The power of one person over another destroys, first of all, the one who rules.

Lev Tolstoy

The Vladimir-Suzdal principality and its history is an important page in Russian history, since already at the turn of the 12th-13th centuries it was the princes from Vladimir who achieved dominance over other principalities, as a result of which it was the Vladimir-Suzdal land that began to dominate in Russia, and its princes began to exert the greatest influence on the politics and ways of life not only of their own principality, but also on neighboring ones. In fact, by the 13th century, the political center of Russia was finally transferred from the South (Kyiv) to the Northeast (Vladimir and Suzdal).

Geographical position

The Vladimir-Suzdal principality was located in the northeastern part of Russia, in the interfluve of the Oka and Volga.

Map of the Vladimir-Suzdal land in the 12th-13th centuries

The largest cities in the principality: Vladimir, Suzdal, Uglich, Tver, Moscow, Kostroma, Galich, Beloozero, Veliky Ustyug and others. Basically, the cities were located in the southern part of the principality, and the farther north - the fewer cities.

The borders of the Vladimir-Suzdal principality passed with: the Novgorod Republic, the Smolensk principality, the Chernigov land, the Ryazan and Murom principalities.

princes

According to the Lyubech Congress of Princes, it was decided that the Rostov-Suzdal land (as the principality was originally called) was transferred to the control of the family of Vladimir Monomakh. Therefore, Yuri Dolgoruky, the son of Monomakh, became the first prince here.

Full list of princes:

• Yuri Dolgoruky (r. 1125-1155)
• Andrei Bogolyubsky (1157-1174)
• Vsevolod the Big Nest (1176 - 1212)
• Yuri Vsevolodovich (1218 - 1238)
• Yaroslav Vsevolodovich (1238-1246)
• Alexander Nevsky (since 1252).

It is enough to look at the list to understand that it was these people who had the greatest influence in Russia. The Vladimir-Suzdal princes mainly pursued the goal of independence from Kyiv and the subordination of other principalities to their power.

Peculiarities

The political features of the Vladimir-Suzdal principality consisted in the strong power of the prince. Unlike most other lands, here the prince was the head and decided all important issues. Schematically, the political feature of this land can be represented as follows.

The strong power of the prince was possible due to the fact that in these lands there were a large number of new cities where a strong boyars had not yet had time to form. As a result, only the prince had real power, and the Veche had only an advisory character.

In general, the features of the development of the principality in the specific period (12-13 centuries) are as follows:

• Unlimited princely power.
• Population increase. People moved to these lands because they were relatively safe from nomadic raids.
• Agriculture developed actively in the principality. There were many forests that served as natural protection.
• Rapid urban growth. This applies both to new cities built during this period (Moscow, Pereyaslavl-Zalessky and others) and to old cities (Vladimir, Suzdal, Rostov, Yaroslavl and others).
• Geographical location at the intersection of important trade routes along the Volga and Oka.

Economic features

Despite its geographical position, the Vladimir-Suzdal land had a large amount of arable land, which made agriculture a key aspect of the region's economic development. Also in these lands, other crafts were actively developed: fishing, hunting, beekeeping.

The resettlement of people from the south played a great influence on the economic development of the principality. They not only moved, but also carried elements of culture with them. Many of them were artisans, as a result of which the craft in the Vladimir-Suzdal land began to develop very quickly.

Development

Around the 30s of the 12th century, the Vladimir-Suzdal (at that time still Rostov-Suzdal) principality got rid of the power of Kyiv. So there was the creation of their own principality, which differed significantly from others in the form of a political structure. Princely power was strong in Vladimir. In many ways, this was the reason for the elevation of these lands to others. Suffice it to recall that in other principalities the system of government was different and less effective: in Novgorod, the boyars ruled through the Veche, and in the Galicia-Volyn lands, the power of the prince was comparable to that of the boyars.

Initially, the principality was called Rostov-Suzdal (under Dolgoruky), then Suzdal land (under Bogolyubsky) and only then Vladimir-Suzdal land (under the Big Nest).

An important event for this principality happened in 1238 - it was invaded by the Tatar-Mongols. Moreover, it was one of the first principalities for the invasion of the Mongols, so the main blow fell on the Vladimir-Suzdal land. As a result, since 1238 the principality recognized the Mongol power and was dependent on the Horde.

culture

The culture of the Vladimir-Suzdal land was multifaceted. Chronicle writing flourished here. A characteristic feature of the annals of this principality is the emphasis on the greatness of the principality over others, as well as the special position of the city of Vladimir.

Architecture and construction actively developed in these lands. Builders most often used white limestone. The peak of construction fell on the reign of Andrei Bogolyubsky and Vsevolod the Big Nest.

In the city of Vladimir, stone walls with golden gates were erected, and the Assumption Cathedral was also built. It was in this temple that the main religious shrines of the principality were kept. Later, during the reign of Vsevolod the Big Nest, the Dmitrievsky Cathedral was built in the city. One of the most unique architectural monuments of Ancient Russia, the Church of the Intercession on the Nerl, was built in Bogolyubovo. The church was built by order of Andrei Bogolyubsky on the banks of the Nerl River.

The development of painting also attracts attention. For example, the frescoes of the Assumption and Dmitrievsky Cathedrals amaze with their elegance.

As if foreseeing that North-Eastern Russia will be destined to serve as a link between the pre-Mongolian period of Russian history and the entire subsequent history of Muscovite Russia, the author of The Tale of Igor's Campaign speaks enthusiastically and with inspiration about the powerful Suzdal prince Vsevolod the Big Nest (1176-1212 BC). ):

Grand Duke Vsevolod!
I don’t think you fly from afar
Take away the gold of the table to observe?
You can scatter the oars on the Volga,
And Don pour out the helmets!
Even if you were, it would be chaga on the leg,
And koshchey in cut(i.e., Polovtsian captives would cost pennies. - B.R.).

His vast principality covered the ancient lands of the Krivichi, partly the Vyatichi, and those areas where the Slavic colonization was directed from time immemorial: the lands of the Meri, Muroma, Ves, i.e., the interfluve of the Volga and Oka with the fertile Suzdal Opole and the Beloozero region. Over time, the borders of the Rostov-Suzdal land moved further into the taiga forests - to the Northern Dvina, to Ustyug the Great and even to the White Sea, touching here with the Novgorod colonies.

The relations of the Slavs who came here with the local Finno-Ugric population were, on the whole, undoubtedly peaceful. Both peoples gradually merged, enriching each other with elements of their culture.

The geographical position of the Rostov-Suzdal land had its advantages: there was no threat of Polovtsian raids, since the steppe was far away, here, behind the impenetrable forests of the Vyatichi, the Kyiv princes, their tyuns and Ryadovichi could not host as boldly as around Kyiv. Varangian detachments penetrated here not directly by water, as in Ladoga or Novgorod, but through a system of portages in the Valdai forests. All this created the relative security of North-Eastern Russia. On the other hand, in the hands of the Suzdal princes there was such a main route as the Volga, flowing "seventy bellies into the Khvalis Sea", along the banks of which lay the fabulously rich countries of the East, willingly buying furs and Slavic wax. All Novgorod routes to the East passed through the Suzdal land, and this was widely used by the princes, forcibly influencing the economy of Novgorod.

In the 11th century, when the Volga region and the Oka were part of Kievan Rus, uprisings took place here: in 1024 - in Suzdal; around 1071 - on the Volga, Sheksna and Beloozero, suppressed by Jan Vyshatich.

By this time, the cities of Rostov, Suzdal, Murom, Ryazan, Yaroslavl, and others already existed. In the black earth regions of the Suzdal region, the local boyars grew rich, which had the opportunity to supply even Novgorod with bread.

The real reign of these regions began with Vladimir Monomakh, who, as a boy, had to pass "through Vyatiche" in order to get to distant Rostov. Those long years, when Monomakh, being a prince of Pereyaslavl, also owned the Rostov inheritance, affected the life of the North-East. Here such cities arose as Vladimir on the Klyazma, Pereyaslavl, named in contrast to the southern Zalessky, even the names of the southern rivers were transferred here. Here Vladimir built cities, decorated them with buildings, here he waged war with Oleg “Gorislavich”, here, somewhere on the Volga, he wrote his “Instruction”, “sitting on a sleigh”. The connection between Suzdal and Pereyaslavl Russian (now Pereyaslav-Khmelnitsky) continued throughout the 12th century.

Rostov-Suzdal land separated from Kyiv simultaneously with other Russian lands in 1132-1135. Here reigned one of the younger sons of Monomakh - Yuri, who received the characteristic nickname Dolgoruky, apparently for his irrepressible craving for distant foreign possessions. His foreign policy was determined by three directions: wars with Volga Bulgaria, a trade rival of Russia, diplomatic and military pressure on Novgorod, and exhausting useless wars for Kyiv, which filled the last nine years of his reign.

Yuri Dolgoruky was gradually drawn into his southern adventures. It began with the fact that Svyatoslav Olegovich, expelled from Kyiv in 1146, his feudal neighbor in the principalities, turned to Yuri for help. Yuri Vladimirovich, having sent an army from the distant Beloozero to an ally, first of all started wars with his neighbors: he himself successfully fought with Novgorod, and sent Svyatoslav to the Smolensk lands. When Svyatoslav Olegovich began successful operations and “filled up” in the upper reaches of the Protva, a messenger from Yuri arrived to him, inviting him to the border town of Suzdal, obviously, to celebrate the victories: “Come to me, brother, to Moscow.” No one thought then that this town in the Vyatichi forests was destined to become one of the largest cities in the world.

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From the banks of the Protva, Svyatoslav's son first came to Moscow and brought Dolgoruky as a gift a hunting cheetah, the fastest animal, from which not a single deer could escape. Then, on April 4, 1147, Svyatoslav arrived in Moscow with his son Vladimir and a retinue, which included a ninety-year-old boyar who had also served his father, Oleg "Gorislavich". The next day, Yuri gave a solemn feast. “Command Gyurgi to arrange a dinner for the strong and do great honor to them and give Svyatoslav many gifts.” So Moscow was first mentioned, first the castle of the boyar Kuchka, in 1156 - a border fortress, in the XIII century. - specific princely town, and in the XV century. - the capital of the vast Russian state, which foreigners called it Muscovy by name.

In addition to Moscow, Yuri Dolgoruky built or fortified here the cities of Yuryev-Polskaya, Dmitrov, Kosnyatin, Kideksha, Zvenigorod, Pereyaslavl and others.

In his southern affairs, conquering Kyiv from his nephew Izyaslav Mstislavich or from his older brother Vyacheslav, Yuri either won battles and reached almost the Carpathians with his troops, then quickly fled from Kyiv in a boat, leaving his squad and even secret diplomatic correspondence. V.N. Tatishchev preserved the following description of Yuri Dolgoruky, apparently going back to Kyiv sources hostile to him: “This great prince was of considerable height, fat, with a white face; the eyes are not very large, the nose is long and crooked; a small brada, a great lover of wives, sweet food and drink; more about fun than about reprisal and hostility, but all of this consisted in the power and supervision of his nobles and favorites.

Yuri died in Kyiv in 1157.

The real master of North-Eastern Russia, tough, power-hungry, energetic, was the son of Dolgoruky - Andrei Yuryevich Bogolyubsky (1157-1174).

Even during the life of his father, when Yuri firmly reigned in Kyiv, Andrei, violating his father's orders, left in 1155 for the Suzdal land, apparently invited by the local boyars. After the death of Yuri Dolgoruky, Andrei was elected prince. "Rostovites and Suzdalians, having thought of everything, girded Andrei." Rostov and Suzdal, the ancient boyar centers that influenced the entire course of events, wished, along with all other lands, to acquire their own prince, their own dynastic branch, in order to stop the movement of princes who were not connected with the interests of this land. Andrei, who from his youth had made himself famous for his chivalrous exploits in the south, seemed like a suitable candidate. And he himself, probably, gladly exchanged the unstable happiness of a vassal warrior, who received one city or another for service, for the lasting possession of a huge country, already put in order under his father and grandfather.

However, the new prince immediately resolutely placed himself not next to the boyars, but above them. He made the relatively new city of Vladimir his capital, and his residence was a magnificent white-stone castle in Bogolyubovo near Vladimir, built by his craftsmen. The first act of the prince was the expulsion of his younger brothers (they could eventually turn into his rivals) and his father's old squad, which always interfered in management in such situations. “Behold, create, although the autocratic being of the entire Suzdal land.” From that time on, Andrei had to beware of the boyars; according to some reports, he even forbade the boyars to take part in princely hunts - after all, we know cases when princes did not return from hunting ...

In the struggle for power, Andrei sought to rely on the church, using the episcopal chair. He wanted to see Fyodor as bishop of Rostov, who supported the prince in everything, but the Kyiv and Tsaregrad church authorities did not support him, and in 1168 "Fedorets, the false lord" was executed as a heretic.

In the field of foreign policy, Andrei continued to act in the same three directions that had been outlined by Dolgoruky: campaigns against Volga Bulgaria, campaigns against Novgorod and Kyiv. Novgorod successfully repulsed the “Suzdalians”, and Andrey’s troops managed to take and plunder Kyiv in 1169. It should be repeated that this robbery, vividly described by a contemporary from Kyivian, did not lead to either the economic or political decline of the former capital, where the princely lines were soon entrenched , not subject to the northeastern prince. When the conqueror of Kyiv Andrey, “filled with arrogance, proud of the velmi”, tried to dispose of the South Russian princes in 1174, his ambassador, the swordsman Mikhn, had his head and beard cut off and sent back in such a disfigured form. When Andrei Bogolyubsky saw the shorn boyar and heard from him the princes' firm refusal to obey, then "the image of his face became empty" and he "destroyed his meaning with intemperance, becoming irritated."

The undertaken second campaign against Kyiv brought together an unheard of number of princes and troops, but ended in a fruitless two-month siege of Vyshgorod. “And so all the strength of Andrei Prince Suzhdalsky returned ... for they came high-minded, and the humble departed to their homes.”

The too broad military plans of Prince Andrei, not caused either by the needs of defense or by the interests of the boyars, were supposed to aggravate relations within the principality. In all likelihood, conflicts with the boyars were also caused by the internal policy of Andrei Bogolyubsky, who was trying to get his hands on the boyars. Here, in North-Eastern Russia, the writer Daniil Zatochnik advised the boyar to set up his court and villages away from the princely residence so that the prince would not ruin it.

Legends about the beginning of Moscow, telling that the prince took this castle from the boyar Stepan Ivanovich Kuchka, lead us to Andrey. Although in the annals the construction of the princely fortress in 1156 is associated with the name of Yuri, we know that this year Yuri was in Kyiv, reconciled with the Polovtsy at the Zarubinsky ford, met the metropolitan from Constantinople and prepared a campaign against Volyn.

The prince who built the fortress on the site of Kuchkov's yard is, obviously, Andrey Bogolyubsky. The boyars could not calmly look at the reign of their castles.

In 1173 Andrei conceived a new campaign against Volga Bulgaria; in the campaign, in addition to the main forces of Vladimir, Murom and Ryazan troops participated. In "Gorodets" on the Volga at the mouth of the Oka (Nizhny Novgorod, the modern city of Gorky), a collection was appointed for all squads. For two weeks the princes unsuccessfully waited for their boyars: they "didn't like" the path, and they, without showing direct disobedience, found a clever way to evade the unwanted campaign - they "went not walking".

All these events testified to the extreme tension in the relationship between the “autocratic” prince and the boyars, tension that reached the same degree as the princely-boyar conflicts reached at that time on the opposite edge of Russia, in Galich. In the same year, 1173, the Galician boyars burned the prince's mistress, the mother of the heir to the throne, at the stake, and the Suzdal boyars freed themselves from military service by inventing a way not to go while walking.

The year 1174, the year of the unsuccessful and inglorious campaign against the Kiev region, hastened the tragic denouement. A group of boyars led by the Kuchkovichi plotted against Andrei in 1174 (according to other chronicles, in 1175). Twenty conspirators, among whom were Yakim Kuchkovich, Peter, Kuchkov 8yat, the housekeeper Anbal, feasted at Peter's in Bogolyubovo, next to the prince's palace. The gathering should not have aroused any particular suspicion, since it took place on June 29, the day of the boyar Peter's name day. Yakim Kuchkovich, who received the news that the prince planned to execute his brother, made a speech: “The day he executed him, and us tomorrow; but providential about this prince! At night, armed conspirators, having drunk wine in a medusa, went up to the prince's bedroom and broke down the doors. Andrei wanted to take the sword hanging in the bedroom, but it turned out that the conspirators prudently removed it; the prince, physically very strong, fought for a long time in the dark with a crowd of drunken boyars armed with swords and spears. Finally, the killers left, and the prince, who was considered dead, went downstairs. Hearing his groans, the boyars lit candles, found Andrei and finished him off. The part of the palace where this bloody tragedy took place has been preserved to this day in Bogolyubovo.

An anthropological study of the skeleton of Andrei Bogolyubsky confirmed the words of the chronicle about the physical strength of the prince and the wounds inflicted on him. According to the skull from the tomb of Andrei, the famous anthropologist M.M. Gerasimov restored the appearance of this outstanding ruler, who was both a commander, a writer, and a customer of excellent architectural structures. Information V: N. Tatishchev describes Andrei Bogolyubsky as follows: firstly, he, like Solomon, created a magnificent temple (Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir), secondly, “expand the city of Vladimir and multiply all kinds of inhabitants in it, like merchants, cunning needleworkers into different artisans inhabited. He was brave in the army and few of the princes like him were, but peace was more than war, and he loved the truth more than a great acquisition. He was small in stature, but broad and strong, his hair was black and curly, his forehead was high, his eyes were large and bright. Lived 63 years.

The day after the assassination of the prince, the townspeople of Bogolyubov, the masters of the palace workshops and even the peasants of the surrounding villages rose in revolt against the princely administration: the houses of the posadniks and tiuns were plundered, and the princely stewards themselves, including the "children" and swordsmen, were killed. The uprising also swept Vladimir.

What were the pros and cons of the reign of Yuri Dolgoruky and Andrei Bogolyubsky?

Undoubtedly positive was the extensive construction of cities, which were not only fortresses, but also the focus of crafts and trade, important economic and cultural centers of the feudal state. The prince, who was temporarily sitting on an inheritance, ready to jump to other lands at any moment, could not build cities. Yuri and Andrei (continuing Monomakh's policy) linked their main interests with the Rostov-Suzdal land, and this was objectively positive. According to some sources, an influx of colonists began to new cities and newly developed lands, and the boyars approved such a policy of Yuri in the 1140s, during a period of relative harmony between princely and boyar interests.

The construction of cities, on the one hand, was the result of the development of productive forces, and on the other, a powerful factor in their further growth, which received a new, expanded base.

The growth of productive forces was not slow to affect the development of culture. The buildings of the era of Andrei Bogolyubsky that have survived to this day testify to the deep understanding by Russian architects of the tasks of their art. Subtle and deep mathematical analysis of proportions, the ability to foresee the optical distortions of the future building, the careful thoughtfulness of details that emphasize the harmony of the whole - these qualities of the architects of Andrei Bogolyubsky are the result of a general high development of culture. The Church of the Intercession on the Nerl, the complex of the Bogolyubsky castle, resurrected by the Soviet researcher N.N. Voronin, the Golden Gates of Vladimir are all unfading works of art that allowed the chronicler to compare Andrei with the biblical Tsar Solomon, and for us to comprehend the amazing beauty of Russian architecture on the eve of the creation of the Tale of Igor's Campaign. At the court of Andrei Bogolyubsky, literary activity also developed; Andrei himself was a writer. Fragments of the annals of Andrei's reign have been preserved.

Positive should be considered in the activities of Yuri and Andrei and the centralization of power, which came at the expense of infringing on the interests of the princes-kinsmen and boyars. In ordinary, peacetime, this could, in all likelihood, remain within reasonable limits, when the power of the Grand Duke restrained the centrifugal forces and directed them along some single channel.

The disadvantages of "autocracy" within the framework of the principality-kingdom were conflicts that were born from the growth of the princely domain at the expense of the boyar estates, and the fragmentation of the principality into appanages allocated to the sons of the prince. It led to the dismemberment of such a centuries-old organism as the “land” or “prince” of the 12th century, which, as we have seen, goes back to the ancient tribal unions of the 6th-8th centuries. It was extremely irrational to destroy, dismember what even a tribal society could achieve. However, this reproach is not applicable to Andrei - he did not divide his principality among the children; two of his sons died while still under him, and the only son who survived his father, Georgy Andreevich, who later became the king of Georgia, was not taken into account during the dynastic redistribution of the Vladimir (in the old boyar terminology, Rostov-Suzdal) principality. The danger of such fragmentation came to light later, when the "Big Nest" of Prince Vsevolod wanted to spread to all the cities of North-Eastern Russia.

The negative side of the activities of Andrei Bogolyubsky was, of course, his desire for Kyiv, for the "Russian land", that is, for the forest-steppe part of the Dnieper region. This desire was in no way connected with the daily interests of the Suzdal boyars; these were the personal ambitious plans of Andrei, the grandson of Monomakh.

The economy of the South Russian boyars and princes, over the 200 years of the struggle against the Pechenegs and Polovtsians, has adapted to the needs of constant defense, constant readiness for sitting in a siege and campaigns. This may have been associated with the widespread development of purchasing (with the maintenance of purchases inside the fortified boyar yards), the increase in the use of servile labor in the 12th century, which made it possible to quickly create food supplies necessary in such conditions, and the creation of peculiar "peasant cities", the prototype of military settlements. , like the border Izyaslavl on Goryn. The main burden of constant military service in the south was by this time shifted to the many thousands of Berendey cavalry in Porosye.

None of this was in the Vladimir land, firmly fenced off by the Bryn, Moscow and Meshchersky forests from the Polovtsian steppe. Each campaign caused a sharp disruption of the feudal economy, not to mention its extreme ruin for the people. In the five years preceding the Kuchkovichi conspiracy, Andrei Bogolyubsky organized five distant campaigns: against Novgorod, against the Northern Dvina, against the Bulgarians, and two against Kyiv. According to the most conservative estimates, the troops had to cover about 8000 km during this time under the banner of Andrei (through forests, swamps and watersheds), that is, spend at least a year only on one movement to the target, not counting lengthy sieges and maneuvers. We add that three trips ended unsuccessfully. It is not surprising that this reign ended with an armed uprising by the boyar elite and a manifestation of popular anger against representatives of the princely administration that did not depend on it.

The uprising in 1174 in Bogolyubovo and Vladimir resembles the Kiev uprising of 1113, which also arose after the death of the prince, who overstretched the string of people's patience.

After the death of Andrei, Rostov and Suzdal, the center of the old local boyars, applied the system of princely duumvirate invented by the Kyiv boyars: they invited two of Andrei's nephews, minor princes, not dangerous for the local nobility.

However, here a new city appeared on the scene, which grew under Andrei into a large craft and trade center - Vladimir. The people of Vladimir accepted Mikhail Yurievich, brother Andrei. A war broke out between Rostov and Vladimir; the Rostovites, outraged by the rise of Vladimir, threatened: “Let's burn him! Or we will send our posadnik there again - after all, these are our serfs, masons! In this phrase, the aristocrats' disregard for the democratic strata of the city, for artisans, masons, those "workers" who not long before this decisively cracked down on swordsmen and "children", and now want to have their own prince, objectionable to Rostov and Suzdal, is evident in this phrase. Rostov temporarily won - Mikhail left Vladimir, and the boyars' chosen ones began to reign there, "listening to the boyar, and I will learn the boyar for many estates." Their "children's" "many hardships are created by people with sales and virami."

It ended up that the townspeople of Vladimir, the "new smaller people", again invited Mikhail and decided to stand firmly for him. Mikhail defeated the army of his nephews and became the Prince of Vladimir. His brother Vsevolod Yurievich was with him. The victory of the citizens of Vladimir had great consequences - there was a social split in the old Suzdal. The townspeople of Suzdal also invited Mikhail to their place (1176), saying that they, ordinary Suzdalians, did not fight with him, that only the boyars supported his enemies, “don’t hold your heart against us, but come to us!”

During these years, Moscow (Moskov, Kuchkovo) is often mentioned as a city standing at the crossroads of the border of Vladimir land by a well-trodden route from Chernigov to Vladimir.

In 1177, Mikhail Yurievich, who had been ill for a long time, died. The Rostov boyars again began the struggle for political hegemony, supporting their former candidate Mstislav Rostislavich Bezokoy against Vsevolod Yurievich, nominated by such cities as Vladimir, Pereyaslavl Zalessky and Suzdal. The arrogant Rostov boyars imperiously interfered in the affairs of the prince: when Mstislav was about to reconcile with his uncle, the boyars declared: “If you give him peace, we will not give him!” The matter was resolved by the battle near Yuriev on June 27, 1177, which brought victory to Vsevolod. The boyars were captured and tied up; their villages and herds are taken by the conquerors. After that, Vsevolod defeated Ryazan, where his enemies took refuge. Ryazan prince Gleb (from Olgovichi) and Mstislav Bezokiy with his brother Yaropolk were captured.

The townspeople of Vladimir, boyars and merchants, were supporters of decisive reprisal; they came to the princely court "many with weapons" and insistently demanded execution. Despite the intercession of Svyatoslav of Chernigov, a friend of Vsevolod, the captured rivals were blinded, and Gleb died in captivity.

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Thus began the reign of the “great Vsevolod”, who could splash the Volga with oars and scoop up the Don with helmets. The strength of the new prince was given by his alliance with the cities, with wide sections of the urban population.

In addition, by this time, another force was being created that was the backbone of the princely power - the nobility, that is, the service, military layer, which depended personally on the prince, who received either land for temporary possession for service, or monetary payment in kind, or the right collecting some princely income, part of which was intended for the collectors themselves. There was no single term yet, but in this category of junior members of the squad and princely ministerials, we must include “children”, “lads”, “grids”, “stepsons”, “mercifuls”, “swordsmen”, “virniki”, “birichs” , "tiuns", etc. Some of them were almost slaves, others rose to the position of boyars; this stratum was numerous and varied. In the fate of these people, much depended on their personal qualities, on chance, on the generosity or stinginess of the prince. They knew princely life, carried out palace service, fought, judged, galloped messengers to foreign lands, accompanied embassies, traveled around distant graveyards, stabbed princely rivals from around the corner, put them in chains, attended fights, organized dog or falconry hunting, led accounting for the princely economy, perhaps even wrote chronicles. In peacetime, they all had a business in a vast principality, where the state was intertwined with the personally princely, domain, and during the war they could already form the main core of the princely army, the “young” cavalry.

With one of these people, looking at the prince as the only patron, we get to know him through his own petition, written in an intricate language, but with great skill and erudition. This is Daniil the Sharpener ["Pseudo-Daniel". Around 1230], who wrote a letter of petition to the Pereyaslav prince Yaroslav Vsevolodich in the 13th century. He comes from serfs, but he is brilliantly educated, well-read and, in his own words, not so much brave in battle as smart, "strong in plans." He curses the rich boyars and asks the prince to accept him into his service:

“My prince, my lord! As the oak is fastened with many roots, so is our city with your power ... The head of the ship is a feeder, and you, prince, with your people ...

Spring adorns the earth with flowers, and you, prince, adorned us with your Grace ...

It would be better for me to drink water in your house than to drink honey in the boyars' yard ... "

Clever, but poor, educated, but rootless, young, but unfit for military service, which would immediately open a wide road for him, he wants to find his place in life close to the prince. He is not going to get rich by marrying a rich bride, he does not want to go to a monastery, he does not rely on the help of friends; all his thoughts are directed to the prince, who does not accumulate treasures, but distributes his “mercy” not only to household members, but also “from other countries ... flowing” to him.

This "Daniel" is a spokesman for the interests of that growing during the XII century. a layer of service people, who for the most part went, of course, to the army, to the "young squad" of the prince, but as an exception they also asked for a service that required, above all, "wisdom". The anti-boyar sentiments of these people allowed the princely power to rely on them in their struggle against the proud and independent boyars.

Under Vsevolod the Big Nest, the Vladimir principality strengthened, grew, internally strengthened thanks to the support of cities and the nobility and became one of the largest feudal states in Europe, widely known outside of Russia. Vsevolod could influence the politics of Novgorod, received a rich inheritance in the Kiev region, sometimes intervened in South Russian affairs, but without the grandiose expenses that his brother Andrei had to do. Vsevolod almost completely controlled the Ryazan principalities; six Glebovich brothers reigned there, constantly at enmity with each other. The Tale of Igor's Campaign says about Vsevolod: “You can shoot the shereshirs alive on dry land, the daring sons of Glebov,” that is, he can throw the “daring sons of Glebov” like incendiary shells with Greek fire. This meant the victorious campaign of 1183 against the Volga Bulgaria, in which, on the orders of Vsevolod, four Gleboviches took part. In 1185 they broke out of obedience, but the author of the Lay did not yet know this when he wrote this part of his poem. The Vladimir principality was also connected with the Pereyaslav-Russian principality. Vsevolod here planted his sons to reign.

Vsevolod died in 1212. In the last year of his life, a conflict arose over the succession to the throne: the Grand Duke wanted to leave the principality still under the leadership of the city of Vladimir, the new capital, and his eldest son Konstantin, a learned scribe and friend of the Rostov boyars, wanted to return to the old days of the championship of Rostov.

Then Vsevolod convened something like a Zemsky Sobor: “The Great Prince Vsevolod called all his boyars from cities and townships and Bishop John, and abbots, and priests, and merchants, and nobles, and all the people.” This congress of representatives swore allegiance to the second son, Yuri. However, after the death of his father, he managed to reign only in 1218. Yuri Vsevolodich died in 1238 in a battle with the Tatars on the river. City.

At the beginning of the XII century. Vladimir-Suzdal Rus was divided into several destinies between the numerous sons of Vsevolod the Big Nest.

The Vladimir-Suzdal Principality, the core of the future Muscovite state of the 15th century, is a bright page in Russian history, and those solemn lines that are dedicated to it in the Tale of Igor's Campaign are not accidental.

The multifaceted culture of North-Eastern Russia is quite in tune with this remarkable poem: white-stone architecture, sculpture imbued with a peculiar medieval philosophy, chronicles, polemical literature, painting and “patterning” of gold and silver craftsmen, folk epics about local and all-Russian heroes.

An interesting reflection of the all-Russian culture of the X-XII centuries. is the Vladimir chronicle of 1205/6, created, possibly with the participation of the eldest son of Vsevolod - Konstantin the Wise, about whom contemporaries said that he "was a great hunter for reading books and was taught many sciences ... collected many deeds of the ancient princes and he himself wrote, so did others work with him.

The original vault has not come down to us, but a copy of it, made in the 15th century, has been preserved. in Smolensk and first introduced into scientific circulation by Peter the Great ("Radziwill" or "Kenigsberg" chronicle). The vault presents the "cases of the ancient princes" from Kiy to Vsevolod the Big Nest.

A precious feature of the Radziwill Chronicle is the presence of 618 colorful miniatures, aptly called "windows to the vanished world".

A.A. Shakhmatov and A.V. Artsikhovsky established that the drawings, like the text, repeat the original - the code of 1205/6. Further analysis made it possible to determine that the compilers of the Vladimir code were not the first authors and artists - they had at their disposal a whole library of illustrated ("face") annals, which included both the code of 997, and the code of Nikon 1073/76, and the Tale of Bygone Years by Nestor, and the Kievannals of the era of Monomakh and his sons, and various annals of the second half of the 12th century. In the hands of Vladimir archers there were even such facial annals, from which they took more drawings than text. So we can judge that the Kyiv Chronicle of Peter Borislavich was illustrated, since the Radziwill Chronicle contains miniatures depicting events that are not described in the text of this chronicle and are available only in the Kiev code of 1198 (Ipatiev Chronicle): Izyaslav Mstislavich's meeting with the Hungarian king, the embassy of the boyar Pyotr Borislavich to Vladimir Galitsky (1152), etc. Nowhere in the text of the Radziwill Chronicle does it say about the participation of the princess in the murder of Andrei Bogolyubsky, and in the figure we see, in addition to the murderous boyars, the princess carrying the severed hand of her husband. Other sources confirm the participation of the princess in the conspiracy.

The presence of illustrations in the vault of 997 is proved by the shape of the swords, characteristic of the middle of the 10th century, and the shape of the korchags, also of the 10th century, preserved in all redrawings.

Of great interest are the sketches of the original view of the ancient architecture of Kyiv, Pereyaslavl, Vladimir. The tithe church in Kyiv (996) was destroyed by Batu in 1240 and the copyists of the 15th century. was unknown, and on the miniature it is depicted as it was restored only according to the results of excavations of the 20th century.

The source illustrative materials of the code of 1205/6, relating to various chronicles of the 11th and 12th centuries, introduce us to the field of the literary and political struggle of that time, perhaps even to a greater extent than the chronicle text, since the selection of plots for illustration is especially boldly expressed the subjective tendency of the illustrator. In the miniatures of Nikon of Tmutarakansky (1073-76), sympathy for Mstislav Tmutarakansky and hostility towards Yaroslav the Wise and his eldest son Izyaslav are clearly visible. The artist, who painted miniatures for the annals of Izyaslav, showed unheard of impudence - he took revenge on Nikon by depicting him in the form of a donkey (!) On the abbot's place in the church.

The editorial processing of Nestor's work by Prince Mstislav was reflected in the abundant illustration of all (even small) episodes from the early period of Mstislav's life. A curious feature of the art school of the era of Monomakh and Mstislav is ironic drawings in the margins: a snake (victory over the Polovtsians), a dog (quarrels of princes), a cat and a mouse (a successful campaign in 1127), a monkey (frightened Torks), a lion being beaten with a club ( the defeat of Yuri Dolgoruky, who had a lion in his coat of arms), etc. One of these additions is of particular interest: when in 1136 the Chernigov Olgovichi began one of those bloody strife, about which they said then - “almost destroy ourselves?” , an artist from Kiev painted in the margins a deeply symbolic figure of a suicidal warrior stabbing a dagger into his chest. It was like an epigraph to the story of the collapse of Kievan Rus.

The Vladimir chronicle of 1205/6 was not only a model of the luxurious state chronicle of one principality - it reflected the artistic culture of Russia over several centuries.

Notes

. Tatishchev V.I. Russian history. M.; L., 1964, vol. III, p. 206.

The territory of the north-east of the Old Russian state was occupied by the vast Vladimir-Suzdal principality. These lands were unique. Geographically, they were separated from the main trade routes and from the largest centers of Ancient Russia by a large number of swamps and dense forests. Accordingly, the development of these territories was slow. The most valuable on this land were opolya - plots of fertile land between forests. Boyar possessions were few and undeveloped.

The settlement of the territory of the principality

Before the arrival of the Eastern Slavs, the area was inhabited by Finno-Ugric tribes:

• Whole;
• Merya;
• Murom;
• Vyatichi;
• Krivichi.

The first Slavs appeared here at the end of the 9th century. They migrated to escape the raids of nomads . Due to the large territory, the resettlement proceeded peacefully. The main activities were:

• agriculture;
• cattle breeding;
• fishing;
• salt mining;
• beekeeping;
• hunting.

Development of cities and forms of economy

At the end of the 10th - beginning of the 11th centuries, noticeable changes begin to take place here. By decision of the famous Lyubech Congress, the territories are transferred to the younger line of the descendants of Vladimir Monomakh. Growth of cities and economy begins. Rostov the Great, Suzdal, Yaroslavl, Vladimir-on-Klyazma are founded.

The growth of cities was not slow to affect the economic development of the area. The lands began to grow rich and become one of the most significant within the framework of the Old Russian state.

From the middle of the 12th century, the growth of settlers from the south and southwest of Russia increased sharply due to the Polovtsian threat. The largest cities in this period were Rostov and Suzdal. The new population was exempt for some time from taxes. As the settlement progressed, the territory began to turn into a Slavic one. Moreover, the southern settlers brought with them developed forms of economy: plowed arable farming under duopoly, new fishing skills, and crafts.

In contrast to the south, princes founded the city in the northeast. If cities first arose in the south and then princely power appeared, then in the north it was quite the opposite. For example, Yaroslavl was founded by Yaroslav the Wise. Vladimir-on-Klyazma, as you might guess, Vladimir Monomakh.

This situation allowed the princes to declare the lands their property, distributing them to warriors and the church. . limiting the political power of the people. As a result, a patrimonial way of life began to form here - a special type of social system, when the prince is not only the political head, but also the supreme owner of all the land and resources of the territory.

Board history

The first prince who glorified the northeastern lands of Russia was a descendant of Vladimir Monomakh. Under him, the active development of these territories began.

Much attention was paid to the founding of new villages and cities. He is credited with the creation of such urban centers as Dmitrov, Yuriev and Zvenigorod. During the reign of Yuri Dolgorukov, the current capital of our state, the city of Moscow, was first mentioned.

great attention Yuri paid foreign policy. Under him, regiments go on campaigns in different lands of both the Old Russian state and neighboring countries. It was possible to make successful trips to the territory of the Volga Bulgaria. Three times he managed to capture the capital city of Kyiv.

His father's work was continued by his son Prince Andrei Bogolyubsky. Ruled from 1157 to 1174. Andrei was a man who considered the principality his home. He also went to Kyiv and was able to take this city. Bogolyubsky did not try to establish himself in it, but used the territories of southern Russia for plunder. Successfully went on campaigns against many Russian principalities. Of particular note is the prince's victory over Novgorod. More than once, the Vladimir-Suzdal princes fought with the Novgorodians and were defeated. It was Andrei who was able to block the supply of Volga bread to Novgorod, thereby forcing the Novgorodians to surrender.

An important part of the reign of Prince Andrei was the problem of his relationship with the boyars. The fact is that the boyars dreamed of their own power. Bogolyubsky did not accept this. He moved the capital to the city of Vladimir. So, he deprived the boyars of the opportunity to actively influence themselves.

This seemed to him not enough. Andrei was afraid of conspiracies. He created his own residence in the village of Bogolyubovo, from which he got his nickname. The village was set in the place where the icon of Our Lady of Vladimir, stolen by him from Kyiv, was brought. The legend says that this icon was painted by the Apostle Luke himself.

The hatred of the boyars for the prince was great. Despite the fact that he hid in Bogolyubovo, he was overtaken there as well. With the help of traitors, the boyars managed to kill Andrei. Twenty people joined the conspiracy. None of them was personally offended by the prince, on the contrary, many enjoyed his trust.

The death of Bogolyubsky in 1174 did not significantly affect the life of the principality. His policy was continued by his younger brother Vsevolod, who received the nickname "Big Nest" in history. Vsevolod had a large family. He managed to plant his descendants in all cities and significant villages of the Vladimir-Suzdal land. Thanks to this position, he was finally able to suppress the obstinate boyars of the north-east of Russia. He was able to establish his firm, sole power in these territories. Gradually, Vsevolod begins to actively dictate his will to the rest of the princes of the Russian land.

During the reign of Vsevolod the "Big Nest", the principality received the status of a great one, that is, the first among other Russian lands.

The death of Vsevolod in 1212 provoked a new strife. Since his second son Yuri was declared the heir, the eldest son Konstantin of Rostov did not agree with his father's decision, and from 1212 to 1216 there was a struggle for power. Konstantin won it. However, he did not reign for long. In 1218 he died. And the throne passed to Yuri, who later founded Nizhny Novgorod.

Yuri Vsevolodovich turned out to be the last prince of independent Vladimir-Suzdal Rus. He ruled until 1238 and was beheaded in a battle with the Mongols on the City River.

During the period of 11-12 centuries, the principality strengthened, grew to one of the leaders of the Old Russian space and declared its claims to a great political future. It was it that, in the end, became the victorious side, on the basis of which the Moscow principality subsequently arose, a single Muscovite state, and then the Russian kingdom.

Culture of the Vladimir-Suzdal Principality

The Principality is one of the most important cultural centers of Ancient Russia. Architecture flourished here. Under princes Andrei and Vsevolod, various buildings were created. They were made of white limestone and decorated with intricate carvings. To this day, many buildings of this period that have come down to us are considered masterpieces of Old Russian art. Of particular note are the Golden Gates of Vladimir, Dmitrievsky and Assumption Cathedrals.

Among the literary works can be called the "Word" and "Prayer" by Daniil Zatochnik. These works are a compilation of sayings from the Bible and the thoughts of the author.

The culture of the Vladimir-Suzdal Principality is in many ways the basis for the cultural tradition, which later became the base in modern Russia.

MESSAGE VLADIMIR-SUZDAL PRINCIPALITY The Vladimir-Suzdal principality (or the Rostov-Suzdal land, as it was called before) occupied the territory between the Oka and Volga rivers, rich in fertile soils. Here, by the beginning of the 12th century. a system of large boyar landownership had already taken shape. The fertile lands were separated from each other by forests and were called opoly (from the word "field"). On the territory of the principality, there was even the city of Yuryev-Polsky (located in the opolye). Despite the harsher climate in comparison with the Dnieper region, it was possible to obtain relatively stable crops here, which, together with fishing, cattle breeding, and forestry, ensured their existence. The Slavs arrived here relatively late, having faced mainly the Finno-Ugric population. From the north to the Volga-Oka interfluve in the 9th - 10th centuries. Ilmenian Slovenes came, from the west - Krivichi, from the south-west - Vyatichi. Remoteness and isolation predetermined the slower pace of development and Christianization of the local areas. Geographical position. According to its geographical position, the Vladimir-Suzdal Principality was protected from all sides by natural barriers - large rivers, swampy swamps and impenetrable forests. In addition, the path to the nomads in the Rostov-Suzdal lands was blocked by the southern Russian principalities, which took the brunt of the enemy raids. The prosperity of the principality was also facilitated by the fact that there was a constant influx of people into these lands, who fled to the forests either from the Polovtsian raids, or from the unbearable extortions of the princely grids. It was also important that profitable trade routes lay in the lands of North-Eastern Russia, the most important of which, the Volga, connected the principality with the East. It was economic factors that primarily contributed to the emergence of a strong boyars here, which pushed the local princes to fight for secession from Kyiv. The princes rather late turned their attention to the Zalesky region - the thrones in the local cities were of little prestige, prepared for the younger princes in the family. Only under Vladimir Monomakh, at the end of the unity of Kievan Rus, did the gradual rise of the North-Eastern lands begin. Historically, Vladimir-Suzdal Rus became the hereditary "fatherland" of the Monomakhoviches. Strong ties were established between the local lands-volosts and the descendants of Vladimir Monomakh, here, earlier than in other lands, they got used to perceive the sons and grandsons of Monomakh as their princes. The influx of heritage, which caused intensive economic activity, the growth and emergence of new cities, predetermined the economic and political rise of the region. In the dispute for power, the Rostov-Suzdal princes had significant resources at their disposal. Yuri Dolgoruky The ruler of North-Eastern Russia was the son of Vladimir Monomakh Yuri, nicknamed Dolgoruky for his constant desire to expand his possessions and subjugate Kyiv. Under him, Murom and Ryazan were annexed to the Rostov-Suzdal land. He had a tangible influence on the politics of Novgorod. Taking care of the security of possessions, Yuri Dolgoruky led the active construction of fortified cities-fortresses along the borders of the principality. Under him, the Rostov-Suzdal principality turned into a vast and independent one. It no longer sends its squads to the south to fight the Polovtsians. For him, the fight against the Volga Bulgaria, which tried to control all trade on the Volga, was much more important. Yuri Vladimirovich went on campaigns against the Bulgars, fought with Novgorod for small, but strategically and commercially important border lands. This was an independent, without regard to Kyiv, policy that turned Dolgoruky in the eyes of the inhabitants of Rostov, Suzdal and Vladimir into his prince. His name is associated with the founding of new cities in the region - Dmitrov, Zvenigorod, Yuryev-Polsky, and in 1147 the first mention of Moscow, founded on the site of the confiscated estate of the boyar Kuchka. Involved in the struggle for the throne of Kyiv, Yuri Dolgoruky did not forget about his northeastern possessions. His son Andrei, the future Prince Bogolyubsky, also aspired there. Even during the life of his father in 1155, he fled from Kyiv to the Rostov-Suzdal land, probably invited to reign by the local boyars, and took with him the famous icon of the Vladimir Mother of God. 12 years after the murder of his father in 1169, he made a military campaign against Kyiv, captured it and subjected it to cruel robbery and ruin. Andrei tried to subjugate Veliky Novgorod to his power. The chronicle calls Bogolyubsky "autocratic" for his lust for power, the desire to rule with autocracy. The prince began by driving his brothers from the Rostov-Suzdal tables. Subsequently, relatives dependent on him ruled under his supervision, not daring to disobey anything. This made it possible for the prince to temporarily consolidate North-Eastern Russia. The center of the political life of Russia moved to the northeast. But during the reign of Andrei Bogolyubsky in the Vladimir-Suzdal principality (1157 - 1174), the struggle against the local boyars intensified. First of all, the prince moved the capital of the principality from rich Rostov to the small town of Vladimir-on-Klyazma. The impregnable white-stone Golden Gates and the Assumption Cathedral were erected here. Not far from the city, at the confluence of two rivers - the Nerl and the Klyazma, he founded his country residence - the village of Bogolyubovo, from whose name he received his famous nickname. In the Bogolyubsky residence, as a result of a boyar conspiracy, Andrei was killed on a dark June night in 1174. Vsevolod the Big Nest The policy of centralization of Russian lands around the Vladimir-Suzdal principality was continued by Andrei's brother, Vsevolod the Big Nest. He brutally dealt with those who participated in the conspiracy against his brother, and the final victory in the struggle between the prince and the boyars was in favor of the prince. From now on, princely power acquired the features of a monarchy. Following his brother, Vsevolod tried to subjugate Novgorod, managed to push the border of the Volga Bulgaria beyond the Volga. “The Volga can be splashed with oars, and the Don can be scooped out with helmets,” wrote about Vsevolod in 1185 the author of The Tale of Igor's Campaign. At that time, this prince was the most powerful ruler in Russia. It was during his years that the title of Grand Duke of Vladimir appeared. More than two decades after the death of Vsevolod the Big Nest (1212), the lands of the Vladimir-Suzdal Principality were a prosperous and rich possession, until in 1238 a new danger interrupted the economic recovery - the Mongol-Tatar invasion, under the impact of which the lands fell apart into several small possessions . In the XII century. continued Slavic colonization. As before, it went in two directions: from the northwest from Veliky Novgorod and the regions subject to it, and from the south from the “Russian Land”, as Kyiv and its lands were then called. As a result of the influx of settlers, forest tracts were cleared for arable land. Under the influence of the Slavs, the importance of agriculture in the cattle-breeding and fishing economy of the aborigines increases. In turn, the settlers learn the economic experience of local pastoralists, hunters and fishermen. Old cities are growing, new urban trade and craft centers are emerging. The development of the region led to the formation of significant arable areas, especially in the fertile Opole. Farming required a lot of work and perseverance. But it did not always reward the farmer. There were frequent crop failures due to adverse weather conditions. The average yield of rye from one tithe in the XII century. on the best lands of the Suzdal Opole was about 50 pounds (800 kg). Cattle breeding has retained a large place in the economy of the peasants. Cows, sheep, goats, pigs and horses were bred. Archaeologists in excavations everywhere find iron scythes that were used to make hay for domestic animals. Horses were bred for economic and military affairs. In the XII century. horticulture emerged. The main instrument of labor in it was a wooden shovel, which had an iron fitting along the working edge - a “stigma”. Such fittings were found during excavations in Suzdal. On the "golden gates" of the Nativity Cathedral in Suzdal (beginning of the 13th century) there is an image of Adam holding a shovel in his hands, accompanied by the inscription: "Adam dug the earth with a stigma." In the XII century. starts gardening. Then it was the business of the townspeople. This is confirmed by excavations in Suzdal, when charred apples were found in burnt out buildings and the root system of a garden was discovered on the territory of a city estate. Traditions report breeding from the 12th century. on the territory of the Principality of Cherry Orchards. The population of the Vladimir Principality continued to engage in hunting, fishing and beekeeping. In excavations on the territory of Vladimir, Murom, Suzdal, Yaropolch Zalessky, a large number of iron fishing hooks of various sizes, birch bark floats, clay weights for nets, bone needles for weaving fishing nets and weights were found. Crafts. In the cities of Vladimir Russia of the XII century. crafts developed in the same set as in the rest of the territory of the Old Russian state. Chronicles testify to the development of woodworking crafts. Archaeologists in Vladimir, Suzdal, Murom and Yaropolche-Zalessky found saws, adzes, drills, drills, chisels, scrapers, axes, chisels. Another no less ancient profession is pottery. Evidence of its development in the region was the construction by Vladimir Monomakh at the end of the 11th century. in Suzdal of the Assumption Cathedral from shshnfa. On the banks of the river Three plinth kilns were opened in Kamenka, in each of which up to 5,000 bricks were fired per reception. The flourishing of pottery was associated with the production of various types of glazed tiles and bricks. Glazed tiles were made in different sizes: from small ones used for ornamenting the walls of cathedrals, to very large floor tiles (19x19x4 cm). To cover the tiles, red, blue, green, brown, black, yellow glazes were used. From the middle of the XII century. originates stone-cutting craft. In cities, primarily in Vladimir, a special group of craftsmen-masons appeared. Therefore, it is no coincidence that during the social crisis in the principality, the Rostov and Suzdal boyars contemptuously call the people of Vladimir "serfs and masons." At the end of the 40s of the XII century. an artel of stonemasons appears in Suzdal. Probably, it was made up of immigrants from the Galician land. She participated in the construction of white-stone churches in Pereyaslavl-Zalessky, Yuryev-Polsky, Suzdal and the suburban princely residence of Kideksha. Blacksmithing became widespread. Archaeologists in different places have found the remains of a domain, raw furnaces, as well as numerous tools (hammers, tongs, anvils, punches, files, hammers). During excavations near Vyazniki, numerous pieces of swamp ore were found in buildings of that time, which allows us to conclude that it was mined by the local population in the 12th century. An example of blacksmithing skills are the crosses of the Assumption Cathedral and the cross on the Dmitrievsky Cathedral, crowned with a figure of a copper dove-weather vane. The outstanding products of Vladimir blacksmiths include magnificent copper floors in the Nativity and Assumption Cathedrals of Vladimir. Among blacksmiths, a special category stood out - gunsmiths. Their hands belong to the helmet of Yaroslav Vsevolodovich and the hatchet of Andrey Bogolyubsky, which are not only monuments of blacksmithing, but also jewelry. Numerous chain mails have come down to us among the products of gunsmiths. Among the samples of weapons of those years, it is worth noting the fortress bow, from which seven arrows have been preserved. The length of each arrow is 169 cm and the weight is 2.5 kg. Apparently, the author of The Tale of Igor's Campaign had in mind, indicating that the Prince of Vladimir Vsevolod the Big Nest fired the Ryazan Glebovichi as "Shereshirs". There was also a group of craftsmen who made shields. Russian blacksmiths, including those from Vladimir, in the XII century. they knew at least 16 different specialties and were able to produce up to 150 types of iron and steel products. In the Vladimir principality, weaving and spinning spread almost everywhere. In many places, archaeologists have found various fragments of cloth, felt, burlap, and rope. In the excavations, a large number of bone and bronze needles are found. Russian embroiderers knew up to 50 sewing techniques. In a semi-dugout in the town of Suzdal, a birch bark box was found, in which there were things made of fabric, fur, leather and thick linen or silk threads. On the fabric, in some places, the remains of embroidery with a “silver thread” have been preserved. In a number of cities and villages, leather production has long existed. Tanners made yuft and morocco leather (special varieties of cow and goat skin), which were used to make boots, coarser skins were used to make belts, wallets, bast shoes and other household items. In Suzdal, N. N. Voronin found "dead ends", that is, cow ribs used to clean skins. The inhabitants of the region were also familiar with bone carving skills. Numerous items made of bone are found in the excavations: needles, combs, arrows, piercings and buttons. Jewelry craftsmanship is widely developed. Copper foundries have been found in Vladimir, Suzdal and Yaropolcha. Jewelers used up to 60 casting molds for their work. A special group of jewelers were goldsmiths. Findings of bracelets-wrists, silver necklaces, kolts, beads, buttons and other jewelry made using the technique of gilding, engraving, graining and enamels testify to the diversity of products of Vladimir jewelers. The masters of Vladimir held the lead in the technique of fire gilding and blackening. A Russian master could draw a thread of one kilometer from one gram of silver. The economic development of Vladimir Rus was also closely connected with the ancient trade routes that ran through its territory. Numerous carnelian and crystal beads, watering vessels and, of course, hoards of oriental coins (dirgems) speak of trade relations with the countries of the East. There was a close relationship between the Vladimir land and Novgorod the Great, a special place in trade relations between them was occupied by the trade in bread. Vladimir Rus had strong contacts with the Byzantine Empire and the countries of Western Europe. River routes ran along the Oka, Klyazma, Nerl, but, in addition to river roads, there were also land roads. The blocking of trade roads could close the passage of merchants and disrupt trade relations. The cities of Rostov-Suzdal Rus were divided into old ("senior") and new (suburbs). The former centers of tribal unions - Rostov, Suzdal, Murom, belonged to the elders, Vladimir, Pereyaslavl and newly emerging urban centers - to the suburbs. Murom and Rostov are first mentioned in chronicles under 862. Their population was ethnically heterogeneous (Slavs, Merya, Murom), but in the XII century. the Slavic element already predominated in them. In the cities, the administration of the whole district - the parish - was concentrated. Therefore, they housed the courtyards of princes, posadniks, thousands, boyars and members of the squad. But the main inhabitants of the cities were artisans and merchants. In each town there were blacksmiths, potters, carpenters, goldsmiths and silversmiths and other specialists. Specialization was not on the material, but on the finished product. The saddle maker, for example, had to know the leather business, be able to forge stirrups and mint patterned overlays for saddle bows. Craftsmen settled in groups according to the similarity of professions. So in the cities there were settlements (or ends) of potters, blacksmiths, leather workers, etc. The houses of artisans were larger than rural huts, since the dwelling was often combined with a workshop. In some houses already in the XII century. there were even exhaust pipes - smokers, placed next to the stove. Utensils of the townspeople were distinguished by great variety and the best finish. The houses had lamps, amphoras for wine, bronze crosses, ingenious locks and keys. But the wives of artisans, as well as peasant women, ground flour on millstones, spun yarn and wove. Artisans worked to order and to the market. Some craftsmen owned places at the auction and sold the products themselves. In the history of our region, five stages of the construction of cities can be conventionally distinguished. The first is connected with the activities of Vladimir Monomakh in the Rostov-Suzdal land, when ten fortress cities were built; the second followed the transfer of the capital of the principality from Rostov to Suzdal by Yuri Dolgoruky, when 22 cities were built; the third stage falls on the reign of Andrei Bogolyubsky, four cities were built by him; at the fifth stage, during the time of Vsevolod the Big Nest, seven more cities were built, and on the eve of the Mongol-Tatar invasion, Prince Yuri Vsevolodovich built one city - Nizhny Novgorod. ___________________________________________________________ In preparing the report, data from the books were used: 1. Textbook for grade 10 "History of Russia from ancient times to the end of the 17th century" (N.I. Pavlenko, I.L. Andreev) 2. "History of Russia from ancient times to our days" (A.V. Veka)

The Rostov-Suzdal principality went to the youngest son of Yaroslav the Wise, Vsevolod Pereyaslavsky, and was assigned to his descendants as a family possession. In the XII - the first half of the XIII century

The Rostov-Suzdal land experienced an economic boom. Fertile lands, huge forests, numerous rivers, lakes created an opportunity for the development of agriculture and cattle breeding.

Iron ore deposits available for mining contributed to the development of handicraft production. The most important trade routes to the south, east and west lay in the Rostov-Suzdal land, which determined the strong development of trade here. The northeastern lands of Russia were well protected by forests and rivers from Polovtsian raids, which attracted residents of the southern lands who suffered from frequent attacks by nomads. Population growth in the Rostov-Suzdal principality was of great importance for its economic development. The number of cities grew. Before the invasion of Batu, cities such as Vladimir, Pereyaslavl-Zalessky, Kostroma, Tver, Nizhny Novgorod and others arose. In the 11th-12th centuries, a large princely, boyar and church land ownership developed here. The feudal lords seized the lands of rural neighboring communities and enslaved smerds.

Yuri Dolgoruky began a struggle with Novgorod and Volga Bulgaria, seeking to expand the lands of his principality. Ryazan and Murom fell under the influence of the Rostov-Suzdal prince. For many years, Yuri Dolgoruky waged an exhausting and completely unnecessary struggle for his principality for the Kyiv grand-ducal table. After the death of Yuri Dolgoruky, his son Andrei Yuryevich Bogolyubsky, who ruled until 1174, became the prince of the Rostov-Suzdal principality. He, like his father, continued to fight with Novgorod and Volga Bulgaria, sought to expand the boundaries of his principality.

It was Andrei Bogolyubsky who began the struggle for the hegemony of the Rostov-Suzdal princes in the Russian lands. He, claiming the title of Grand Duke of all the lands of Russia, in 1169 captured Kyiv and committed a complete defeat there, surpassing the Polovtsy in this. But, having seized the title of the Grand Prince of Kyiv, Andrei Bogolyubsky, unlike his father, did not remain to reign in Kyiv, but returned to his principality. The attempts of the ambitious and power-hungry prince to subjugate Novgorod, the princes of all Russian lands, to unite them around the Rostov-Suzdal principality failed. It was in these actions of Prince Andrei Bogolyubsky that the idea of ​​\u200b\u200bunifying the lands manifested itself, i.e. establishment of state unity. But it was not realized by all the princes. Andrei Bogolyubsky pursued an imperious policy in his principality. Strengthening his power, he attacked the rights and privileges of the boyars. A serious struggle unfolded between them and the prince. Andrei Bogolyubsky dealt with the recalcitrant boyars, expelled them from the principality, deprived of their estates. In the fight against the boyars, he relied on the trade and craft population of the cities, on service people - combatants. In an effort to further separate from the boyars and rely on the townspeople, Andrei moved the capital from the boyar Rostov to the young trade and craft city of Vladimir. In Bogolyubovo near Vladimir, the prince set up his residence, for which he received the nickname Bogolyubsky. The imperious prince failed to break the boyars. There was a boyar conspiracy as a result of which Andrei Bogolyubsky was killed in his residence in 1174. After that, boyar strife raged in the Vladimir-Suzdal principality. In 1176, Andrei's brother Vsevolod the Big Nest, who ruled until 1212, took the princely throne. He received such a nickname for a large family. Under Vsevolod, the Vladimir-Suzdal principality reached its highest power and prosperity.

The prince continued his brother's policy. He spoke with the Ryazan princes by force of arms, resolved the issue with the South Russian princes and Novgorod by political methods. The name of Vsevolod was known in all Russian lands. The author of "The Tale of Igor's Campaign" wrote about the power of the Prince of Vladimir, noting that the numerous regiments of Vsevolod could splash the Volga with oars, and scoop out the Don with helmets. After the death of Vsevolod the Big Nest, strife began between his sons for the most profitable princes and their combatants to receive taxes in the Vladimir-Suzdal land. In the second quarter of the 12th century, 7 principalities existed on its territory. All of them eventually united politically under the leadership of the Prince of Vladimir.

The social system of the Vladimir-Suzdal principality:

The ruling class was the class of feudal lords, which included boyars, boyar children and free servants. The clergy, who had large land holdings, played an important role. In the documents of the XII century. nobles are also mentioned, who were called princely servants, who received remuneration for their service in the form of monetary or land grants.

Since there were many large cities on the territory of the Vladimir-Suzdal principality, the urban population had significant political influence.

The feudally dependent population consisted of peasants who lived on lands belonging to princes, boyars and other feudal lords.

The Vladimir-Suzdal Principality was headed by the Grand Duke, who had great political influence. In his activities, he relied on a council consisting of boyars and clergy, a princely squad and feudal congresses. To resolve important issues, a people's assembly - a veche - could be convened.

In the Vladimir-Suzdal principality, there was a palace-patrimonial system of government. It is characterized by the following features: the butler was at the head of the system; on the ground, representatives of the princely power were posadniks (deputies) and volosts, who performed the functions of administration and court; instead of a salary for their service, they received "food" - part of the collected from the population.

Russian Truth acted in the Vladimir land. At the end of the XIII - beginning of the XIV century. Metropolitan Justice was compiled, which included a number of norms of Russian Truth and new provisions.

Galicia-Volyn principality

The Galicia-Volyn principality with its fertile soils, mild climate, steppe space interspersed with rivers and forests, was the center of highly developed agriculture and cattle breeding. The commercial economy developed actively in this land. A consequence of the further deepening of the social division of labor was the development of handicrafts, which led to the growth of cities. The largest cities of the Galicia-Volyn principality were Vladimir-Volynsky, Przemysl, Terebovl, Galich, Berestye, Kholm. Numerous trade routes passed through the Galich and Volyn lands. The waterway from the Baltic Sea to the Black Sea passed along the rivers Vistula - Western Bug - Dniester, land trade routes led to the countries of South-Eastern Europe. The Danube was the overland trade route with the countries of the East. In the Galicia-Volyn land, large princely and boyar land ownership was formed early.

Until the middle of the XII century, the Galician land was divided into small principalities. In 1141 Prince Vladimir Volodarevich of Przemysl united them, moving the capital to Galich. The principality of Galich reached its highest power under his son Yaroslav Osmysl (1151-1187), who received this nickname for his high education and knowledge of eight foreign languages. Yaroslav Osmysl possessed unquestioned authority, both in domestic Russian affairs and in international ones.

social order

A feature of the social structure of the Galicia-Volyn principality was that a large group of boyars was created there, in whose hands almost all land holdings were concentrated.

Inside the boyars there was a constant struggle for land, for power. Already in the XII century. "Galician men" oppose any attempts to limit their rights in favor of princely power and growing cities. Another group consisted of service feudal lords, whose sources of land holdings were princely grants, boyar lands confiscated and redistributed by princes, as well as unauthorized seizures of communal lands. In the vast majority of cases, they owned the land conditionally while they served, that is, for service and under the condition of service. Serving feudal lords supplied the prince with an army consisting of feudally dependent peasants. Galician princes relied on them in the fight against the boyars. The ruling class of the Galicia-Volyn principality also included a large church nobility in the person of archbishops, bishops, abbots of monasteries and others, who also owned vast lands and peasants. Churches and monasteries acquired land holdings through grants and donations from princes. Often they, like princes and boyars, seized communal lands, and turned the peasants into monastic or church feudal-dependent people. The bulk of the rural population in the Galicia-Volyn principality were peasants. Both free and dependent peasants were called smerds. The prevailing form of peasant land ownership was communal, later called "dvorishche". Gradually, the community broke up into individual yards.

The process of formation of large land holdings and the formation of a class of feudal lords was accompanied by an increase in the feudal dependence of the peasants and the emergence of feudal rent. Labor rent in the XI - XII centuries. gradually replaced by rent products. The size of feudal duties was established by the feudal lords at their own discretion. The brutal exploitation of the peasants intensified the class struggle, which often took the form of popular uprisings against the feudal lords. Such a mass action of the peasants was, for example, an uprising in 1159 under Yaroslav Osmomysl. Kholopstvo in the Galicia-Volyn principality survived, but the number of serfs decreased, many of them were planted on the ground and merged with the peasants.

In the Galicia-Volyn principality, there were over 80 cities. The most numerous group of the urban population were artisans. The cities housed jewelry, pottery, blacksmithing and glass-making workshops. They worked both for the customer and for the market, internal or external. Salt trade brought large incomes. Being a major commercial and industrial center. Galich quickly also acquired the importance of a cultural center. It created the famous Galicia-Volyn Chronicle.

Political system

A feature of the Galicia-Volyn principality was that for a long time it was not divided into destinies. After the death of Daniil Romanovich, it broke up into the Galician and Volyn lands, and then each of these lands began to split up in turn. Another peculiarity was that power was essentially in the hands of the big boyars. Since the Galician-Volyn princes did not have a broad economic and social base, their power was fragile. She was inherited. The place of the deceased father was occupied by the eldest of the sons, whom the rest of his brothers were supposed to "honor in their father's place." A widow-mother enjoyed significant political influence with her sons. Despite the system of vassalage on which relations between members of the princely house were built, each princely possession was politically independent to a large extent. Although the princes expressed the interests of the feudal lords as a whole, nevertheless they could not concentrate the fullness of state power in their hands. The Galician boyars played a major role in the political life of the country. It even disposed of the princely table - it invited and dismissed the princes. The history of the Galicia-Volyn principality is full of examples when the princes, who lost the support of the boyars, were forced to leave their principalities. Characteristic are also the forms of struggle between the boyars and objectionable princes. Against them, they invited the Hungarians and Poles, put to death objectionable princes (this is how the Igorevich princes were hanged in 1208), removed them from Galicia (in 1226). There is such a case when the boyar Volodislav Kormilchich, who did not belong to the dynasty, proclaimed himself in 1231. prince. Often, representatives of the spiritual nobility were also at the head of the boyar rebellions directed against the prince. In such a situation, the main support of the princes was the middle and small feudal lords, as well as the city leaders.

Galicia-Volyn princes had certain administrative, military, judicial and legislative powers. In particular, they appointed officials in cities and volosts, endowing them with land holdings under the condition of service, formally they were commanders-in-chief of all armed forces. But each boyar had his own military militia, and since the regiments of the Galician boyars often outnumbered the prince's, in case of disagreement, the boyars could argue with the prince, using military force. The supreme judicial power of the princes, in case of disagreement with the boyars, passed to the boyar elite. Finally, the princes issued charters concerning various issues of government, but they were often not recognized by the boyars. The boyars exercised their power with the help of the council of the boyars. It consisted of the largest landowners, bishops and persons holding the highest government positions. The structure, the rights, the competence of council have not been defined. The boyar council was convened, as a rule, at the initiative of the boyars themselves. The prince did not have the right to convene a council at will, could not issue a single state act without his consent. He zealously guarded the interests of the boyars, intervening even in the family affairs of the prince. This body, not being formally the highest authority, actually controlled the principality.

In the Galicia-Volyn principality, earlier than in other Russian lands, a palace and patrimonial administration arose. In the system of this administration, the court, or butler, played a significant role. He was in charge of basically all matters relating to the court of the prince, he was entrusted with the command of individual regiments, during military operations he guarded the life of the prince. Among the palace officials are mentioned a printer, a stolnik, a chaliceman, a falconer, a hunter, a stableman, etc. The printer was in charge of the prince's office, was the keeper of the prince's treasury, which at the same time was also the prince's archive. In his hands was the prince's seal. The stolnik was in charge of the prince's table, served him during meals, and was responsible for the quality of the table. Chashnich was in charge of side forests, cellars and everything related to supplying the prince's table with drinks. The falconer was in charge of bird hunting. The hunter was in charge of hunting the beast. The main function of the equerry was to serve the prince's cavalry. Numerous princely keykeepers acted under the control of these officials. The positions of butler, printer, steward, groom and others gradually turned into palace ranks.

The territory of the Galicia-Volyn principality was originally divided into thousands and hundreds. As the thousand and sotsky with their administrative apparatus gradually became part of the palace and patrimonial apparatus of the prince, the positions of voivods and volostels arose instead of them. Accordingly, the territory of the principality was divided into voivodeships and volosts. Elders were elected in the communities, who were in charge of administrative and petty court cases. Posadniks were appointed and sent directly to the cities by the prince. They possessed not only administrative and military power, but also performed judicial functions and collected tribute and duties from the population.