e. came under dominance. One after another, the governors of the provinces in the Seleucid state declared themselves independent, forming many small states with a dynastic form of government. Of the kingdoms into which the empire of Alexander fell apart, the Ptolemaic Egypt still stood as a bastion. Cleopatra VII, the last of her line (and the only one who learned the language of the subject population), committed suicide when the Romans were victorious at Actium. However, although they managed to subjugate the entire Mediterranean, the dominance of the Latins did not mean the end of Greek influence: the Romans absorbed the culture of ancient Greece and perpetuated the Hellenic heritage in a way that the Greeks themselves could not.

Border III and II millennium BC. e. became the starting point for the emergence of early class societies in the area of ​​the great Mediterranean - the center of the development of civilizations, which over time became fundamentally different from those that arose and existed in the Ancient East. Some historians are talking about one - ancient civilization, referring to it the society of both Greece and Rome. However, others believe that they were separate civilizations, moreover, in the history of Ancient Greece, several distinct cultural and historical communities are distinguished: Cretan (or Minoan), Achaean (Mycenaean), Hellenic and Hellenistic. It was in this region around the 7th century. BC e. social mutation took place, which became the beginning of a world-historical dichotomy - the division into "western" and "east" civilizational branches. Natural factors probably played a significant role in this.

The rocky Mediterranean lands contrast strikingly with the fertile regions of Mesopotamia and Egypt, which are fed by large rivers. There are no such large water arteries and there are no opportunities to create similar irrigation systems. In turn, all those social, political and ideological constructions that are associated with this fall away: the social and state organization is rigidly defined, based on the dominance of the community and the system of despotic power-property. The phenomenon of private ownership of land arose. Man turned out to be more autonomous from society and power, eventually became the top of the value system, which led to anthropocentrism and individualistic direction in Western civilizations, which were based on the leading principles laid down in antiquity.

There are few fertile soils here, they are broken by mountains into a large number of narrow plains and valleys. That is, the region is characterized by a strong dissection in the horizontal and vertical directions, to which is added a complex coastline and a large number of islands around. This led to the development of individualization of the way of life and culture of certain localities, and especially in the creation of small states, more precisely, city-states - policies, of which there were up to seven hundred. Only in them could develop those free democratic constitutions, in which antiquity differed significantly from the ancient eastern civilizations. These small states were constantly competing with each other, and therefore the state of war was permanent, which turned out to be one of the leading causes of the destruction of civilizations. The third important circumstance of a natural geographical nature was that, unlike the eastern civilizations, a marine civilization has now arisen. The sea united its various parts. In most cases, foreign cultural developments came from across the sea: astronomical knowledge from the Babylonians, the alphabet from Phoenicia, coinage from Lydia, etc. Greek influence also spread across the sea, the most powerful manifestation of which was the great Greek colonization. Thus, shipping and trade oriented to foreign markets played a huge role. The influence of the natural factor also turned out to be here. In many areas of Greece, the land was not suitable for growing grain or grazing livestock. The available land resource did not make it possible to feed the population, which was constantly growing, so there was a problem of a limited supply of food. Some policies removed part of the excess population by resettling in colonies on remote coasts, in particular, on the northern coast of the Black Sea. Streams of goods from the metropolis were sent there, and from there food was returned to their homeland. The Athenian reformer Solon found another solution: he gave his fellow citizens the idea of ​​growing olive trees, which are still cultivated in significant volumes in modern Greece. Oil was produced from their fruits - for food, for lamps, cosmetics. Abroad there was a wide market for it, but the Greeks could import grain. Wheat, olive oil and wine (diluted in half with water) constituted the triad of nutrition in antiquity.

Hellenes, or Greeks, were not the indigenous population of this country. Before them, tribes lived here, the linguistic and ethnic identity of which remains not completely determined. It is believed that they were related to the tribes of Asia Minor. Approximately in the XXII century. BC e. On the Balkan Peninsula, the Greek tribes themselves appeared, which were called Achaeans, or Danae. The pre-Gretsk population was partially driven out or destroyed by the newcomers, partially assimilated. The conquerors had a lower stage of development, and this circumstance influenced the difference in the fate of the two parts of the region: the mainland and the island of Crete. Crete, then unconquered, was for several centuries a zone of rapid progress. The civilization that arose in Crete at the turn of the 3rd and 2nd millennium BC. e., historians called Minoan after the name of the mythical king Minos. It has reached a fairly high level of development, as evidenced by archaeological finds, in particular the palace centers in Knossos, Phaistos, Mallia, Kato-Zakro. Each of them had a large palace as its political, economic and religious center, around which dozens of small rural settlements were grouped. Around 1700 BC. e. these centers of the first early sovereign formations were destroyed by a powerful earthquake, which, however, did not stop the further development of civilization in Crete. From the 17th century BC e. here begins the period of "new palaces", the most famous of which is the huge palace complex at Knossos. It had several floors, a perfect system of water supply, lighting, sewerage. The walls of its many rooms are covered with magnificent frescoes that depict the beauty of nature and scenes from the life of Cretan society. In its heyday, it had a theocratic form of government, that is, the owner performed not only the functions of the king-ruler, but also the high priest. This form of government is close to the type that was common in the ancient East, for example, in the Egyptian and Mesopotamian civilizations. The difference was that in the East religious power, although it belonged to the supreme ruler, was mediated by priests and had its own temples. In Crete, a purely priestly layer was not formed, and there were no temples that stood separately. For religious ceremonies, sanctuaries were used, which were part of the palace complex. In ancient Crete, back in the days of the "old palaces", its own writing system was born, which scientists called "linear writing A", but it remains undeciphered. The Cretan ruler, who relied on a large fleet, managed to establish his dominance in the waters of the Aegean Sea, that is, it was a large maritime power at that time. However, at the end of the XV century. BC e. development of civilization in Crete ceased. The main reason was a grandiose volcanic eruption on a neighboring island, which led to significant destruction of palaces and settlements. they were covered with ashes and the inhabitants left them. The Achaean Greeks took advantage of the consequences of the natural cataclysm, who invaded the island and, without meeting resistance, captured it. From the advanced center of the Mediterranean, Crete turned into a province of Achaean Greece.

The Achaean tribes spread to most of Greece and the islands of the Aegean. At first they were significantly inferior to the achievements of their predecessors. Only at the turn of the XVII-XVI centuries. BC in. the situation is starting to change. On the Balkan Peninsula, especially in the Peloponnese and partly in Central Greece, the first centers of the Achaean civilization appear. Very primitive state formations are formed in Mycenae, Tiryns, Pylos, Thebes, etc. The most famous of them was located in Mycenae, therefore this civilization is called Mycenaean. The center around which the development of civilization took place was the palace complex. There was its own writing - "linear letter B", not so long ago deciphered by scientists. It turned out that most of the records are business accounting documents and various inventory lists. The fact is that the basis of economic life was the palace economy, which controlled not only handicraft production, but also all types of economic activity, including in rural areas. Consequently, the direct producers were under the control of the bureaucracy of the lords. The general characteristic of the power system is theocracy, as in the Minoan civilization. Surviving in the XV - ХІП centuries. BC e. heyday, Achaean civilization in the XIII-XII centuries. BC e. also falls into decay due to the invasion of the North Balkan tribes, among which the leading place belonged to the Greek Dorians. Although the newcomers already possessed the technologies for making weapons and tools from iron, they were still at a lower stage of development than the conquered population. As a result of their conquest, the society of Balkan Greece was thrown back several centuries - to the revival of tribal relations.

A new cycle of the development of statehood in Ancient Greece, that is, the formation and development of the Hellenic civilization, begins almost from scratch around the 11th century. BC in. It is divided into three periods: Homeric, or the frontier (“dark ages”), - XI - IX centuries. BC e. - was characterized by the dominance of tribal relations in the territory of the Balkan Greece; archaic Greece (VIII - VI centuries BC) - the formation of polis structures, the period of the Great Greek colonization and early Greek tyrannies; classical Gref (V-IV centuries BC) - the heyday of the ancient Greek policies, the period of the highest cultural achievements of the ancient Greeks. Unlike the cultures of the civilizations of the Ancient East, where a strict canon ruled, the Greeks were distinguished by their creativity. They were the first to create drama, philosophical works and history. A previously unknown depth and emotionality appeared in their poetry. Our ideas about beauty in literature and art have been largely shaped by their achievements. Later, people time after time turned to the study and imitation of Greek cultural patterns. Among them are the poems of the legendary Homer "Iliad" and "Odyssey".

These works were not only outstanding poetic stories about heroic deeds. They also provide a first glimpse into the religion of the Hellenes, as most of the characters in the Greek pantheon are represented in them. The Greek gods were not distant transcendent1 deities, as was the case in many Eastern religions. Homer provided them with personal character traits: they actively intervened in human affairs, helped their favorites and punished those who despised their will. The Greek gods are anthropomorphic, that is, superbeings who differed from people only in physical perfection and immortality. Even Mount Olympus is their legendary place of residence, a real earthly mountain in northern Greece. The Greeks never developed a religious code of conduct. Some actions, such as killing a parent or leaving a relative unburied, were considered wrong because they despised global ethics. If a person becomes too arrogant, Nemesis - a supernatural vengeful force - must punish him. However, in general, there was no spirit of evil in religion, the demanding spirit of good reigned poorly. The Greeks considered the gods to be potentially benevolent, however, since an offended god could bring great destruction, people were supposed to appease the gods with appropriate gifts. Although some ceremonies, such as the Eleusinian mysteries dedicated to the goddess of fertility Demeter, were complex, people believed that they could communicate with the gods through simple gifts and prayers. A distinctive feature of the Greek religion was the absence of a caste of priests. It is not clear why the Greeks could worship the gods without subjugating the orders of the priestly hierarchy in their affairs, but it can be assumed that the political independence of almost 700 ancient Greek city-states played a role. At the time when Greek culture was being formed, there was no pharaoh, king or emperor who could establish a system of such influential political and religious assistants.

Most of the gods were considered common to all Greeks, but each policy had its own patron. For example, the goddess of wisdom Athena was the patroness of Athens, but in this city there were temples of other gods. The temples were built by the joint decision of the community, and not by order of the priests, that is, religion and the life of the community were intertwined. So, the famous Greek drama appeared during the Dionysia - festivities in honor of the god of wine and winemaking Dionysius. The general acceptance of various gods by all of Greece testifies to the pan-Hellenistic culture that united civilization. Some researchers believe that the beginning of its "historical period" should be considered 776 BC. e., when the Hellenic games were introduced. They were held every four years at Olympia in the Peloponnese in honor of the chief god Zeus. At first, the program included only running and wrestling, but later horseback riding and chariot racing, javelin throwing, etc. were added. Victory brought an olive wreath and glory for life. The tradition of holding the Olympic Games was revived in 1896, and until that time they remain the world sports arena of the championship, behind which lies the prestige of states.

Games were also held in other cities, such as Delphi. However, Delphi became famous for others. There was a famous oracle - a soothsayer, with whom the Greeks consulted on any issues. It was believed that the god Apollo himself announced through the mouth of a woman who was sitting on a tripod over a crack from which evaporation rose from the depths of the earth. When those fumes disappeared, other means were devised to induce the bird into ecstasy with the help of various plants, in particular laurel. In stunnedness, she shouted out some words, which were later commented on by the priests. Often the answers were ambiguous, that is, the interpretation was left to the one who asked the question. The Delphic priests associated religion with political influence. Most of the Greek states consulted with the Delphic oracle before starting a war or an aggressive campaign, paying for this with luxurious gifts. Many private individuals also dedicated gifts to the supreme god Apollo, as the Greeks took their gods very seriously and tried not to go against what was considered the correct interpretation of the translations.

Of great importance in the history of ancient Greek civilization was the archaic period - the period of intensive development of ancient society. Indeed, for three centuries - from the 8th to the 6th centuries. BC e. - Those socio-economic and political phenomena developed that provided this cultural-historical community with a certain specificity in comparison with other civilizations. You can name these:

o policy as the main form of political organization;

o the concept of people's sovereignty and democratic form of government;

o classical slavery;

o system of money circulation and market;

o private ownership of land;

o individualism and anthropocentrism, etc.

At the same time, the main ethical norms and principles of morality, aesthetic ideals were developed, which influenced the development of the ancient world throughout its history until the emergence of Christianity. At the same time, the main phenomena of ancient culture were born: philosophy, science, the main genres of literature, theater, order architecture, sports.

The most important phenomenon was the appearance after 800 BC. e. and further strengthening of the policy. Polis - a peculiar form of socio-economic and political organization of society, became dominant in ancient Greek civilization. It was a settlement built around a citadel - an acropolis with surrounding lands, which together was a small state. There were significant differences among the nearly 700 Greek city-states, but some commonalities can be traced between them. Policies ranged in size from a few hundred to hundreds of thousands of inhabitants. So, the most populated policy of the classical period of Athens in the middle of the 5th century BC. BC e. numbered up to 45 thousand adult male residents. If we add to this nationality about the same number of women, as well as children, slaves and foreigners, then the total population of the city and adjacent villages in the region known as Attica was up to 400 thousand. The main competitor, Sparta, consisted of approximately 12 thousand adult men.

The main problem that the Greek policy solved was the integration of all citizens into a more or less harmonious state, the consolidation of the energy of each in the direction of development and support of the city, instead of self-destruction by a constant civil war between classes. There is a trend towards a certain self-government, the right to which only citizens of the policy had the right - adult men who owned land in the adjacent district. Those who came from other people's policies did not have such rights. The community of citizens of the policy belonged to the supreme sovereignty, that is, the right to introduce their own self-government bodies, create their own military organization, establish laws, rule legal proceedings, introduce their own banknotes and units of measurement, etc. This sovereignty implied for every citizen the opportunity and even the obligation, primarily by voting at popular meetings, to take part in solving state issues, in determining the fate of their homeland. Polises were small enough to enable most Greeks to participate in their administration. Various governing bodies acted in the policy, but the people's assembly was always considered the supreme body of power, which had the right to make a final decision on all major issues. This determined the democratic trend in the development of ancient Greek society - control over affairs by the masses. However, it should not be exaggerated, since it did not exist in every policy. Many, such as Corinth, were ruled by an oligarchy, a system in which the richest citizens made their decisions through a political system full of various restrictions. However, the movement towards self-government was undeniably a sign of political life in ancient Greece, which in itself is a unique phenomenon, since such social evolution is much less common in history than autocracy of any kind. Finding out the answer to the question why various forms of self-government appeared and were kept for a long time in Greece, one can pay attention to the functioning of society without a caste of priests. In a small state, often enclosed by a ring of surrounding mountains and hills, no monarch could for a long time remain a distant transcendent figure, similar to the one who usually ruled in Eastern despotisms and relied on the support of the priests.

At the initial stage of ancient Greek history, kings existed. To support their power, they attracted the heads of clans and large families of their city in the role of council. However, around 700 BC. e. the kings disappeared in almost all cities and gave way to the landlord oligarchies. Probably powerful citizens were no longer willing to obey any dynastic kingship. However, among the Greek policies, Sparta stands apart - the most conservative country in which the system of government of two kings was preserved.

In the USh BC e. there is a formation of the Greek aristocrats - a limited group of people with large fortunes, a special way of life and a system of values. They tried to completely put under their control the ordinary members of society. However, Aristotle - the famous ancient Greek thinker - noted that with the growth of the number of citizens in the state, democracy also grows. This is due to the increase in the number of demos in the ranks of the armed forces, which the aristocracy could not ignore. One of the signs of the policy was the coincidence of political and military organizations. The armed forces of the policy were a militia of citizens. The citizen-owner was at the same time a warrior, who ensured the inviolability of the policy and his property. He had to arm himself with his own money and go on a campaign if necessary. In those days, military affairs were not associated with significant risk. So, in the IV century. BC e. - the culminating period of ancient Greek history - the losses of the warring army ranged from 4 to 6%, i.e. out of 100 soldiers who went to war, from 4 to 6 people died. The rights of a citizen were fixed in constitutions, which began to be published from the 7th century. BC e. This was facilitated by the spread of alphabetic writing, which arose on the basis of the Phoenician letter around 725 BC. e. These legal codes, available to the general public, were too different from the socio-political practices of the ancient states of the East and were evidence that the Greeks no longer wanted to unquestioningly accept leadership from those who were higher in the social hierarchy.

Social confrontation of the 7th century. BC e. led to the emergence in many Greek cities of tyranny - the sole power of the ruler. They were the leaders of the people who rallied the masses around them and challenged the rule of the aristocrats. The first known tyrant is Kypsel, who came to power in Corinth in 657 BC. e. At that time, the word "tyrant" did not have the modern negative meaning of a cruel oppressor. The tyrants were engaged in drawing up their policies and carried out an active foreign policy. Of course, they were not the bearers of democracy, but they helped to blow up a system in which birth into an aristocratic family was seen as a pass to government. The main criterion is personal ability and military success. Paradoxically, the tyrants paved the way for the self-government of the polis in a very peculiar way. The ordinary citizens who benefited from this policy initially supported the tyrants, but later, when the threat from the aristocracy weakened, they gradually came to realize the uselessness of the tyrannical regime. That is, tyrants awakened the desire of people to solve their own problems. This has become an extraordinary phenomenon in comparison with the ancient monarchies of the East. The people resorted to the exercise of self-government, through elected officials, over whom stood the will of the people's assemblies.

There was sufficient similarity between the policies to give a general picture of the economic conditions of their existence. The main means of sustaining life was agriculture, but its maintenance was a rather difficult occupation, as discussed above. Since land ownership was considered a guarantee of civil rights, the Greeks looked somewhat down on trade and crafts, which to a certain extent delayed technological progress. Some cities, such as Athens, Corinth, Epidaurus and others, were centers of trade, but they were often in the hands of foreigners who permanently lived there, and not citizens. Among the masters there were also many strangers. For example, out of 71 builders who built the magnificent Erechtheion temple, no less than 35 were foreigners. Greek production did not go much beyond the household. It was possible to increase its productivity only at the expense of new workers. Craftsmen had several assistant slaves, and dozens of slaves worked in large workshops. Greece differed from Rome in that it did not involve large masses of slaves in agriculture. In large numbers they worked in mines and quarries. The Athenian commander Shkiy had a thousand slaves, whom he gave for payment for such work. Especially many slaves were in the silver mines near Athens. Working conditions are terrible: the slaves lay on their backs in narrow passages, copying the rock and inhaling the dust. No wonder they tried to escape at the first opportunity. However, such powerful uprisings of slaves, which subsequently occurred in Rome, were not recorded in Greece. The attitude of the Greeks towards slaves was not as cruel as that of the Romans. As Xenophon wrote, a man buys a slave as an assistant in his work. Slavery is one of the controversial issues in the history of mankind, because it existed in different societies at different times, and even now this phenomenon has not completely disappeared. In the ancient world, it was regarded as quite acceptable. Aristotle explained that slavery is a product of nature, which divided all mankind into natural masters and slaves. To the latter he attributed the barbarians. Slaves came from captives, sometimes stolen people and even sold children. Among the barbarians, prisoners were either killed or eaten. The introduction of slavery imposed a ban on the killing of prisoners and cannibalism. However, the civilizing influence of slavery should not be exaggerated. The slave did not have a name, only a nickname, did not have property, did not have any rights, even to marriage, he could be sold, donated as some kind of thing. The prevalence of slavery and its effectiveness are disputed among historians. Some believe that it played a leading role in the economy of ancient Greece, others consider it insignificant. Regarding quantitative indicators, the following figures can be cited: during the heyday in the most democratic Athens, there were more than 350 thousand slaves, while citizens - 45 thousand.

Despite the fact that even a peasant with a small plot of land could have one or two slaves, and his wife a household helper, the Greek way of life was quite modest. In the policy, even the rich had a life less luxurious than the Egyptian nobles. For ordinary people - luxury is not available. Breakfast, if any, was limited to a piece of bread smeared with olive oil. Meat - only on holidays. Proteins were provided by fish, as rare sweets - honey. The houses were simple. The Greeks could live on a small income. In the 5th century BC e. a skilled worker could receive one drachma per day (you could buy a sheep for it). Spouses could live for 180 drachmas for a year. The Greeks did not work too hard to earn a living. They had a lot of free time, given the participation in the affairs of slaves, as well as the seasonal nature of the Greek economy. Leisure time the Greeks spent mainly in public places, remains the leading feature of the lifestyle in modern Greece. All life - religious, cultural, economic, social in antiquity is concentrated in the city. The severity of the Greek house was balanced by the beautiful design of public buildings. All citizens spent their lives in fellowship with others. There was a cult of the policy, which automatically meant the cult of every citizen. A closed person was called "idiot", which in translation means "isolated citizen" and hence the modern word "idiot" comes from a person who cannot communicate with others. The Greek city-states allowed their inhabitants greater social mobility than the eastern kingdoms, and were not characterized by rigid boundaries between people who form different social strata, not to mention caste. Although some wealthy landowning families had more influence, the new money could bring to the fore many people of noble birth.

Approximately half of the population of the policies were women. Since historical sources were created by men, this makes it difficult to determine the real position of women in ancient Greek society. Behind Homer, the women of the ruling class had considerable freedom and respect, exemplified by Odysseus's wife Penelope, who supported the reigns in his absence and was an example of wisdom and fidelity. It is difficult to accept this, since she was forced to marry against her will. On the other hand, among the most revered deities are several female figures. Athena was respected for her warlike nature and worshiped as the patroness of the most powerful policy. Among all the gods in sculptures, reliefs and frescoes, the goddess of love Aphrodite was most often depicted.

Greek society was a male society. Women had no civil rights, did not take part in voting, that is, they did not play any role in political life. The Greek family is strictly patriarchal. its chairman was a man - the father. He had complete authority over his wife, children, servants and slaves. In his hands were the life and death of the household. For guilt, he could sell someone into slavery. The woman had no right to property. The only thing that belonged to her was a spinning wheel, which was placed with her in the coffin. Women lived in the women's half of the house - the gynekia, from which they did not dare to leave without the permission of men. Without the escort of her husband, a woman could not appear on the street. Marriages were arranged by the parents. Indicative is the description from Xenophon's "Economicus", where the upbringing of a young wife (girls were usually married at the age of 14 to men 10 years older than them) is presented as if it were about taming an obedient animal. The main virtues of a woman were considered modesty and silence. If a person died, then his eldest son took the place of the main manager. If there were no sons, then the property passed to the daughter, but she was given in marriage to the closest male relative. Thus, she acted as a transmitter of property from one man to another. The goal was to keep the property in the family. The main purpose of a woman was considered housekeeping, although it was often transferred to slaves. Poor women, in addition to housekeeping, had to work as seamstresses, nurses, market traders and even prostitutes. Graceful unmarried women could be hetaerae and participate in the public affairs of men. The most famous among them is Aspasia, who became a friend of the prominent ruler of Athens, Pericles. However, the position of women differed in different policies, in particular, Spartan women felt quite free. This impressed the eminent philosopher Plato so much that in his project of an ideal state called the "Republic", he especially insisted on women being educated on an equal basis with men.

The Greek world was never a single political entity, the via consisted of many completely independent states that could enter into alliances, usually voluntarily (but sometimes under duress), wage wars among themselves and make peace. Among the Greek policies there were two most powerful centers - Sparta and Athens. Originating in the 10th century BC e. from a settlement that united five small villages in the south of the Peloponnesian Peninsula, in the valley of the Evrota River, Sparta turned into the leader of the Dorian states in the Peloponnese by establishing and maintaining a rigid political system that made every citizen an unshakable servant of the state. At the cost of suppressing artistic and literary development, she set the military standard for all other Greeks. The militarism of Sparta was the answer to the common problem of the Greek policies - overpopulation. Instead of settling in colonies to reduce this pressure, Sparta during two bloody wars of the 8th-7th centuries. BC e. conquered the people of Messenia - a country that was on the way. its territory, together with the inhabitants, was divided among the Spartan warriors, providing allotments for food supply. However, the Spartans themselves were not engaged in industrial activities. Spartan landowners devoted their lives to constant military training in order to maintain control over the messentsi who worked the land for them. The population of Sparta was strictly divided into certain categories. Only those who had a proven pure origin were considered full-fledged Spartan citizens - the Spartans. In this group, all men were considered equal among themselves and before the law. Of course, perfect evenness is difficult to maintain, even if it is provided for by custom and law, so there were groups of favorites for whom it was easier to reach public positions.

It was the city that was surrounded by self-governing settlements, whose inhabitants were engaged in crafts, trade, and had to put up small contingents in the military militia. They were called perієki (in the lane, those that live around). For one reason or another, they were not included in the upper class - the "community of equals", that is, they were considered citizens of the lower class. Even lower stood the helots - for the most part subjugated messentsi. They were not supposed to have rights, that is, they were considered slaves of the state, but they were forbidden to be sold or bought. their situation was difficult, so in 650 BC. e. the helots revolted. The uprising was defeated. In response, the Spartans made their army even stronger and their constitution tougher. This constitution prescribes to the legislator Lycurgus. Despite the strong authoritarianism in eyelashes there is a fraction of democracy.

Since ancient times, two kings-warlords ruled in Sparta. The nature of the diarchy was conditioned by the fact that one royal dynasty was Archean, and the other - Dorian. Both kings were members of the council of elders - gerussia, which also included 28 elected elders-gerontius, not younger than 60 years old. Gerussia prepared laws, at the same time was the supreme judicial body and the highest military council. The popular assembly (apella) included every male over 30 years of age (the age of majority in Sparta) who could prove descent from full Spartan citizens. The powers of the people's assembly were limited: they did not have a legislative initiative and voted only for those proposals that were put forward by the Gerus. Voting took place in an archaic way: a special commission with noise and shouting determined whether the assembly voted "for" or "against *. For the sake of guaranteeing against excessive popular control, the rulers could dissolve the popular assembly if they made a "wrong decision". However, the supreme power fell under a certain control. It was carried out by five ephors (guards), who were supposed to oversee the activities of the kings and gerussia. They were elected annually from each of the five Spartan settlements, and each Spartiat could be nominated for this position. The ephors enjoyed the highest controlling power (they had the right to attract accountable even to gerontius and kings), monitored the implementation of the laws of the state and the rules of the Spartan way of life.

The Spartans lived in the same modest dwellings, wore the same simple clothes, devoid of decorations. Men devoted most of their lives to military service. Training began in adolescence. Spartan warriors lived and ate together (each must contribute his share of food and money), and their military discipline approached sadism. The main goal was to make a courageous, hardy warrior out of a person. As a test of courage, young men were forced to do without food and shelter and severely flogged for the slightest offense, sometimes to death. Boys were taught to steal, and it was considered a crime to be caught. Spartan women, whose beauty delighted other Greeks, also led lives that were unusual for their neighbors. The military institutions of Sparta played a decisive role in shaping social practices, since the state needed strong mothers for its warriors. Even the marriage rites reflected the influence of Spartan discipline. The marriage was preceded by a kidnapping, albeit symbolic, but it reflected the state of war. Then the groomsmen cut the bride's hair short, which symbolized her entry into a society where masculine qualities were valued. Unlike the traditions of other Greek cities, where girls were kept aside from boys, in Sparta girls took part in games, again for the sake of physical hardening. If the marriage turned out to be childless, then the Spartan woman could conceive from a man who was not married to her. Children didn't necessarily know who their father really was. These customs had to replenish the ranks of the troops, but other Greeks, in particular Aristotle, condemned this practice. Unlike other Greek women, Spartan women had their own property and owned two-fifths of the land per family.

Sparta was separated from other Greek cities by two mountain ranges. This geographical isolation was deliberately reinforced by the state. As the historian Xenophon wrote, the Spartans were not allowed to travel abroad, "so that citizens would not be infected by frivolity from strangers." The need for men to stay in the policy made it difficult to attract Spartans to international trade. Only one Spartan colony is known, located on the site of the modern city of Taranto in Italy. Foreign trade was also complicated by the fact that in Sparta there was money made of iron, which had no value of its own, and gold and silver coins were withdrawn from circulation. It is likely that such isolation, combined with the severity of military life, gave rise to a special Spartan manner of speaking, which is called laconic by the name of the surrounding Lakonskaya valley. Conciseness means extreme reticence. The isolation also cut off the Spartans from new ideas that could encourage creativity. The Spartans did not cultivate philosophical debate or historical descriptions. Although they made excellent pottery, the martial spirit did not provide the proper atmosphere for the general development of the arts. No matter how contemporaries and successors evaluate the principles of Spartan society, it should be recognized that the regime successfully preserved itself. Citizens were sovereign in matters of war and peace, and when they chose war, it was their own predestination. For the rest of the Greeks, Sparta became a symbol of stubbornness and strength.

Sparta's competitor in the sea of ​​Greek policies was Athens - the main city of Attica - a land located in the south of the Balkan Peninsula. The population of Attica gradually united around this center, contributing to the growth of its power. The location, on the one hand, was characterized by a wealth of minerals (silver, marble, clay), but on the other hand, lands not very profitable for agriculture - agriculture was possible only in a few valleys. Trade and shipbuilding became the main source of power and wealth. Athens was located near the convenient harbor of Piraeus and quickly turned into a port city, which contributed to the development of the economy and culture. Having created the most powerful fleet in Hellas, the Athenians were actively trading with other countries, and especially with their colonies, reselling goods to other policies. Consequently, the expansion of influence was not accompanied by the subjugation of the inhabitants of the surrounding areas and did not create the problem of containing the mass of embittered subjects, which the Spartans should have. At the same time, the political history of Athens is the richest and most diverse of all the city-states of Ancient Greece.

For some time, as in other cities of Hellas, a king ruled in Athens. Under him there was a council of elders, known as the Areopagus after the name of one of the city's hills. When the monarchy ended, then from about 683 BC. e. the polis began to be governed first by three, and then by nine archons, or administrators. At first, the archons came from well-born families. They were elected annually by the popular assembly of adult men. At the end of the summer term of office, the archons became permanent members of the Areopagus. Thus, the Areopagus annually replenished with 9 members with experience in high-ranking activities and reached a number of 300 people. Since it was formed from senior men with a permanent membership, its influence on the conduct of public affairs was greater than the power of the archons.

The political life of Athens is characterized by constant changes and strong turbulence. The first report of a major reform dates back to 621 BC. when Archon Draco promulgated the murder law. It recognized the responsibility of the state, and not the family of the victim, in punishing the offender. Thus, it was supposed to prevent a real revenge. Punitive functions were transferred to the Areopagus. A distinction was introduced between intentional and unintentional killing, which in itself is important, since previously any killing was seen as something that compromises the community before the gods. Other laws were introduced that provided for very cruel punishments. They were executed not only for theft, arson, premeditated murder, but also for minor crimes (then the expression "draconian laws" became synonymous with extremely cruel measures). Drakon made the first codification of law in the history of Hellenic civilization. Laws became the property of all, and the codification of laws limited the arbitrariness of judicial sentences.

Around 600 BC e. Attica was in the grip of a serious agricultural crisis as the growing population was less and less able to subsist on the available land. In lean years, some peasants began to receive additional food, mortgaging part of the next year's harvest. Mortgaging more and more of their crops, they eventually began to lend their own land as security for the debt. Some of them, having lost their land, turned into tenants with the payment of part of the crop. If they could not make payments, then the creditors had to turn them into slaves.

The resentment of the ruined peasants grew and could lead to rebellion and violence if the Athenians could not solve the problem peacefully. A major role in this was played by the reforms of Solon, an impoverished aristocrat elected in 594 BC. e. archon with the right to legislate. The most important of his reforms was sisahfiya ("insurance of the yoke"). Knowing that it is unlikely that the poor peasants will ever pay their debts, Solon resorted to the most simple way of the West: he canceled all their debts. Thanks to this, the peasants, who for debts turned into tenants of their own land, restored their status as landowners. At the same time, it was forbidden to turn the Athenians into slaves for debts. Social tension eased, the threat of civil war was eliminated. Solon repealed the laws of Draco, except for those relating to murder. Of great importance were those innovations that undermined the dominant political position of the nobility: since then, the scope of political rights was determined not by origin, but by the amount of property. On the basis of income from the land, the entire population was divided into four property categories. Members of the first three upper strata could be elected to public office. Representatives of the fourth - ordinary peasants and workers, who made up about half of the population, could vote at the people's assembly, and later even sit in a jury. The Solonian system of electing officials testifies to the importance of landownership in early Athens, as it excluded from the political process those who did not own land, even wealthy artisans and merchants. The historical significance of the new system was the abolition of privileges based on birth. Members of the new families could move up the social ladder economically and gain leading positions, regardless of background. The importance of Solon's reforms lies in the fact that he proceeded from the interests of the entire state, and also for the first time approached the common people as a group with their own justified experiences and troubles, and boldly unleashed them. Such social mediation did not occur in any of the ancient Eastern kingdoms. And in the history of Hellenic civilization, Solon's reforms strengthened the democratic trend.

However, the humane legislation of Solon did not put an end to the agricultural crisis. The release of peasants from bondage did not provide them with enough food. Hungry tenants have turned into hungry free citizens, discontent has not disappeared. In this, a relative of Solon on the maternal side of Shsistrat, an Athenian commander supported by the peasants, saw his chance. In 561 BC. e. he appeared in Athens, demonstrating the wounds that his enemies allegedly inflicted on him. His supporters put before the people's assembly the demand to provide protection to their leader. With the help of the provided guards and sympathizers, Shsistrat captured the Acropolis and began to rule as a tyrant. Although he was thrown out of the city twice, and he returned again and carried out tyrannical rule until his death in 528 BC. e., after which the power in 510 BC. e. was in the hands of his sons. The figure of Peisistratus fully corresponded to the then model of the Greek tyrant. Since significant support came from the disadvantaged, he thanked them with land plots from those land masses that were confiscated from the wealthy aristocrats opposing him. In the conditions of the economic crisis, the tyrant tried to improve the lot of the poor by encouraging the development of production and trade. It was under his rule that Athens became an important trading center of Ancient Greece. To bolster support for his policies, Peisistratus initiated a rich public works program, most notably the construction of new temples. He introduced an annual festival in Athens in honor of the god Dionysus and encouraged competition in drama at these festivals, thus paving the way for the development of Athenian tragedy in the next century. Under Peisistratus' successors, the tyrannical regime fell. In 509 - 507 years. BC e. reforms are being carried out under the leadership of Cleisthenes, which finally approved the democratic system in Athens. The most important of them is the reform of the electoral law, according to which all citizens, regardless of their property status, received equal political rights. Territorial changes were also carried out, as a result of which the influence of the aristocracy was finally undermined1. A "judgment of potsherds" or ostracism was introduced. The decision of the people's assembly was made on the basis of a vote of citizens who wrote on clay shards the name of someone they considered dangerous to the democratic system. If a thousand shards with the name of one person were collected, then she would have to leave the city within 10 days. After a certain time, a person could return to his policy, so her property and rights were preserved for her.

at the end of the 6th century. BC e. in many Greek policies, the power of the tribal aristocracy and the remnants of the tribal system were eliminated, due to which the economy, social processes, and culture developed rapidly. However, already at the beginning of the 5th c. BC e. both Athens and all other Greek cities were challenged by traditional despotisms

East in the face of the Achaemenid (Persian) state - the superpower of those times. its kings - Cyrus, Cambyses II, Darius I at the turn of the VI and V centuries. BC e. continued the aggressive policy of their predecessors. The reason for the war was the uprising of the Greek cities of Asia Minor, led by Miletus, against the dominance of the Persians in 500 BC. e. The unequal struggle lasted five years and ended in the defeat of the Greeks. Since several policies from other regions, primarily Athens and Eretria (from the island of Euboea), provided assistance to the rebels, the Persians took advantage of this as an excuse to increase their pressure on the West. In 490 BC. e. The Persian army landed near the city of Marathon, however, having been defeated, returned home. In 480 BC. e. a huge Persian army led by King Xerxes again broke into mainland Greece. Some policies recognized the power of the Persians, others chose neutrality. The rest, led by Sparta and Athens, decided to fight for their freedom. Despite the heroic resistance of the Spartan detachment led by King Leonid in the Thermopylae Gorge, the Persians managed to break through to Central Greece. The Persians marched all over Attica, destroying everything in their path. The population of Athens fled, the Persians captured the city and burned it. However, in the same year, the Athenians won the naval battle of the island of Salamis, because they had previously built a powerful fleet. The Salamis battle became one of the most important in history. She inspired the Greeks to act towards finally driving the Persians back. The following year, the Persian land army was defeated in a duel near the village of Plataea, when only a few thousand of the 50 thousand Persian soldiers survived. From that moment, the liberation of Greece became inevitable. The Greeks won several battles, liberating one territory after another. The last settlements with Persia were completed by Alexander the Great, when he defeated his army in several battles. However, even earlier, the Greek policies rejected their most terrible enemy. They were very proud of their victory and believed that freedom gave them victory, while the Persians were defeated due to the fact that they were all serfs, that is, slaves of their king. If Greece had become one of the satrapies of Persia, then it is not known how further historical development would have taken place, which in the end led to the emergence of a European, all Western civilization.

After the victory over the Asian conquerors, Athens occupied the dominant position in Hellas. This was largely facilitated by the fact that during the war with Persia, namely in 478-477. BC e. an alliance of equal policies arose with a center on the island of Delos - the so-called Delian Maritime Union, more and more fell under the control of Athens with their powerful fleet and dominance in maritime trade. Over time, the Athenians began to independently manage the allied treasury, single-handedly setting the size of the contributions of each member. On the land of allied policies, Athenian colonists were withdrawn, that is, gradually this Union turned into an Athenian maritime power, which in its heyday consisted of about 250 policies. The foreign political strengthening of Athens was intertwined with domestic political successes, which relied on the development of democracy, as well as economic growth. The heyday of Athens is associated with the activities of the outstanding figure of antiquity, Pericles (490-429 BC). Coming from a wealthy aristocratic family, he had many aristocratic rivals, but in this confrontation his powerful ally was the common people, to whom he became a reliable defender. However, as the historian Thucydides emphasized, while Pericles was in power, he controlled the masses more than he allowed them to control him. He succeeded in this thanks to his strength of character, oratorical persuasiveness and reputation for financial honesty. Pericles first gained recognition in the 460s. BC e., however, his political primacy begins after the death of an older rival Cimon in 450 BC. e., who was convinced of the need to continue the war with Persia and a close alliance with Sparta. Pericles took the opposite view: war with Persia was a past conflict, while Sparta was a future threat. Since Pericles was no exception to the rule that most political leaders seek to strengthen their state, he saw in Sparta the only force that could threaten the greatness of Athens.

In Athens from 487 BC archons were chosen by lot, so men with ambition no longer coveted these positions. The military command has become much more significant. In 443 BC. e. Pericles became the commander-in-chief, who remained for 15 years. He became famous not only for his military talents, which he directed to strengthen the foreign policy position of his native policy, but also for his activities that influenced domestic life. Taking into account the strengthening of the democratic system, it became important to abolish the property qualification and replace voting by lot when electing officials. From now on, any Athenian citizen received the right to hold any position in the state. However, a person was considered a full citizen, whose both parents were Athenians. Pericles introduced payment to officials, which allowed the Athenian poor to become more actively involved in political life. He put a lot of effort into repairing the damage that the Persians had inflicted during the invasion. Grandiose construction began in Athens - new beautiful public buildings were erected, among them the Parthenon and other temples on the Acropolis. Critics of Pericles believed that using money from the allied treasury in this way was not fair, but the Athenians did not want to reject this project, since it made it possible for many of them to make good money. Pericles sought to turn Athens into the leading cultural center of Hellas. His friends were the historian Herodotus, the tragedian Sophocles, the sculptor Phidias. At the initiative of Pericles, a special fund was created, from which the poorest citizens received money to attend theater performances. This was also a manifestation of the power of the state, which could afford it.

The growing power of Athens could not but cause concern in other policies, increasing internal tension in the Hellenistic civilization. The first opponent was Sparta, which perceived Athens' claims to primacy as a challenge. In contrast, she created the Peloponnesian Union, which was joined by policies of various formats - both the poor and the rich, such as Corinth and Megara, who also resented the growing influence of Athens. In 431 BC. e. a bitter war broke out between the two alliances. It lasted 27 years, covered all of Greece and was called the Peloponnesian. It was a struggle for hegemony between Athens, which was guided by democratic principles and tried in every possible way to support democratic regimes in other Greek policies, and Sparta, with its traditional focus on oligarchic groups. In 404 BC. e. The Spartan army besieged Athens and won. Not only the strong disciplined army of Sparta played a role, but also the fact that she entered into an agreement with her recent enemy, Persia, promising to give her the Greek cities in Asia Minor in exchange for gold. It was with Persian funds that the Spartans built a fleet that defeated the Athenian naval forces. However, Sparta's success was short-lived. Athens created a second maritime union, besides, Thebes fought against Sparta - a powerful policy of that time, which in 371 BC. e. defeated the Spartan army. However, alliances broke up, former allies turned into rivals, exhausting each other in fierce internecine wars, which generally weakened the Greek world.

IV century. BC e. the crisis of the ancient Greek policy makes itself felt more and more. It turned into a brake on commodity-money relations, in particular, through a fairly tight control of the policy over the economic activities of its citizens. It is known that many even well-known figures, such as Herodotus and Socrates, were brought to court for the sale of their property and significant travel expenses. Polisnі principles prevented a significant part of wealthy residents who were not full citizens from doing business, such as taking loans, because they did not own land in the district. There were also changes in the political sphere. The old division of citizens into supporters of the oligarchy and democracy has been replaced by a new one: now the community has broken up into smaller groups with their own special interests. Each of the groups tried to direct the policy of the policy in such a way that it would be beneficial to this or that group. If in Athens the struggle among citizens mainly took place in the form of fierce debates in the national assembly, in trials, the expulsion of political opponents through ostracism, then in some other policies it came to violent skirmishes and took on violent forms. All this influenced the general weakening of the Hellenic civilization.

The situation was taken advantage of by the northern neighbor - Macedonia, which achieved special power in the reign of Philip II (359 - 336 BC). In 338 BC. e. in a battle near Boeotia, his troops defeated a coalition of Greeks led by Athens. Greece fell under the rule of Macedonia, continued to strengthen. She achieved even greater greatness under the son of Philip II Alexander of Macedon (born in 356 BC, reigned from 336 to 323 BC). In 334 BC. e. he went to Asia at the head of an army, a quarter of which was recruited in Greece. This embodied not so much idealism as rational calculation. The select army that was left of his father demanded money so as not to become a threat to the new king, and the conquest ensured it. Alexander was only 22, and he had such brilliant conquests ahead of him that they would leave his name a legend for centuries and provide the conditions for the widest expansion of Greek culture. His victories are a sign of a special genius. Achieving this magnitude is more than the result of wealth, fortunate historical circumstances, and blind determinism. Alexander was a creative nature, but self-destructive and imbued with the search for glory. He combined almost reckless courage with a great mind, believed that the ancestor of his mother, Achilles, tried to imitate, sought self-affirmation in the eyes of men and his domineering mother.

A short historical period contained events and began processes that determined the course of history for several centuries ahead and gave historians reason to talk about the existence of a separate civilization - the Hellenistic one. It was formed as a result of the aggressive campaigns of Alexander to the East and united the lands and peoples of Macedonia, Hellas and the Great East. The mighty Achaemenid state was defeated. The decisive victories over the Persians were the battles of Graniku in 334 BC. e., Issi 333 BC. e., Gaugamelach 331 BC. e. Alexander's army conquered the lands up to the Indus River, resulting in the formation of the largest monarchy at that time. It included the Balkan Peninsula, the islands of the Aegean Sea, Asia Minor, Egypt, the whole of Western Asia, the southern regions of Central Asia and part of Central Asia to the lower reaches of the Indus. A real "meeting of the West and the East" took place, which affected many aspects of life at that time. Alexander's campaigns brought destruction and creation at the same time. Streams of Macedonian and Greek settlers poured into the East, who everywhere established new social relations, founded new cities, laid communication routes and spread the culture of the ancient world, in turn absorbing the achievements of ancient civilizations. So, along with the Greek gods, Isis and Osiris were revered, other eastern deities, in whose honor temples were erected. However, the newly formed empire was extremely fragile. It included areas that were both economically and culturally too different from each other. Alexander captured, first of all, large cities and was content with collecting taxes from the conquered regions, which did little to change their lives.

A new form of socio-political organization arose - the Hellenistic monarchy, which combines elements of eastern despotism, such as a monarchical form of state power, a standing army, a centralized administration, as well as elements of a polis structure in the form of cities with a rural territory assigned to them, the preservation of internal self-government , but subject to the supreme ruler. Although brought up by Aristotle, Alexander soon turned into a real oriental despot who demanded that his sandal be kissed as a sign of submission. He did not long enjoy power in a vast empire. In 323 BC. e., exactly ten years after he left Macedonia, Alexander died during the next campaign in Babylonia at less than 33 years old. There are many versions of the causes of death of a young and strong man: from the assumption of his poisoning to the fact that the body, exhausted by constant drunkenness, could not stand the fever caused by an insect bite.

After the death of the Great Alexander, for some time the fiction of the unity of the state under the nominal power of Philip Arrhidaeus (323-316 BC) and the little son of Alexander IV was preserved. However, in reality, already by agreement of 323 BC. e. power in the most important regions of the state was in the hands of the most influential commanders of the deceased king - the Diadochi. Antipater reigned in Macedonia and Greece, Lysimachus - Thrace, Ptolemy - Egypt, Antigonus in the south-west of Asia Minor. Perdiccas, who was at the head of the main forces and was the de facto regent, subjugated the eastern satrapies of the former Achaemenid state. However, the attempt to establish sole power and extend it to the western regions ended in his death and the beginning of the wars of the Diadochi among themselves, as a result of which the further fragmentation of the huge empire and the formation of new states began. In 309 BC. e. the son and heir of Alexander the Great was killed. However, in the territories of the states formed on the ruins of his empire, the processes that began during the life of the great commander continued.

In the activities of the Diadochi, which were guided by subjective interests, in the end there were objective development trends - the need to establish close economic ties between the deep regions and the sea coast, as well as between individual areas. There was a need to develop cities as centers of crafts and trade, to develop new lands in order to feed the growing population. Each of the Diadochi had to take care of the maintenance of a strong army as a real pillar of his power. Everyone faced the problem of interaction with the local population. The dominant position in the societies of these states was occupied by the Hellenes. Moreover, the ethnic definition of "Hellenes" acquired social significance precisely through the provision of certain privileges. It extended to those persons who were educated according to the Greek model and led an appropriate way of life, regardless of ethnic origin. Significant changes took place in the socio-psychological warehouse of a person of the Hellenistic civilization.

The volatility of the internal and external political situation, the enslavement of some and the enrichment of others, the development of slavery and the slave trade, the migration of the population from one area to another, from rural to cities and vice versa - all this led to a weakening of ties within the collective of citizens of the policy, community ties in rural settlements, to the growth of individualism. The policy could no longer guarantee the freedom and material well-being of a citizen. Personal ties with representatives of the ruling circles, the patronage of those in power are beginning to acquire more and more importance. Gradually, from generation to generation, there is a psychological restructuring: a citizen of the policy turns into a subject of the king, not only by formal status, but also by inner convictions.

The Hellenistic states lacked stability, since dynastic wars, conflicts between the tsarist administration and the city nobility, the struggle of cities for complete autonomy, and the protests of the lower classes against the drastic tax system were common. The situation was aggravated by the fact that from the PI c. BC e. the young militant Roman civilization showed its expansionism in the gradual conquest of neighboring territories, including those that belonged to the Hellenistic states. The period of existence of the Hellenistic civilization continued until, in 30 AD. e. the last of them - Ptolemaic Egypt, fell under the rule of Rome.

* This work is not a scientific work, is not a final qualifying work and is the result of processing, structuring and formatting the collected information, intended to be used as a source of material for self-preparation of educational work.

INTRODUCTION

Greek civilization, as part of the ancient world, was the real foundation for the later European states. Modern man is constantly under the influence of the ancient era, since it was at this time that the foundations of most sciences (philosophy, mathematics, medicine, astronomy, geography, physics, economics, political science) were laid, new traditions in the views of the world around, and all this taken together was the most important impulse that especially influenced European civilization.

The ancient culture of Greece has many attractive aspects for modern people - it is a reasonable and proportionate structure of society, the harmony of man and nature, a combination of religious feeling with great freedom of thought, a constant striving for beauty and goodness. Millennia pass, and humanity still lives in the same political systems that first appeared in ancient Greece. Scientists use the laws first formulated by the ancient Greeks. Architects look up to the classical canons of ancient temples. Modern sculptors learn from the masterpieces of ancient Greek masters. And the modern theater again and again opens the eyes of the audience of the XXI century to the eternal problems that both ancient Greek playwrights and philosophers thought about.

This essay will show the evolution of Greek civilization from the ancient Minoan period in Crete to the Hellenistic period against the backdrop of a description of the main historical events from the 20th century BC to the present. e. before the conquest of Greece by the Romans.

1. CHRONOLOGICAL PERIODIZATION OF THE ANCIENT GREEK CIVILIZATION.

1.1. Cretan-Mycenaean period (XX - XI centuries BC)

Minoan era in Crete. The history of Greek civilizations begins in Crete around 6000 BC. during the Neolithic period. In the Stone Age, stone, bone and horn were used to make tools. The skill with which the ancients made clay vessels, figurines of men and women is striking.

A favorable geographical position at the crossroads of sea routes, strength, religion and law served as the basis for the development of trade and the creation of a civilization that still amazes us with its grace and power. The island had many paved roads with guard posts and inns. New cities appeared, the complex of residential and utility rooms of the royal palace in Knossos (a labyrinth from Greek myths) had a grandiose size. By the 2nd millennium BC, pictographic writing had already been invented, which later developed into “linear A”, which was written on clay tablets. Crete developed ties with the Cyclades, mainland Greece, Syria, Egypt and Mesopotamia. Navigation and trade expanded, which means that the influence of other cultures increased.

Life on the mainland during this period was less developed than in Crete. The centers of culture were Mycenae and Tiryns, located in the Peloponnese. They largely copied the achievements of the Minoan Crete.

The whole history of Greece is connected with the sea and permeated with the influence of the elements. Around 1500 BC not far from Crete (near the island of Santorini) there was a terrible earthquake that pushed the flourishing Cretan civilization to collapse.

Mycenaean period. Achaean Greece in the 15th-11th centuries BC Around 1400 BC northern Achaean tribes came to the Peloponnese and assimilated with the local Mycenaean population. Who these tribes were is not known for certain. Perhaps they were a Greek people from Northern Greece, or perhaps they came from Central Europe. One way or another, it was the Achaeans who brought with them the cult of the Olympian Gods and elements of a new culture.

The most powerful among the Achaean kingdoms of the XIV century BC. e. becomes Mycenaean kingdom in the northwest of the Peloponnese. The lords of Mycenae, as shown by the excavations of their family tombs (shaft graves), possessed great wealth. Heinrich Schliemann, who conducted archaeological excavations in the "gold-rich" Mycenae, discovered numerous funeral offerings, magnificent weapons, gold jewelry, the golden mask of Mycenaean lord Agamemnon, who made a trip to Troy. In Mycenae, on the model of Cretan, “linear writing B” was created, adapted for writing in Greek; clay tablets found during excavations provide detailed information about the civilization of that time.

As a result, the Mycenaean kingdom, located in the northeast of the Peloponnese, strengthened its position and became the leading power in the entire Mediterranean. This legendary period is called the Heroic Age, which has come down to us through the Homeric poems and numerous myths. The Odyssey and the Iliad are among the most important and for a long time the only sources of information about the period that followed the Mycenaean era in Greek history. However, in addition to the content of these works, scientists have long been concerned about the origin of the poems, the identity of their author or authors, and the time of creation. According to ancient tradition, Homer was considered the author of both poems. His name opened and opens the history of literature, and not only Hellenic, but also other European ones. Already since the time of Plato, the Iliad and the Odyssey have been singled out from many epic works as the only ones worthy of the name of Homer.

Due to the excess population, the Achaeans moved deeper and deeper into Asia Minor. Here they clashed with the Hittite power. Initially, relations were peaceful, but in the XIII century. due to the weakening of the Hittite kingdom, the onslaught of the Achaean Greeks on the coastal territories in the northwest and west of Asia Minor intensified. The Mycenaean kings repeatedly sent military expansions there. The culmination of the history of Achaean Greece is the Trojan War: both its pinnacle and its first step towards oblivion. In the ancient Greek poem "Iliad" by Homer, this war of the Greeks with the city-state of Troy is told. For centuries it was believed that this city is fictional. Professional archaeologists tried to look for him, but he was found only at the end of the 19th century by Heinrich Schliemann. Troy (Illion) was the capital of a strategically important kingdom. After a long and stubborn siege, the city was taken and sacked and destroyed.

The Trojan War was the last event of a general Achaean scale. Increasingly there are internecine clashes. The forces of the Mycenaean civilization were so undermined, and the resources so depleted, that it could not stop the movements of the semi-savage northern tribes of the Dorians and was destroyed in the 11th century BC.

1.2. The era of the decline of Hellas and the heyday of Ancient Greece in the XI-V centuries. BC.

Homeric period in the XI-IX centuries BC The period of the decline of Hellas and the arrival of the Dorians was called the "Dark Ages" or "Homeric period". It coincides with the distribution of iron in Southeastern Europe. In social terms, the dominant structure then was the agricultural community, which led to a return to more primitive forms of social relations. The tribal nobility in the dark ages occupied a privileged position in society due to their involvement in the priestly sphere.

Despite the fact that, for the first time after the Dorian invasion, the country degraded, gradually the culture began to develop, synthesizing a new civilization from the remnants of the Cretan, Mycenaean, Achaean, Asian and the rudiments of Dorian cultures. Initially lost, by the 10th c. BC. the Greek language is being formed and a new worldview of the Greeks is being created, including the whole variety of religious ideas reflected in myths, cults and mysteries. During this period, Homer created immortal poems filled with the spirit of his time.

archaic period. VIII-V centuries BC The archaic period is not distinguished by great upheavals. An important feature of this period is the decomposition of the tribal system and the formation of a class society in the form of slave-owning policies - city-states and the agricultural district adjacent to them. This is a time of intensive growth of the economy, culture and art, the growth of city-polises in Greece and colonies along the Mediterranean and Black Seas: from Massali (now Marseille) to Dioscurias (modern Sukhumi). The wide territorial expansion of that time was called the “Great Greek Colonization.” The political system underwent significant changes during this period. The policy was formed as an institution of the power of free citizens. The policy as a state unit will be discussed below in section 2.2.

A striking example of this time is the Peloponnesian Union, led by Sparta. Everyone knows the strict laws of Spartan life, which ensured her a leading position among the city-states. A number of policies are headed by prominent personalities who pursued their policies with the help of violent methods and a regime of personal power. This form of government is tyranny.

Also of great importance for the democracy and flourishing of Athens (and all of Greece) in the following era were the laws of Solon, fixed through the tyranny of Peisistratus and continued during the democratic reign of Cleisthenes.

The rivalry between Athens and Sparta was further developed in the classical era.

Contacts of Hellas with many countries favorably affected the acceleration of economic and cultural development. At the turn of the IX - VIII centuries. BC e. The Greek alphabet was created, which consisted of 24 letters. The role of trade as the leading area of ​​the economy increased, and minted coins appeared - a universal means of payment that replaced the previously used commodity money.

1.3. Classical period and the empire of Alexander the Great.

Classical period in the 5th-4th centuries BC The Classic period begins with a war with the Persians in 500 BC. This war lasted over 20 years. Greece managed to win a final victory at the Battle of Marathon in 490 BC. e. thanks to Athens, who created the Delian Maritime Union and led the fight against the Persians.

Gradually, from an equal maritime union, it turned into an instrument for the rise of Athens, which allowed the Athenians to use significant resources to create impressive masterpieces. The best architects, sculptors and artists were invited to Athens and carried out the plans of Pericles to decorate the Acropolis and the whole city. Science, arts and philosophy, art developed. In a word, it was the "Golden Age" of Athens.

Naturally, such a strong power did not suit Sparta, and in 431 BC. The Peloponnesian War broke out, ending only 27 years later with the victory of Sparta and the overthrow of Athens. From that time on, Sparta became the leading policy of Greece, planting its military orders in many cities, and internecine wars did not subside until the new unification of Greece under the hegemony of Macedonia.

The main prerequisites for the creation of the empire of Alexander the Great were made by his father, Philip II, who was a wise politician and far-sighted reformer. Against the backdrop of general instability, Macedonia was distinguished by a high level of economic development, technology and military affairs.

In 338 BC After the defeat of the Hellenes at the Battle of Chaeronea, Greece was united under Macedonian rule. After the assassination of Philip II, his son Alexander took his place, leading a victorious war against the Persians and creating a new empire within 9 years. He traveled to the Himalayas and reached the banks of the Ganges.

His idea was to put an end to the age-old strife between Persia and Greece. He married the daughters of Persian kings, hoping for a peaceful blending of the two cultures. He proclaimed himself the god Zeus-Amon, hoping for the worship of the common people of the conquered lands. However, Alexander was not understood by his army and inner circle. He died when he was 33 years old, leaving no successor.

Thanks to the conquests of Alexander the Great, a gigantic empire was created, which included, in addition to the Balkan Peninsula and the islands of the Aegean Sea, Egypt, Asia Minor, the south of Central Asia and part of Central Asia. The campaigns of the great commander brought destruction and creation at the same time. Streams of Greek and Macedonian settlers poured into the East, who everywhere established new social relations, founded city-states, laid communication routes and spread the culture of the Greek world, in turn absorbing the achievements of ancient civilizations.

In many conquered cities, public schools were organized, where boys were taught in the Greek way, theaters, stadiums, and hippodromes were built. Greek culture and way of life penetrated the East, absorbing the traditions of Eastern cultures. Together with the Greek gods, Isis and Osiris and other eastern deities were revered, in whose honor temples were erected. Hellenistic kings planted, according to Eastern custom, the royal cult. Some cities turned into major cultural centers that competed with the Greek ones. So, in Alexandria, a huge library was created, which consisted of about 700 thousand scrolls. Large libraries were in Pergamon and Antioch.

Hellenistic period in 300 - 30 years. BC. The death of Alexander hastened the collapse of the Great Empire, which had already begun by that time. Each of the Hellenistic states is of particular interest to the researcher. Compared with the ideals of democracy of the previous period, this time shows us how the military leaders of the army of Alexander the Great can rule the state, who divided the empire among themselves: Antipater took Macedonia and Greece, Lysimachus - Thrace, Antigonus - Asia Minor, Seleucus - Babylonia, Ptomeleus - Egypt .

The era that came after the death of Alexander the Great was called Hellenism. It lasted three centuries, until 30 BC. e., when the Romans conquered Egypt - the last of the Hellenistic states. But even in such a short time, these states managed to become a kind of conductor of Greek civilization. A stream of Greek and Macedonian settlers poured into the East, bringing Greek culture with them. In the conquered cities of the East, public schools were created, theaters, stadiums, hippodromes were built, and libraries appeared. In the most famous of them. Alexandria (Egypt), there were up to 700 thousand scrolls. Philosophy also received further development during the Hellenistic period. Philosophers of various schools (Stoics, Epicureans, Cynics) sought to develop new, more advanced ethical standards, urged a person to conscientiously fulfill his public duty or, on the contrary, to withdraw from active work and engage in self-improvement.

The soul of Hellenism is the spirit of enterprise and commerce associated with the expansion of Greek civilization into the Asian world. For several centuries, the Hellenistic states retained their power, but the decline that predetermined the Roman conquest did not bypass them.

Before the Roman aggressor, Macedonia and Greece were the first to fall in 148 BC. Longest before 30 BC The Ptolemaic Kingdom existed in Egypt.

2. POLITICAL LIFE OF ANCIENT GREECE, FORMATION OF DEMOCRACY IN POLIS

2.1. Tyranny in the archaic period.

The rapid development of commodity-money relations in the Archaic period led to the final victory of private property. The social stratification of Greek society intensified. A significant part of the free peasantry was left without land, many citizens fell into debt bondage and even lost their personal freedom because of this, being sold into slavery. Traditional power structures lost their support, the power of hereditary kings (basilei) or elected rulers from the tribal nobility was abolished almost everywhere. Instead, in a number of policies in Greece, outstanding personalities are at the head, pursuing their policies using violent methods. Such rulers who established a regime of personal power in the policy were called tyrants by the Greeks. And the forms of government they introduce are tyranny. However, in a number of cases, the activities of some tyrants had very positive results. Athenian tyrant Peisistratus in the 6th century. BC e. introduced a foreign policy aimed at gaining control of important sea routes. With the help of a number of demagogic measures, he repeatedly sought the favor of the demos. Peisistratus introduced religious festivities that were celebrated nationwide, did a lot for the improvement and decoration of Athens. By his order, the orally transmitted poems of Homer "Iliad" and "Odyssey" were written down. The patronage of literature and art was characteristic of early Greek tyranny.

2.2. Solon's reforms.

Occupations in crafts and trade led to the fact that among the demos the "rich" began to appear, often surpassing the "noble" in terms of their wealth. But they did not have such political rights as eupatrides, from among which all government bodies were formed. The wealthy urban demos demanded political rights.

About this time Aristotle, an outstanding Greek scientist of the 4th c. BC. wrote that the people rebelled against the nobility, and that this struggle was prolonged. Finally, both the Eupatrides and the Demos put forward a mediator who was entrusted with the issuance of new laws. For this purpose, in 594 BC. e. Solon was elected, who came from the nobility, but who had merchant ships and was close in occupation to the trade and craft demos.

Solon carried out a series of political and economic reforms that reduced the influence of eupatrides in society and increased the weight of the wealthy representatives of the demos.

The most important reforms of Solon:

1. Land reform - the abolition of debts and sisakhfiya - the removal of foundation stones from mortgaged land; the law on the land maximum was introduced;

2. The abolition of debt slavery accompanied the return of land. From now on, it was forbidden to “secure debt with your own body.” People sold into slavery for debts had to be ransomed.

3. Census reform in the field of political changes. Residents were divided into 4 property categories: pentakosiomedimnov, who received income equivalent to income from a land plot of 500 medimns of grain; horsemen - their income should have been at least 300 medimns, zeugits - 200 and fetes - less than 200 medimns. All citizens took part in the work of the National Assembly, regardless of belonging to one or another property category, elected officials, but only representatives of pentakosiomedimns had the right to be elected among them.

4. Establishment of a council of four hundred. During the reforms of Solon, a Council of four hundred is created (one hundred representatives from each tribal phylum). The members of this Council - the bule, as well as the archons, were elected at meetings of the old tribal phyla, where, of course, the influence of the Eupatrides remained. However, the principle of the formation of elected magistracies changed radically: candidates for a particular position could come not only from among the tribal nobility. Thus, timocracy arises (“time” - price, value).

Demos after the reforms of Solon becomes a real force.

In general, the power of the tribal nobility decreased, but has not yet been completely undermined - the nomination of candidates for positions took place according to the tribal phyla, where the eupatrides retained their positions. The main problems associated with debt, the enslavement of a free person were resolved, in addition, the rich representatives of the demos were given the right to be elected to one position or another. At the same time, the main requirement of the rural demos - the redistribution of land - was not fulfilled.

2.3. Athenian Democracy in the Golden Age of Pericles.

Athenian democracy is considered the most developed form of the democratic system of the ancient slave states. The formation of the system of political organs of the Athenian democracy was the result of a long historical period, starting with the reforms of Solon.

About policies!!!

In Greek policies, the basis of the entire socio-economic and political organization was the collective of citizens. In addition to them, in Athenian society there were meteks, numerous slaves, who together accounted for more than half of the total population. However, the Athenian polis system was based on the citizen and was created primarily for the citizen. A full-fledged Athenian citizen could be a resident of Attica, both of whose parents had civil rights, and his name was recorded in a special list maintained in demes. Boys and girls who have reached the age of 18 were entered into such lists. By the age of 20, the young man completed the course of military educational training and became a full citizen. The most essential rights of a citizen were the right to freedom and independence from any other person, the right to a land plot and assistance from the state in case of material difficulties, the right to bear arms and serve in the militia, the right to participate in the National Assembly, etc. The citizen was obliged to take care of his property and work on the land, to come to the aid of the policy in emergency circumstances, to defend his native policy with weapons in his hands, to honor the fatherly gods.

The People's Assembly was the most important state body with broad powers. It adopted state laws, approved the declaration of war and the conclusion of peace, the results of negotiations with other states, ratified treaties with them, elected officials, resolved matters related to the food supply of the city, and exercised careful control over young men preparing to receive civil rights. The most important thing was the discussion and approval of the state budget. Every Athenian citizen had the right to submit a draft law for discussion. In order to attract the lowest stratum of Athenian citizenship to the work of the People's Assembly, a law was passed establishing a fee for attending the People's Assembly.

Along with the People's Assembly, the Council of Four Hundred continued to operate. The most important tasks of the Council of 500 were the preparation and organization of the work of the People's Assembly and the performance of their functions in between sessions. In the system of Athenian democracy there were many different colleges of magistrates, the main functions of which were the organization of government within Athens itself. All magistracies were collegiate, and the possibility of concentration of power was excluded. In Athens, a democratic electoral structure was adopted: apart from military magistracies, candidates for all other positions were chosen by lot from representatives of all property categories.

Athenian democracy took care of the education and upbringing of citizens. Starting from Pericles, i.e. from 40-30 years. 5th century BC, the authorities began to distribute special tokens to poor citizens, which could be used to go to a theatrical performance. Thus, Athenian democracy was based on the broad participation of various categories of citizens, ensured its social activity, created conditions for the development of the political self-consciousness of the Athenian citizen.

However, Athenian democracy also had its shortcomings. Athenian democracy was slave-owning, i.e. slaves, as well as meteki, permanently living in Athens, did not have civil rights and did not take part in government. A popular assembly existed in Athens even before Pericles. His powers, significantly reduced during the period of domination of the tribal aristocracy, were expanded by Solon and confirmed by Cleisthenes. In a number of cases, ostracism was used - expulsion from Athens by a kind of voting: if the people decided that they should resort to ostracism, everyone wrote on a shard the name of the politician whom, in his opinion, should be expelled. The one whose name was written by a larger number of citizens was subjected to exile. Ostracism was an important means of conducting political struggle. The selection by lot was completely random, as the name implies. When elections were made by a show of hands, the issue was decided by a majority vote.

2.4. Aristocratic Republic of Sparta.

Sparta, like Athens, was the main leading center of the Greek world, but it was a different type of state than Athens. In contrast, Sparta was an aristocratic, not democratic, republic.

Sparta was located in Laconia, which in the XII-XI centuries BC. was invaded by the Doric tribes. Gradually, the Achaean tribes who previously lived there were subjugated by them and turned into communal slaves - helots. However, in the strict understanding of the meaning of this concept, they differed from slaves in that they gave their masters not the entire crop, but only half of it, and belonged not to one specific person, but to the state. Thus, the status of helots can be defined as serfs.

The conquest placed before the Dorians the task of establishing organs of power. However, such an early emergence of the state entailed the preservation of a number of primitive communal remnants and elements of the tribal structure. In particular, among the state bodies in Sparta, councils of elders were preserved, and the state was ruled by two leaders - archaetes. If unanimity reigned among the archagets, then their power was considered unlimited, but since this did not happen often, a limitation of their power was thus achieved.

The popular assembly - apella - had a democratic essence, but over time lost its real power and became completely dependent on the authorities.

The limitation of the power of the kings was achieved not only by the fact that there were two of them, but also by the fact that both archagetes were simultaneously members of the council of elders - gerussia. In addition to the kings, it included 28 more geront members, elected for life from representatives of the most influential Spartan families who had reached the age of sixty. The functions of the gerussia included the supreme court, the military council, and the conduct of internal and military affairs of the Spartan community.

Over time, another organ appeared in Sparta - the ephorate, which consisted of five ephors elected by the apella. Ephorate could have a tremendous influence on the affairs of the state. Once every eight years, the ephors gathered at night and watched the falling stars. It was believed that if the ephors saw a shooting star, then one of the kings must be replaced. In addition, they had the right to demand explanations from the kings and could cancel their decisions. The ephorate convened the gerussia and the apella, was in charge of foreign policy affairs, financial matters, and carried out judicial and police functions.

Many Spartan institutions and customs are associated with the name of Lycurgus. His activity dates back to about the 8th century BC. Although the real existence of Lycurgus has not been proven, however, there is his life story written by Plutarch. According to him, on the advice of the Delphic oracle, Lycurgus promulgated a retra - an oral saying attributed to a deity and containing important decrees and laws.

This retro formed the basis of the Spartan state system.

According to it, the collective use of slaves and land was established.

Citizens were endowed with equal allotments of land - cleres.

The council of elders was reorganized and an ephorate was established.

Much has been done to establish a way of life that we call spartan - without luxury and frills. So it was required that in each house the roof was made with an ax, and the door was sawn out with a saw. Money was made in the form of large heavy coins to prevent their accumulation.

Much attention in Sparta was paid to the education of children, who were to grow up as strong warriors, ready at any moment to pacify the helots. Therefore, according to the laws of Lycurgus, children who had physical disabilities were killed.

The upbringing of children was distinguished by extreme severity and took place in conditions of strict discipline, with an emphasis on military and physical training.

The state considered the upbringing of Spartans to be a special task, since the community was interested in the fact that children were born healthy and strong. Therefore, having married, the Spartan woman completely devoted herself to her family responsibilities - the birth and upbringing of children.

In addition, according to the laws attributed to Lycurgus, the Spartans were forbidden to engage in craft and trade. This was the lot of the perieks - free residents of the border regions of Laconica, limited in their political rights.

The peculiarities of the social and state system of Sparta are explained by the fact that the remnants of the primitive communal system continued to be preserved here for a long time, which were used to ensure dominance over the subject population of Laconia. By keeping the enslaved people in subjection, the Spartans were forced to turn their city into a military camp and ensure equality in their community.

3. CULTURAL AND PHILOSOPHICAL HERITAGE

3.1. Philosophy and natural sciences

The religious and mythological explanation of the origin and development of the world and the reality surrounding the ancient Greeks gradually came into conflict with the accumulated subject experience. New ideas arose in Ionia, which was the most economically and socially developed at that time.

spontaneous materialism. In the second half of the 7th c. BC. in Miletus, among merchants, artisans and other business people, Hellenic philosophy was born. Thales (c. 625-547 BC) is considered the founder of ancient Greek philosophy, and Anaximander (c. 610-546 BC) and Anaximenes (c. 585-525 BC) were his successors. AD) . The Milesian philosophers laid the foundations of spontaneous materialism.

Thales considered water to be the beginning of everything. He represented the earth as a flat disk floating on the original water. Thales was also considered the founder of ancient Greek mathematics, astronomy and a number of other natural sciences. He is also credited with a number of specific scientific calculations. He knew how to predict solar eclipses and could give a physical explanation of this process.

Anaximander, following the path of further generalization of experience, came to the conclusion that the primary matter is apeiron: indefinite, eternal and boundless matter, which is in constant motion. From it, in the process of movement, its inherent opposites stand out - warm and cold, wet and dry. Anaximander is considered the compiler of the first geographical map and the first scheme of the firmament for orientation by the stars, he represented the earth in the form of a rotating cylinder floating in the air.

Anaximenes believed that the beginning of everything is air, which, discharging or condensing, gives rise to the whole variety of things. Everything arises and returns to the ever-moving air, including the gods, who, like all other things, are certain states of the air.

philosophical idealism. Materialistic philosophy arose among the progressive groups of the young slave-owning class in the struggle against the religious-mythological ideology inherited from the past. Representatives of the slave-owning aristocracy, struggling with this ideology, opposed it with philosophical idealism. His first preacher in ancient Greece was Pythagoras (c. 580-500 BC) from the island of Samos. After the establishment of tyranny on the island of Samos, Pythagoras emigrated to southern Italy to the city of Croton, where in the second half of the 6th century. BC. founded from representatives of the local aristocracy a reactionary religious and political union, known as the "Pythagorean".

According to the philosophy of the Pythagoreans, not quality, but quantity, not substance, but form determines the essence of things. Everything can be counted and thus the quantitative features and laws of nature can be established.

The spontaneous dialectical materialism of Heraclitus of Ephesus. In the struggle against the idealistic philosophy of Pythagoras, the materialistic philosophy of the Milesian school was improved. At the end of the VI-beginning of the V century. BC. Heraclitus of Ephesus (ca. 530-470 BC) acted as a spontaneous dialectical materialist. In his writings, they found the completion of the search for Thales, Anaximander and Anaximenes.

By origin and political convictions, Heraclitus was a supporter of the aristocracy. With the victory of slave-owning democracy in his homeland, Heraclitus's pessimistic attitude towards the reality surrounding him is connected. Speaking against the victorious democracy, he wanted to show its transitory character. However, in his philosophical constructions, he went far beyond this goal. According to Heraclitus, the highest law of nature is the eternal process of movement and change. The element from which everything arises is fire, representing either a naturally igniting, or a naturally extinguished combustion process. Everything in nature consists of opposites in the struggle born from fire, passing into each other and returning to fire. Heraclitus was the first to come to the idea of ​​the dialectical development of the material world as a necessary regularity inherent in matter. Heraclitus expressed the natural necessity with the Greek word "logos", in the philosophical sense denoting "law". We know the saying attributed to Heraclitus: "Panta rey" - everything flows, everything changes, which briefly formulates the essence of his philosophy. The dialectical unity of opposites is formulated as a constantly emerging harmony of mutually complementary and struggling opposites. The process of self-development of fire was not created by any of the gods or people, it was, is and always will be. Heraclitus ridiculed the religious and mythological worldview of his compatriots.

The philosopher Xenophanes (c. 580-490 BC) and his disciples began to fight against the materialistic dialectic of Heraclitus. Exiled from his native Asia Minor city of Colophon (near Ephesus). Xenophanes argued that there was no reason to attribute human appearance to the gods and that if bulls and horses could create images of the gods, they would present them in their own image.

Such were the first steps of ancient Greek philosophy, which arose and developed in the struggle against the old religious-philosophical worldview.

5th century BC e. was a time of further development of Greek science and philosophy, which still remained closely connected. During this period of the further development of ancient society and the state, which took place in the conditions of a fierce class and political struggle, political theories and journalism also arose. In the 5th century BC. materialistic philosophy in ancient Greece developed exceptionally fruitfully.

Classic stage. The most prominent philosopher of the classical phase of the philosophy of Ancient Greece was Plato (427-347 BC). Plato was a representative of the Athenian slave-owning aristocracy. At the age of 20, Plato becomes a student of Socrates. After Socrates was convicted, Plato leaves Athens and briefly moves to Megara, after which he returns to his native city and takes an active part in his political life. In the treatises "State" and "Laws" Plato created a model of an ideal policy with a carefully developed estate system, strict control of the top of society over the activities of the lower classes. He considered the correct interpretation of the concept of virtue, justice to be the basis of the correct construction of the state, therefore, philosophers, people with knowledge, should have been at the head of the policy.

He considered ideas to be the pinnacle and foundation of everything. The material world is only a derivative, a shadow of the world of ideas. Above all other ideas, Plato put the idea of ​​beauty and goodness. Plato recognizes movement, dialectics, which is the result of the conflict of being and non-being, i.e. ideas and matter.

Another prominent scientist of this period is Aristotle (384-322 BC). Aristotle spent eight years at the court of Philip II as an educator of Alexander the Great. A student of Plato, Aristotle was engaged in scientific research in Athens and taught at the Lyceum Gymnasium.

Aristotle went down in history, first of all, as a scientist-encyclopedist. His legacy is a real body of knowledge accumulated by Greek science by the 4th century BC. He put after himself 150 works, which were later systematized and divided into four main groups:

1) Ontology (the science of being) - "Metaphysics";

2) Works on general philosophy, problems of nature and natural science - "Physics", "On the sky", "Meteorology"

3) Political, aesthetic treatises - "Politics", "Rhetoric", "Poetics"

4) Works on the logic and methodology of the Organon.

Aristotle, unlike his teacher, believed that the material world is primary, and the world of ideas is secondary, that form and content are inseparable from each other as two sides of one phenomenon. The doctrine of nature appears in his treatises, first of all, as the doctrine of movement, and this is one of the most interesting and strong points of Aristotle's system. He is considered an outstanding representative of dialectics, which was for him a method of obtaining true and reliable knowledge from probable and plausible knowledge. The scientist also acted as a historian, teacher, theoretician of eloquence, the creator of ethical doctrine. His pen belongs to ethical treatises, in which virtue is understood as a reasonable regulation of activity, the middle between extremes. He paid much attention to poetry, believing that it has a beneficial effect on the psyche and is important for social life.

The teachings of Aristotle were widely used in European philosophy by representatives of various trends.

The representative of slave-owning democracy, the philosopher Empedocles (c. 483-423 BC) from the Sicilian city of Akraganta, put forward the thesis that everything consists of qualitatively different and quantitatively divisible elements, or, as he calls them, "roots". These "roots" are: fire, air, water and earth. His contemporary Anaxogoras (500-428 BC) believed that all existing bodies consist of the smallest particles similar to them.

The highest development of mechanistic materialism in the classical period was reached in the teachings of Leucippus (c. 500-440 BC) from Miletus, and Democritus (460-370 BC) from Adbera. Both philosophers were the ideologists of slave-owning democracy and outstanding scientists of their time.

Sophist philosophers. The complication of social relations in connection with the rapid development of slavery and the social stratification of the free forced a significant part of philosophers, starting from the middle of the 5th century. BC, pay attention to the study of human activities. The accumulation of diverse knowledge, on the other hand, required their systematization. Sophist philosophers took up these issues closely (the so-called wandering teachers who taught eloquence and other sciences for a fee). Their appearance was largely associated with the political development of democratic policies, so that citizens should have mastered the art of oratory.

The most famous among the sophists was Protagoras (c. 480-411 BC) from Abdera. He put forward a position about the relativity of all phenomena and perceptions and their inevitable subjectivity. The doubt expressed by him in the existence of the gods was the reason for the condemnation of Protagoras in Athens for godlessness and led the sophist to death.

The Sophists did not represent any single direction in Greek philosophical thought. Their philosophical constructions were characterized by the denial of the obligatory in knowledge.

The idealistic philosopher Socrates. If the sophists came to the conclusion that it was impossible to give a positive answer to the question they posed about the criterion of truth, then their contemporary, the ideologist of the Athenian aristocratic circles, the idealist philosopher Socrates (471-399 BC) considered this possible and even believed that he found the criterion of truth. He taught that the truth is known in the dispute. The "Socratic" method of conducting a dispute is known, in which the sage, with the help of leading questions, imperceptibly inspires the arguing with his idea. To establish general concepts, Socrates proceeded from the study of a number of special cases. The goal of a person, according to Socrates, should be virtue, which must be realized. Socrates taught orally, he did not write books, he believed that in them thought becomes dead, becomes the rule, and this is no longer knowledge. The greatest wisdom, according to Socrates, is not to be deceived by your knowledge, not to absolutize it: "I know that I know nothing." The most shameful ignorance is "to imagine that you know what you do not know." His philosophy has come down to us in the presentation of his students, mainly Xenophon and Plato.

Philosophy in the period of Hellenism partially changed the content and its main goals. These changes were due to socio-economic and political processes in the developing Hellenistic society. Philosophers of the Hellenistic period turned their main attention to solving the problems of ethics and morality, the problems of the behavior of an individual in the world. The two old authoritative schools of Plato and Aristotle were gradually losing their face and authority.

The most important feature of the development of science was what happened in the 5th century. BC e. separation from the philosophy of individual sciences. The progress in medicine, associated primarily with the activities of Hippocrates, is indicative. Hippocratic medicine is characterized by strict rationalism. According to Hippocrates, all diseases are caused by natural causes. He demanded from the doctor an individual approach to the patient, taking into account the characteristics of both the patient himself and his natural habitat.

Mathematics developed primarily under the influence of Pythagorean scientists. In the 5th century BC e. it turns into an independent scientific discipline, ceases to be the prerogative of philosophers. The progress of mathematical knowledge is especially noticeable in arithmetic, geometry, and stereometry. By the 5th century BC e. also include significant advances in astronomy and geography. Eratosthenes in the 3rd century BC computed the first. a fairly accurate value of the length of the great circle of the globe, in his essay "Geography" and on the map of the ecumene (inhabited earth), he brought into a single system all the knowledge of that time about the Earth.

Stoics and Epicureans. In parallel with the decline of the old philosophies of classical Greece during the Hellenistic period, two new philosophical systems of the Stoics and Epicureans arose and developed. The founder of Stoic philosophy was a native of the island of Capra Zeno (c. 336-264 BC). Stoicism was to a certain extent a synthesis of Greek and Eastern views. Creating his philosophy, Zeno in particular used the teachings of Heraclitus, Aristotle, the teachings of the Cynics and Babylonian religious and philosophical ideas. Stoicism was not only the most widespread, but also the most enduring Hellenistic school of thought. It was an idealistic teaching. The Stoics called everything the body, including thought, word, fire. The soul, according to the Stoics, was a special kind of light body - warm breath.

Philosophical schools that arose and developed during the Hellenistic period are characterized by the recognition of their human dignity and even the possibility of them having the highest moral qualities and wisdom.

There was further knowledge of the surrounding world by the Greeks. So in the II century BC. Ptolemy compiled a set of geographical knowledge of the ancient world - "Geography" in 8 volumes. He developed mathematical methods for constructing maps, collected information about more than 800 geographical names and coordinates of almost 400 points (cities, estuaries, islands).

The concepts of the philosophical schools of Ancient Greece, the achievements of scientists of that time in almost all fields of science laid the foundation, served and will continue to serve as the foundation for the development of world philosophical and scientific thought.

3.2. Religious beliefs of the ancient Greeks.

The religion of early Greece played a large role in the dynamics of the social thought of the Hellenes. Initially, the Greek religion, like any other primitive religion, reflects only the weakness of man in the face of those "forces" that in nature, later in society and in his own mind, interfere, as he thinks, with his actions and pose a threat to his existence, more terrible, that he does not understand where it comes from. About the myths of D_G - how do we know

The ideas of the Greeks about the beginning of the existence of the world did not fundamentally differ from the ideas of many other peoples. It was believed that Chaos, the Earth (Gaia), the underworld (Tartar) and Eros, the life principle, originally existed. Gaia gave birth to the starry sky - Uranus, which became the first ruler of the world and the spouse of Gaia. From Uranus and Gaia, the second generation of gods, the titans, was born. Titan Kronos (god of agriculture) overthrew the power of Uranus. In turn, the children of Kronos - Hades, Poseidon, Zeus, Hestia, Demeter and Hera - under the leadership of Zeus overthrew Kronos and seized power over the universe. Thus, the Olympian gods are the third generation of deities. Zeus became the supreme deity - the ruler of the sky, thunder and lightning. Among the descendants of Zeus, Apollo stood out, the god of the bright beginning in nature, often called Phoebus (Shining). The role of Apollo increases over time, and he begins to displace Zeus.

Great honor was enjoyed by Athena, born from the head of Zeus, the goddess of wisdom, of any rational principle, but also of war (unlike Ares, who personified reckless courage).

The Greek religious consciousness is not characterized by the idea of ​​the omnipotence of the deity. Due to political fragmentation and the lack of a priestly class, the Greeks did not develop a single religion. A large number of very close but not identical religious systems emerged. As the polis worldview developed, ideas about the special connection of individual deities with one or another policy, the patrons of which they acted, took shape. Thus, the goddess Athena is especially closely associated with the city of Athens, Apollo with Delphi, Zeus with Olympia, etc.

The Greek worldview is characterized not only by polytheism, but also by the idea of ​​the universal animation of nature. Each natural phenomenon had its own deity. From the point of view of the Greek, there was no insurmountable line between the world of people and the world of gods, heroes acted as an intermediate link between them. Heroes such as Hercules, for their exploits, joined the world of the gods.

The Greek gods, the myths of their life, found their reflection on ceramic vessels - amphoras, ..., in beautiful sculptures and frescoes of ancient Greek masters, served and will continue to serve as inspiration for many generations of artists and sculptors.

3.3. Theatre.

Introductory words about the theater

In the ancient theater, the play was staged only once - its repetition was the greatest rarity, and the performances themselves were given only three times a year - during the holidays in honor of the god Dionysus.

Going to the theater was the duty of Athenian citizens. The poorest were even given money to make up for their losses. Such reverence for the dramatic art is explained by the fact that the Athenians honored the god Dionysus with theatrical performances.

The construction of the theater in ancient Greece had the form of an open stone building in the form of an "orchestra" (central circle), framed by tiers of visual rows somewhat longer than a semicircle. Opposite them was a narrow oblong platform, bounded at the back by a building called skena (hence - "stage") and was used for changing the clothes of the actors. In addition, the roof of the skene made it possible to perform on the upper tier. This type of structure (a vivid example is the partially preserved theater of Dionysus in Athens) was the result of a long evolution, which apparently began with wooden buildings, and, in turn, served as a prototype for the Western European theater.

As a rule, the role of scenery was played by the front wall of the skene, although, apparently, already in the time of Sophocles (495-406 BC), painted panels were sometimes used if it was necessary to show that events were unfolding, for example, in an open area . Several "machines" were soon introduced, such as a device for raising actors to the upper level or lowering them, used mainly for the descent of deities (hence the Latin proverb "deus ex machina" - "god from the machine").

At first, convention seems to have dominated the ancient theater. Both in tragedy and in comedy, the main element was the choir in the orchestra. Indispensable components of the frivolous, piquant and lyrical extravaganzas of Aristophanes (c. 450 - 385 BC), as well as tragedies, were dance and poetic recitation. All roles in ancient Greek theater were performed by men. The performers of the main tragic roles wore stylized masks and high headdresses corresponding to their type; on their feet they wore cothurni, shoes with very thick soles, which gave the actors an unnatural height (and became a symbol of tragedy, in contrast to the sandals of comedy), and their costumes were distinguished by both formality and richness of decoration. Ridiculously distorted masks and the ridiculous, vulgar costumes of the comic actors gave the performance a fantastic air.

However, there is a gradual movement towards greater realism. The tragedies of Euripides (c. 484-406 BC) are much closer to reality than the works of his predecessors Sophocles and Aeschylus (525-456 BC); the ancient choir began to lose its central position. At the end of his life, Aristophanes, the master of ancient comedy, witnessed the emergence of a less fantastic “Middle Attic Comedy” (c. 375-325 BC), which, in turn, was replaced by an even closer to the truth of life “new Attic comedy” Menander (c. 342 - c. 291 BC). With the development of these late genres of the orchestra, the stage for the choir began to lose its original significance, and in the Hellenistic era a new kind of theatrical structure appeared, in which high stages sharply separated the actors from the level of the orchestra.

In a later period, the Hellenistic theater easily transformed into the so-called Greco-Roman theater, where the stage began to invade the once monolithic circle of the orchestra, and the skene acquired an even more magnificent and dominant appearance.

Financing and organizing a theatrical performance was one of the responsibilities of the richest citizens; the theater was a state institution. The ancient Greek theater, especially the Athenian one, was closely connected with the life of the policy, being in essence the second national assembly, where the most burning issues were discussed.

3.5. Architecture and sculpture.

During the period of archaic Greece, architecture is represented by stone or marble monumental structures. In the VI century. a single common Greek type of temple was developed in the form of a rectangular, elongated building, surrounded on all sides by a colonnade, sometimes single (peripter), sometimes double (dipter). At the same time, the main structural and artistic features of the two main architectural orders were determined: Doric, which was especially widespread in the Peloponnese and in the cities of Magna Graecia (Southern Italy and Sicily), and Ionic, which was especially popular in the Greek part of Asia Minor and in some regions of European Greece. The temple of Apollo in Corinth and the temples of Poseidonia (Paestum) in southern Italy can be considered typical examples of the Doric order, with such characteristic features as severe power and heavy massiveness. More graceful, slender, and at the same time, distinguished by some pretentiousness, the decorations of the buildings of the Ionic order were presented in the same period by the temples of Hera on about. Samosey, Artemis in Ephesus (considered one of the "seven wonders of the world").

The most widespread and accessible type of archaic Greek art was, of course, vase painting. In the VI century. black-figure painting dominates, figures are depicted on a yellow surface with black lacquer. At the end of the VI century. red-figure painting appears, when the figures remain in the color of clay, and the background is black and lacquer.

In their work, aimed at the widest consumer, master vase painters are much less than sculptors or architects; depended on the canons consecrated by religion or the state. Therefore, their art was much more dynamic, diverse and responded faster to artistic discoveries and experiments. Probably, this is precisely what explains the extraordinary thematic diversity characteristic of the Greek vase painting of the 7th-6th centuries. It was in vase painting, earlier than in any other branch of Greek art, that mythological scenes began to alternate with episodes of a genre character. At the same time, not limited to plots borrowed from the life of the aristocratic elite (scenes of feasts, chariot races, athletic exercises and competitions, etc.), Greek vase painters (especially during the heyday of the so-called black-figure style in Corinth, Attica and some other regions) they do not neglect the life of the social lower classes, depicting scenes of field work, craft workshops, folk festivals in honor of Dionysus, and even the hard work of slaves in the mines. In scenes of this kind, the humanistic and democratic features of Greek art, which were instilled in it by the surrounding social environment, starting from the archaic era, were especially clearly manifested.

Faced with Greek art, many prominent minds expressed genuine admiration. One of the most famous researchers of the art of ancient Greece, Johann Winckelmann (1717-1768) says about Greek sculpture: “Connoisseurs and imitators of Greek works find in their masterful creations not only the most beautiful nature, but also more than nature, namely, some ideal beauty of it, which ... is created from images sketched by the mind. " Everyone who writes about Greek art notes in it an amazing combination of naive immediacy and depth, reality and fiction. In art, especially in sculpture, the ideal of man is embodied.

The Greeks have always believed that only in a beautiful body can a beautiful soul live. Therefore, the harmony of the body, external perfection is an indispensable condition and the basis of an ideal person. The Greek ideal is defined by the term kalokagathia (Greek kalos - beautiful and agathos good). Since kalokagatiya includes the perfection of both bodily constitution and spiritual and moral warehouse, then, along with beauty and strength, the ideal carries justice, chastity, courage and reasonableness. This is what makes the Greek gods, sculpted by ancient sculptors, uniquely beautiful.

The best monuments of ancient Greek sculpture were created in the 5th century. BC. But earlier works have come down to us. Statues of the 7th - 6th centuries BC. symmetrical: one half of the body is a mirror image of the other. Shackled postures, outstretched arms pressed against a muscular body. Not the slightest tilt or turn of the head, lips parted in a smile. Later, during the period of classicism, the statues acquire a greater variety of forms.

There were attempts to comprehend harmony algebraically. The first scientific study of what harmony is, was undertaken by Pythagoras. The school he founded dealt with questions of a philosophical and mathematical nature, applying mathematical calculations to all aspects of reality. Neither musical harmony, nor the harmony of the human body or architectural structure was an exception. The Pythagorean school considered the number to be the basis and the beginning of the world.

On the basis of the Pythagorean school, the great Greek sculptor Polikleitos (5th century BC) created a sculpture of a young spear-bearer, which is called "Dorifor" ("Spear-bearer") or "Canon" - after the title of the sculptor's work, where he, talking about the theory art, considers the laws of the image of a perfect man.The spearman stands motionless in front of the viewer, because Polikleitos liked to depict athletes at rest.

Unlike his contemporary Polikleitos, the sculptor Myron liked to depict his statues in motion. Here, for example, in the statue "Discobolus" (5th century BC), Myron depicted a beautiful young man at the moment when he swung a heavy disk. The statues of Myron and Polykleitos were cast in bronze, but only marble copies from ancient Greek originals made by the Romans have come down to us.

The Greeks considered Phidias the greatest sculptor of his time, who decorated the temple of Athena, the Parthenon, with marble sculpture. His sculptures especially reflect that the gods in Greece are nothing but images of an ideal person. The best-preserved marble ribbon of the relief of the frieze is 160 m long. It depicts a procession heading to the Parthenon. The sculptor created many other works, the best of which were the colossal bronze figure of Athena Promachos, erected on the Acropolis in about 460 BC, and the equally huge figure of Zeus, created from ivory and gold, for the temple at Olympia. Unfortunately, the original works have not been preserved to our time. The statue of Zeus made such an impression that, according to the ancient author, people, dejected by grief, sought solace in contemplating the creation of Phidias. Rumor declared the statue of Zeus one of the "seven wonders of the world."

The works of all three sculptors were similar in that they all depicted the harmony of a beautiful body and a kind soul contained in it. This was the main trend of the time.

Of course, the norms and attitudes in Greek art have changed throughout history. The art of the archaic was more straightforward, it lacked the deep sense of reticence that delights mankind in the period of the Greek classics. In the era of Hellenism, when a person lost a sense of the stability of the world, art lost its old ideals. It began to reflect the feelings of uncertainty about the future that reigned in the social currents of that time.

One thing united all periods of the development of Greek society and art: this, as M. Alpatov writes, who is this? "a special passion for plastic arts, for spatial arts." Although the majority of Greek sculptures were made in bronze, since marble was fragile, it was the texture of marble, with its color and decorative effect, that made it possible to reproduce the beauty of the human body with the greatest expressiveness.

CONCLUSION

Ancient Greek civilization is one of the brightest civilizations in world history. Ancient Greek civilization includes public and state structures that were formed on the territory of the Balkan Peninsula and in the Aegean region, in southern Italy, on about. Sicily and the Black Sea. It begins at the turn of the III - II millennium BC. - from the appearance of the first state formations on the island of Crete, and ends in the II - I centuries. BC, when the Greek and Hellenistic states of the Eastern Mediterranean were captured by Rome and incorporated into the Roman Mediterranean empire.

Over a two thousand year period of history, the ancient Greeks created a rational economic system based on the economical use of labor and natural resources, a civil society structure, a polis organization with a republican structure, a high culture that had a huge impact on the development of Roman and world culture. These achievements of ancient Greek civilization enriched the world historical process, served as the foundation for the subsequent development of the peoples of the Mediterranean in the era of Roman domination.

Thanks to the works of many ancient thinkers, a theory of the state in social life was developed, and a criterion for the true value of a person was formed. It was in ancient Greece that the concepts of such spiritual values ​​as: civil freedom, civic duty, humanity, harmony, responsibility were formed.

Philosophy in the full sense of the word was also born in ancient Greece. The names of Pythagoras, Heraclitus, Anaxagoras, Democritus, Socrates, Plato, Aristotle are not only symbols of the beginning of philosophy as a science. Their reasoning continues to influence the further course of development of philosophical thoughts.

Hellas is the youth of antiquity. This is her most joyful, most cheerful, most interesting period. The Greeks remembered the Egyptians, from whom they borrowed a lot. They remembered the wisdom of the Babylonian magicians. But youth is always self-confident, it strives to know the world itself, to get to the bottom of its essence. The Greeks were looking for the fundamental principle of the world: air, water, fire, or small peas of an atom, or an idea, or a number, as Pythagoras believed. And still youth aspires to know itself. It is no coincidence that the motto of the greatest sage of Greece, Socrates, became the motto; "Know yourself!". Youth loves and has fun. The Greeks loved the theatre. The theater was also a school for adults. But their biggest entertainment, their biggest game, was politics, especially in Athens. For a century and a half there was a "week" of self-government, they played democracy.

Youth knows how to create. She created harmonious philosophical doctrines, she calculated the distance from the Earth to the Sun, or the diameter of the Earth. Magnificent temples were built in Hellas. Youth is not afraid of the beauty of its body. And magnificent sculptures of marble and bronze arose.

Finally, the 22-year-old young man Alexander the Great pushed the boundaries of Hellas, the boundaries of the Hellenic civilization to Central Asia and India, returned from a campaign at the age of 32, died. And youth is over.

Latyshev V.V. Essay on Greek antiquities

Electronic version of the book published in St. Petersburg in 1897-1899 (third edition). Written more than a century ago, this book still has not lost its significance both for the scientific world in general and for all those interested in antiquity in particular. Before us is a real encyclopedia of Greek civilization, covering in detail the most important realities of the political, military, religious and cultural life of Hellas. The first part of the book presents the foundations of the statehood of the Hellenes, the stages of development of polis institutions throughout the independent history of Greece. The second part of the study by V.V. Latyshev is devoted to the consideration of the religion of the ancient Greeks and the most important cultural phenomena.

History of Ancient Greece, edited by V.I. Kuzishchin

An electronic version of the textbook published by the Vysshaya Shkola publishing house in 1996. The textbook contains a systematic presentation of the origin, formation, rise and fall of the ancient Greek civilization, starting from the primary statehood of Crete and ending with Hellenistic Egypt, conquered at the end of the 1st century BC. BC. Rome. The new edition (1st - 1986) pays great attention to the characteristics of Greek democracy and remarkable culture, which had a huge impact on the subsequent development of world civilization. The appendix contains a list of the most important Greek gods and a chronological table. The book contains many illustrations and maps.

Bibliography.

1. Kumanetsky K. History of culture of ancient Greece and Rome M., Higher school, 1990.

2. Kun N. A. Legends and myths of Ancient Greece. — M.: AST, 2002

3. Lyubimov L. Art of the ancient world. - M .: "Enlightenment", 1980.

4. Encyclopedia for children. T. 1. World history. — M.: Avanta+, 2001

The emergence of the Greek community-polis

The arid climate of Greece and the absence of large rivers did not allow the construction of irrigation systems, as in the East. Therefore, the main branches of the economy of the ancient Greeks were not agriculture, but cattle breeding (goats, sheep) and gardening (grapes, olives). Greece had many minerals (silver, gold, copper, lead, marble), but its main wealth was the sea. Convenient bays, a scattering of numerous islands created excellent conditions for navigation and trade. And the ancient Greeks gave a worthy "answer" to the "challenge" of the environment: their civilization fit perfectly into the natural and geographical environment. Ancient Greece became a strong maritime power.

The first center of ancient Greek civilization originated on the island of Crete at the turn of III-II millennium BC. e. But around the fifteenth century BC e. the original Cretan culture perished (probably as a result of a powerful volcanic eruption). It was replaced by a new culture - Achaean. This civilization developed rapidly and successfully, its borders expanded, but it was also around the 13th-12th centuries. BC e. died suddenly. The reason for the death of the Achaean civilization was not the elements, but, most likely, the invasion of the northern tribes, including the Dorian Greeks.

The Cretan and Achaean cultures were the forerunners of the Greek civilization proper. In the VIII-VI centuries. BC e. its borders covered the south of the Balkan Peninsula, the islands of the Aegean Sea and the western coast of Asia Minor. And around 500 BC. e. The great Greek colonization began. The ancient Greeks advanced into Italy, France, reached the coast of Spain, the Eastern Mediterranean (Levant) and North Africa. Colonization led to a massive exodus of people from Greece. First of all, those who were dissatisfied with their economic and social status left. This partly contributed to the easing of social tensions in Greece itself.

But the main result of colonization was the rapid development of trade, accompanied by the growth of shipbuilding and related crafts. Greek colonists and seafarers had to resist the sea and earth elements, and only the most courageous, enterprising and skillful could succeed in this struggle. Therefore, colonization brought the spirit of competition into the life of ancient Greece. It is no coincidence that the famous Olympic Games were born in Greece - a true holiday to the glory of the perfection of the human soul and body.

The basis of Greek society was a community that differed in many ways from the traditional eastern community. It was a community-polis, which included not only the rural, but also the urban population. Every free Greek owner could become a member. All members of the polis-community had political rights to one degree or another, which is why the Greek polis is called a civil community.

If in the Eastern despotisms the state stood above the community, then in Greece it seemed to grow out of it, forming on its basis. The Greek community itself was a small state, characterized by economic, political and ideological integrity. It had a great influence on the political life of civilization, its system of ethical values, and in part even on literature, art, and philosophy. Within the community-policies, civil law was formed, that is, codes of laws were formed that determined the rights and obligations of the community members. The policies, as a rule, had their own army (militia), they independently conducted foreign affairs. The polis was the collective owner of the land. Its citizens, feeling free and full of rights, believed that their personal well-being directly depended on the success of their native policy. And the prosperity of the policy, in turn, depended on the loyalty and support of citizens, on how energetically and honestly they serve the policy.

Why did strong and independent city-states emerge precisely in Greece? This is largely due to the fact that in Greece there were no conditions for the emergence of large royal and temple households. In ancient times, it is true, kings and tribal nobility were at the head of the policies, but their power was contested by the small peasantry and numerous ignorant townspeople, who saw in the rule of the aristocracy a threat to their modest property. As a result of this struggle, the tribal nobility was pushed aside in many policies and autocracy, or tyranny, was established (the word "tyrant" in ancient times meant "sole ruler" and had no negative meaning).

But after tyranny weakened the position of the aristocracy, the need for it disappeared. Autocracy in some policies was replaced by the rule of a minority (oligarchy), in others - the rule of the majority, "the whole people" (democracy). But in both cases, the main role in the power structure was played by the people's assembly, which decided all the most important issues.

Thus arose a unique feature of ancient Greek civilization - democracy. It was provided by the people's assembly and the principle of elective power. All citizens of the polis enjoyed the privileges of democracy. First of all, dependent peasants who had lost the right to own land, and meteks (foreigners) were considered incomplete. As the Greeks conquered new lands, the number of metecs grew, many of them were very rich, but they were still forbidden to buy land.

The most disenfranchised social group was the slaves, who were treated much more harshly and harshly in Greece than in the East. Apparently, this was due to the fact that debt slavery in Greece quickly disappeared and only prisoners of war were slaves, who were treated accordingly - as enemies. Slaves in ancient Greece were considered "talking tools" and were deprived of even minimal rights. They could not marry, and children born to slaves (even from their owners) automatically became slaves. But although the number of slaves was constantly growing, the main producers, as in the East, were still not they, but free citizens.

The economic life of the policies developed very rapidly, especially trade flourished. The largest trading policy by the 5th century. BC e. became Athens, they traded with the states of North Africa, Western Asia, with the Black Sea lands. In Greece, commodity-money relations successfully developed - a very unusual phenomenon for antiquity. Some historians even consider it possible to speak of a kind of "ancient capitalism." But, of course, the economy of ancient Greece was not capitalist, but only had certain features of such, and in its most rudimentary form. Despite the development of trade, the economy of Ancient Greece was basically natural, that is, the bulk of the products were produced for domestic consumption, and not for sale on the market.

The community-polis, thus, was the main unit of ancient Greek civilization. It was in the policy that the foundations of ancient democracy, commodity-money relations were born, a civil community arose - the embryo of modern civil society. It was through the policy that unusual, for antiquity, mutually beneficial relations between society and the state, equally necessary to each other, were fixed.

Two centers of ancient Greek civilization

At the turn of the VI-V centuries. BC e. Greek cities flourished. Among them, the two most powerful policies gradually emerged - Athens and Sparta, which became the centers of Greek civilization. Both centers developed in completely different ways, their rivalry often resulted in civil wars, which, in the end, destroyed the ancient Greek civilization.

Athens was the main city of Attica, the southern region of the Balkan Peninsula. The strength and wealth of Athens rested on trade and shipbuilding. Having created the most powerful fleet in Greece, the Athenians traded with neighboring lands and Greek colonies. In Athens, sciences and arts flourished, urban development was booming. Famous sculptors and writers flocked here, philosophers Plato and Aristotle created their schools here. In Athens, a kind of theatrical art flourished, the traditions of which are largely alive today.

The development of Athens went along a democratic path, an important step was the reforms of the archon (one of the nine collegiate rulers of Athens) Solon at the beginning of the 6th century. BC e. In an effort to eliminate hostility and contradictions among the free population, Solon banned debt slavery and announced the abolition of all debts. He also allowed the buying, selling, and subdivision of land, which strengthened private property. The political rights of the Athenians began to depend not on generosity, but on property status. Members of the national assembly could now be elected even by the poor (although they themselves could not be elected).

Athenian democracy finally took shape by the middle of the 5th century. BC e., when Ephialtes and Pericles, developing the laws of Solon, granted all citizens of the policy the right to be elected to the highest positions (except for the head of the army). The People's Assembly became the supreme body of power, it made almost all major state decisions. At meetings of the assembly, which took place about 40 times a year, everyone had the right to speak and all proposals were carefully discussed. Officials were elected by voting or by lot, they were accountable and replaceable. In other words, those principles of democracy were formed in Athens, which exist to this day (of course, in an improved form).

The development of Sparta, a polis located in the south of the Peloponnesian Peninsula, in the fertile valley of the Evros River, went along a different path. The Spartan state arose around the 9th century. BC e., his life was spent in continuous wars. Capturing the lands and cattle of their neighbors, the Spartans turned them into slaves (helots). And personally free foreigners who lived in Sparta (perieki) paid tribute to the Spartans and worked for them. The Spartans themselves were only warriors: they were even forbidden to trade and engage in crafts. As a result, Sparta's economy was insular and underdeveloped.

There was no private ownership of land in Sparta. The land, which was considered the property of the community, was divided into equal plots that were not subject to sale. Helots, apparently, were also owned by the state, and not by individual citizens. The Spartans proudly called themselves a "community of equals", but the leveling that prevailed in Sparta deprived its inhabitants of an incentive to improve their talents, skills, life, etc. The dwellings and clothes of the Spartans were extremely modest and almost the same, babies with physical disabilities in Sparta destroyed at birth: a person's personality was considered only from the point of view of its usefulness to the state (primarily in the military field). The boys were brought up in a harsh, militarized spirit, and then enlisted in the army and remained in it until old age. Sparta was like a huge barracks with a strictly regulated charter.

At the head of the Spartan state were two kings, who were also commanders, judges and priests. Power was shared with them by the council of elders (gerousia), without the approval of which the decisions of the kings were not valid. In turn, the council of elders had to take into account the opinion of the people's assembly, which in Sparta bore little resemblance to the Athenian one. At the meeting, the Spartans did not express their point of view, the proposed solutions were not even discussed, and only cries of approval or disapproval expressed the attitude of the participants towards them. Separate elements of life in Sparta anticipated the features of totalitarian societies of the 20th century. Thus, the ancient Greek historian Xenophon (430-353 BC) wrote that the Spartans were forbidden "to travel abroad, so that citizens would not become infected with frivolity from strangers."

The forces of Athens and Sparta were especially strengthened during the era of the Greco-Persian wars. It was these two policies that led the fight against the seemingly invincible army of the Persian king Xerxes, who had already conquered many Greek city-states. In 478 BC. e. Athens led the Delian Maritime Union of policies, which soon became the Athenian maritime power (at the time of its heyday, it included up to 250 policies). In the conditions of the war, the Athenians abandoned democratic principles and decisively intervened in the affairs of their allies: they managed their finances, introduced their own laws, etc. Athens clearly turned into the center of ancient Greek civilization, which the warlike Sparta could not allow. She created the Peloponnesian Union, which, in addition to small and weak policies, was joined by the rich Corinth and Megara, who were also concerned about the growing power of Athens.

A fierce war broke out between the two alliances (431-404 BC). It was difficult for the Athenians to resist the well-trained Spartan warriors, besides, in order to achieve victory, Sparta conspired with recent opponents - the Persians. They provided the Spartans with large financial assistance in exchange for a promise to give the Greek cities in Asia Minor to Persia. With the gold received from the Persians, the Spartans built a powerful fleet and defeated the Athenians. Their success seemed to mark the victory of the oligarchy over democracy.

However, the triumph of Sparta was short-lived. Thebes, a rich and powerful policy, opposed the winners. The struggle was resumed by Athens, who created a new maritime union. In 371 BC. e. The Theban army utterly defeated the Spartan. The Peloponnesian Union collapsed, Sparta lost a number of areas. But it was not possible to unite Greece under the rule of one policy. Polises went to unions only during wars, when there was a threat of a complete loss of independence. And in peacetime, each of them strove for independence.

However, after the bloody wars, this independence was no longer as strong as before: long wars extremely weakened not only the vanquished, but also the victors. In the IV century. BC e. the crisis of the ancient Greek civilization begins, its centuries-old structures are gradually being destroyed. True, Greece was still ahead of the Hellenistic era, when its economy and culture outwardly flourished. But the process of internal destruction was already irreversible. It manifested itself especially clearly in Athens, where foreigners-meteks (and by the 4th century BC they already made up almost half of the population) were still forbidden to own land, as well as to mine silver.

The Athenian form of ownership combined public and private principles, while the time imperiously demanded a transition to full private ownership. But the authorities of Athens were not ready for this. The great ancient Greek philosopher Plato wrote that within the Athenian polis there arose "two states hostile to each other: one of the poor, the other of the rich." From the Athenian popular assembly every now and then began to expel political opponents who were in the minority. And in other policies, things sometimes even reached the point of civil war.

Let us note one more detail: the basis of the strength of the policy has always been a combination of individualism with collectivist morality, with the idea of ​​common good. The growth of individualism destroyed the policy, and with it the pillar of ancient Greek civilization.

Culture of the Ancient Greek Polis. The spiritual culture of ancient Greece was surprisingly rich and varied. Already in the VII-VI centuries. BC e. philosophy originated in Greece. At first, philosophers sought to comprehend the structure and origin of the world around them, so philosophy was closely intertwined with medicine, astronomy, mathematics and other sciences, the foundations of which were also being laid at that time. Of course, from a modern point of view, these attempts to comprehend the laws of nature look timid and imperfect, but the main thing was different: theories of the structure of the world were first created on the basis of not mythology, but scientific knowledge.

In the atmosphere of the turbulent political life of the policies, intense discussions in popular assemblies, a special direction in philosophy was born - sophistry (the art of deft, often contradicting the logic of reasoning). In the V-IV centuries. BC e. sophistry established itself in Athens and began to spread throughout Greece. The outstanding sophist Protagoras said: “Man is the measure of all things,” that is, he made it clear that truth is subjective, a person, as it were, creates it in his mind, based on personal views and habits. Sophistics helped in disputes, taught the breadth of views, the ability to understand someone else's opinion.

The subjective, individual principle was also reflected in the literature of Ancient Greece. So, in the VII-VI centuries. BC e. a special literary genre arose - lyrics, revealing the innermost depths of a person's inner world, all the unique richness of his personality. Naturally, this disclosure went through the prism of the personality of the poet himself. The focus of the famous ancient Greek theater was also the personality. The authors of merry comedies ridiculed human vices (often referring to their political rivals), while in tragedies the heroes waged an unequal struggle with powerful enemies, with the forces of nature, sometimes even with the gods themselves. Interest in the individual was also expressed in ancient Greek art: sculptors and artists sought to show the human body as authentically as possible, to convey his character and mood in facial features and posture.

The philosophers of ancient Greece sought to formulate ethical norms that would help to make a person and society as a whole perfect. Socrates (469-399 BC) was the first to follow this path, proclaiming that the main task of man is moral perfection, which will allow him to approach heavenly beauty and harmony. Plato (429 - 347 BC), a student and follower of Socrates, founded the Academy in Athens - a philosophical school. In the treatise "The State" Plato developed a plan for an ideal social structure, striving in the era of the crisis of the policy to restore the lost harmony to society. The philosopher saw the ideal in the ancient policies, where everything was subordinated to the communal, collectivist principle. Plato's policy turned out to be ascetic and leveling, partly akin to a strictly regulated Spartan society. But in an era of crisis, even such a policy was perceived as a stronghold of strong traditions, as a counterweight to the destruction of the usual way of life.

Hellenism is the last phase of ancient Greek civilization. While the Greek policies were waging internecine wars, a young state, Macedonia, was strengthened in the north of the Balkans. The powerful army of the Macedonian king Philip II inflicted several defeats on the Greek policies, and in 338 BC. e. finally defeated the Greeks, after which Philip II created a pan-Greek union of policies.

In 336 BC. e. Philip's son, Alexander the Great, became king. Fulfilling his father's long-term plans, he set off on a campaign against the huge Persian state, whose borders stretched from Egypt to India. As a result of his conquests, a giant empire arose, which, in addition to the Balkans and the islands of the Aegean Sea, included Egypt, Western and part of Central Asia.

But even the most powerful-looking empires created by conquest lack internal strength. After all, as a rule, they consist of economically, culturally and religiously diverse lands. The collapse of the empire of Alexander the Great began immediately after his death (he died in 323 BC at the age of 33). The conquered lands were divided between his commanders, but they were haunted by dreams of the former might of the empire. Internecine wars began, during which the new states did not strengthen, but only weakened.

In these states, the features of Greek policies and Eastern despotisms were peculiarly intertwined. The power of the monarch, the owner of a significant part of the land and the military leader, was combined with the self-government of policies. True, the tsars limited this self-government in every possible way: the policies could no longer conduct foreign policy themselves, and internal affairs had to be dealt with under the watchful eye of tsarist officials.

The era that came after the death of Alexander the Great was called Hellenism. It lasted three centuries, until 30 BC. e., when the Romans conquered Egypt - the last of the Hellenistic states. But even in such a short time, these states managed to become a kind of conductor of Greek civilization. A stream of Greek and Macedonian settlers poured into the East, bringing Greek culture with them. In the conquered cities of the East, public schools were created, theaters, stadiums, hippodromes were built, and libraries appeared. In the most famous of them, Alexandria (Egypt), there were up to 700 thousand scrolls. Philosophy also received further development during the Hellenistic period. Philosophers of various schools (Stoics, Epicureans, Cynics) sought to develop new, more advanced ethical standards, urged a person to conscientiously fulfill his public duty or, on the contrary, to withdraw from active work and engage in self-improvement.

The reason for the death of the Hellenistic states was not only their internal instability and mutual wars. In the III century. BC e. the young militant Roman civilization launched an offensive against the Hellenic world, gradually absorbing it. In 196 BC. e. the Romans proclaimed the freedom of the Greek policies, which at first aroused the joy of the Greeks: after all, as a result, the monarchical system was liquidated. However, he was quickly replaced by the dominion of Rome. In large Greek cities, Roman garrisons appeared, at the behest of Rome, borders were redrawn, unions of policies were dissolved. Many of the inhabitants were sold into slavery by the Romans.

In 30 BC. e. the Hellenistic era ended. Its main result was the establishment of permanent contacts between East and West, that is, the strengthening of the unity of world civilization. With all the dissimilarity and originality of the civilizations of the West and the East, their rapprochement led to the mutual enrichment of the already established political, cultural and economic traditions.