The first thing to learn, taking on the theoretical basis of alchemy, is that the knowledge of alchemy is impossible without a change in thinking and worldview.
The second is that it is a long process.
And the third (most important) alchemy should be solved as a riddle, and not read as an answer at the end of the book.
There are many versions regarding the origin of the word - alchemy. The same applies to assumptions about where and by whom this ancient science was founded.
The most plausible version of the origin of the word alchemy is associated with Arabic sources. al-hem can be translated as "science of Egypt". Although the word Khem was also used in ancient Greece for the name of the art of smelting metals (metallurgy).
The ancient Greeks used many alchemical formulas and expressions in reference books on metallurgy.
Alchemy at that time was closely connected with astrology and many symbols, concepts and names of substances in alchemy had a direct relationship with astrology.
These two very ancient sciences developed in the same vein, together with Western Hermetic philosophy and the "Christian" Kabbalah.
From alchemy, such modern branches of science as chemistry, pharmacology, mineralogy, metallurgy, etc. were born.
According to legend, the Greek god Hermes was the founder of alchemy. And the most ancient text on alchemy is considered the "Emerald Tablet" of Hermes Trimidast.
At first, metallurgists were engaged in this art.
One of the famous alchemists was Paracelsus, who took the philosophy of alchemy to a new level, stating that the main goal of alchemy is to find an elixir, a cure for a "disease", thus laying the foundations of pharmacology.
At the ordinary level, alchemy is applied, experimental chemistry. But alchemy has its own special philosophy, the purpose of which is to improve the nature of things to an "ideal" state.
The masters of alchemy considered nature to be the greatest alchemist and a huge laboratory, since it (nature) breathed life into inert grains, contributed to the formation of minerals, gave birth to metals. And alchemists often tried to repeat in laboratory conditions those processes that occurred in nature during the formation of minerals or the occurrence of other phenomena. Also, alchemists tried to speed up many of the processes of nature in the laboratory, developing methods for processing metals, obtaining the substances and "drugs" necessary at that time.
The philosophical views of alchemy were based on the following theses:
1. The universe is of divine origin. Cosmos is the radiation of the Divine Being of the One Absolute. Thus All is One, and One is All.
2. The entire physical universe exists due to the presence of polarity or duality (duality). Any concept and phenomenon can be considered as having its opposite: male / female, sun / moon, spirit / body, etc.
3. All physical matter, whether plant, animal or mineral (the so-called Three Kingdoms), has three parts Soul, Spirit, and Body: the three Alchemical Principles.
4. All Alchemical work, laboratory practice or spiritual Alchemy, consists of three basic evolutionary processes: Separation, Purification, Synthesis. These three evolutionary processes are ubiquitous in nature.
5. The entire substance of matter is composed of the four Elements of Fire (thermal energy), Water (liquid), Air (gas), and Earth (unifier). The knowledge and use of the four Elements is a very important part of the Alchemical work.
6. The quintessence or fifth essence is everywhere with the four elements, but is not one of them. This is one of the three important principles known as the Philosophical Mercury.
7. Everything evolves towards a predetermined state of perfection.
In the popular definition, Alchemy is the empirical science that deals directly with the transformation of common metals into gold.
According to alchemists, gold is a mixture of four primary elements, taken in certain proportions. Base metals are mixtures of the same elements, but in different proportions. This means that by changing the proportions in these mixtures by heating, cooling, drying and liquefying, base metals can be turned into gold.
For many, the word Alchemy evokes associations with an inept laboratory, where pseudo-scientists work recklessly boldly in an effort to enrich themselves by obtaining alchemical gold.
However, the true definition of Alchemy is connected with the doctrine of the evolution of man to the highest perfection.
Treatises of Alchemy are devoted not only to the principles of chemistry, but are also full of philosophical, mystical and magical meaning.
Thus, some of the alchemists were engaged in natural chemistry and physico-chemical experiments with matter, while the other was interested in alchemy as a spiritual process, although the basis of the philosophy of both was spiritual transformation.
The alchemists of the spirit were not only looking for a way to obtain gold, they were looking for how to get spiritual gold - wisdom - from "impure" elements.
For them, gold, a metal that never loses its luster and cannot be corrupted by Fire or Water, was a symbol of initiation and salvation.
Alchemy is the Science of the Art of transformation.
This art is difficult to study, because the basis of the alchemical "language" is the use of symbols in allegories and myths, which can be interpreted with a wide range of understanding, both in a spiritual sense and in a sense applied to experimental chemistry.
The original goal of alchemy is to bring all things, including humanity, to perfection.
Since the theory of alchemy claims that the Eternal Wisdom remains latent, inactive and obscure for humanity for so long due to the large amount of ignorance in society and on the surface of human consciousness.
The task of alchemy is the discovery of this Inner Wisdom and the removal of the veil and barrier between the mind and the inner, pure Divine Source.
This is the spiritual alchemy which is hidden behind the chemical art of some alchemists.
This Great Work or search for "spiritual gold" has been going on for quite some time.
Although the goal is far away, each step along this path enriches the walker.
The stages of the philosophical process of alchemical transformation are symbolized by four different colors: black (guilt, origin, latent powers) the designation of the Spirit in the initial state, white (small work, first transformation or experience, mercury), red (sulphur, passion), and gold (spiritual purity). ).
The basis for all alchemical theories is the theory of the four elements.
It was developed in detail by Greek philosophers such as Plato and Aristotle. According to the cosmological teaching of Plato (which was seriously influenced by the philosophy of the Pythagoreans), the Universe was created by the Demiurge from spiritualized primary matter. From it he created the four elements: fire, water, air and earth. Plato considered these elements as geometric bodies from which all substances are built. Aristotle made a certain adjustment to the theory of the four elements. He defines them as a combination of four opposite qualities: cold, dryness, heat and moisture, in addition, he adds a fifth to the four elements - quintessence. It was these philosophers, in fact, who laid the theoretical foundation of what is commonly called alchemy.
If we depict all the theories of the alchemists geometrically, we get the Pythagorean tetractix. The Tetractix of Pythagoras is a triangle consisting of ten points.
The four points represent the Cosmos as two pairs of basic states: hot and dry - cold and wet, the combination of these states generates the elements that are at the base of the Cosmos. That. the transition of one element into another, by changing one of its qualities, served as the basis for the idea of transmutation.
Alchemical Elements
Prima - TERRA: The First Element is Earth. The essence is life. It is a product of nature.
Second - AQUA: The Second Element is Water. Eternal life through the quadruple reproduction of the universe.
Tertia - AE: The Third Element - Air. Strength through connection with the Spirit element.
Quart - IGNIS: Fourth Element - Fire. The transformation of matter.
Three Great Principles
Further, three points are the triad of alchemists - sulfur, salt and mercury. A feature of this theory was the idea of macro and microcosm. Those. man in it was considered as a world in miniature, as a reflection of the Cosmos with all its inherent qualities. Hence the meaning of the elements: Sulfur - Spirit, Mercury - Soul, Salt - body. That. and the Cosmos and man consist of the same elements - body, soul and spirit. If we compare this theory with the theory of the four elements, we can see that the element of fire corresponds to the Spirit, the element of water and air corresponds to the Soul, and the element of earth corresponds to Salt. And if we take into account that the alchemical method is based on the principle of correspondence, which in practice means that the chemical and physical processes occurring in nature are similar to those that occur in the human soul, we get:
In alchemy, there are three main substances - principles that are present in all things.
The names and alchemical designations of these three principles are:
Sulfur (Sulfur) Mercury (Mercury) Salt
Sulfur (Sulfur) - an immortal spirit / that which disappears without a trace from matter during firing
Mercury (Mercury) - soul / that which connects the body and spirit
Salt - the body / that material that remains after roasting
These substances, when purified, have the same name. This triad of principles can be considered as an undivided whole.
However, this whole exists only before the alchemical purification (learning process).
When the three components are purified they uplift the whole
The Sulfur Principle
(Coptic -Then, Greek -Theion, Latin -Sulfur)
It is a dynamic, expansive, fickle, acidic, unified, masculine, paternal, and fiery principle. Sulfur is emotional, it is a feeling and a passionate impulse that motivates life. This is a symbolic desire for positive change and vitality. The complete transformation depends on the right application of this changeable principle.
Fire is a central element in alchemy. Sulfur is the "Spirit of Fire".
In practical alchemy, Sulphur (sulphur) is usually extracted from Mercury (mercury, more precisely mercury sulfate) by distillation. Sulfur is the stabilization aspect of Mercury, from which it is extracted and dissolved into it again. In mystical alchemy, Sulfur is the aspect of the crystallization of inspiration initiated by Mercury.
Salt Principle
(Coptic-Hemou, Greek-Hals, Patina - Salt)
This is the principle of substance or form, which is conceived as a heavy, inert mineral body that is part of the nature of all metals. It is a fixative, a retarder that completes crystallization. Salt is the base in which the properties of Sulfur and Mercury are fixed. Salt is a very important principle that is attributed to the elements of the earth.
Mercury principle
(Coptic - Thrim, Greek - Hydrargos, Latin - Mercurius)
This is Mercury. The principle - watery, feminine, concerns the concepts of consciousness. Mercury is the universal spirit or life principle that pervades all living matter. This fluid and creative principle symbolizes action.
His transformations are part of the transformation in the alchemical process. Mercury is a very important component, the most important of all three principles that interact with each other, changing their properties.
Mercury and Sulfur as antagonists
Two points of tetraxis - sulfuric - mercury theory
In practical alchemy, Mercury is represented by two substances.
The first (inconstant) is the substance after the removal of sulfur.
The second (fixed) substance after the return of sulfur.
This product and stabilized substance is sometimes referred to as Secret Fire or Prepared Mercury.
Sulfur and mercury are regarded as the father and mother of metals. When they combine, various metals are formed. Sulfur causes the volatility and combustibility of metals, and mercury hardness, ductility and brilliance. The alchemists depicted these two principles either as an alchemical androgyne, or as two dragons or snakes biting each other. Sulfur is a wingless snake, mercury is winged. If the alchemist managed to combine both principles, then he received the primary matter. Symbolically, it was depicted as follows:
One point - the idea of unity (all-unity), was inherent in all alchemical theories. Based on it, the alchemist began his Work with the search for the first substance. Having acquired the primary substance, by means of special operations he reduced it to the primary matter, after which, adding to it the qualities he needed, he received the Philosopher's Stone. The idea of the unity of all things was symbolically depicted in the form of an ouroboros - a snake devouring its tail - a symbol of Eternity and all alchemical Work
primal matter
Primary matter - for the alchemist, this is not matter itself, but rather its possibility, combining all the qualities and properties inherent in matter. It can be described only in contradictory terms. Primary matter is what remains of an object when it is stripped of all its characteristics.
The Primary Matter is the substance closest to the Primary Matter in terms of its properties.
The first substance is the (male) substance that becomes One and inimitable in conjunction with the female. All its components are simultaneously stable and changeable.
This substance is unique, the poor own it to the same extent as the rich. It is known to everyone and not recognized by anyone. In their ignorance, the common man considers it rubbish and sells it cheaply, although for philosophers this is the highest value.
The first substance is not a homogeneous substance; it consists of two components: "male" and "female". From a chemical point of view, one of the components is a metal, while the other is a mineral containing mercury.
Perhaps this definition is quite universal, and for the study of Mystical Alchemy it is quite self-sufficient.
Metals Assigned to Planets in Alchemy
The view of the alchemist on the nature of metals is quite different from that of metallurgy.
The Creator created metals as things equal to animals and plants.
And like everything else in nature, these substances experience natural evolution - birth, growth and flourishing.
Alchemical symbols
The symbol has a number of functions, in the study of alchemy, two of them should be highlighted:
1 The symbol serves to hide the sacred meaning of the mystery from the uninitiated.
2 The symbol is the means of knowledge and the Path of Truth.
The being of a symbol extends in three planes:
1 Symbol - sign
2 Symbol - image, allegory
3 The symbol is a phenomenon of Eternity.
How to distinguish a symbol from a sign and an allegory?
A sign is an image (this definition, of course, refers only to drawn images) that carries a specific semantic meaning. An iconic image may not be conventional.
Allegory is a kind of concept picture, a concept expressed not by a word but by an image. Its main criterion is that allegory has no room for interpretation.
In other words, in an allegory, the image performs only auxiliary functions and is a “label” of a general concept, while in a symbol, the image is endowed with autonomy, and is inextricably linked with the concept.
A symbol, unlike an allegory, has multiple meanings and can be interpreted in different ways.
A symbol is a conventional image representing an image, an idea, etc. not statically as a sign or allegory, but in a dynamic whole. The symbol suggests the presence of an inner secret; it can never be fully unraveled.
There are four main types of characters:
1 Symbolic images in which any color acts as a symbol:
2 Symbolic images in which geometric figures and pictures serve as symbols:
3 The third type of symbols is more complicated because expressed graphically only with the help of the first, second and fourth kinds of symbols - this is numerical symbolism:
4 A mixed symbol (the most common) is a combination of two or three of the above types of symbols at once:
The meaning of alchemical symbols is sometimes obvious, but in most cases they require a more serious attitude...
There are three main difficulties in understanding alchemical symbolism:
The first is that the alchemists did not have a rigid system of correspondences, i.e. the same symbol or sign can have many meanings.
The second - the alchemical symbol is sometimes difficult to distinguish from the allegory.
And the third, most important, is that in alchemy a symbol serves to directly convey mystical experience (experience).
Five Methods for Analyzing an Alchemical Symbol
Method #1
First you need to determine the type of the symbol. Those. is it simple or complex. A simple symbol consists of one figure, a complex one of several.
Method #2
If the symbol is complex, you need to decompose it into a number of simple ones.
Method #3
Having decomposed the symbol into its constituent elements, you need to carefully analyze their position.
Method #4
Highlight the main idea of the story.
Method #5
Interpret the resulting picture. The main criterion in the interpretation of the symbol should be the intellectual intuition developed in the process of research.
An iconic image, unlike a symbol, can be non-conventional, i.e. similar to what it means. Signs are used to alert, warn and inform. Here are some examples of different alchemical signs for time:
Symbolism of alchemical processes
A close examination of the alchemical treatises reveals that almost every alchemist used his own unique method of working. However, there are some common elements that are common to all alchemical methods. They can be reduced to this diagram:
1. THE BODY SHOULD BE CLEARED BY THE RAVEN AND THE SWAN REPRESENTING THE DIVISION OF THE SOUL INTO TWO PARTS INTO EVIL (BLACK) AND GOOD (WHITE)
2. Iridescent PEACOCK FEATHERS OFFER PROOF THAT THE TRANSFORMATION PROCESS HAS STARTED
Other birds associated with the alchemical process are:
PELICAN (blood feeding)
EAGLE (victory symbol of the ending ritual)
PHOENIX (is a perfect eagle)
There are three main stages of doing:
nigredo (nigredo) - black stage, albedo (albedo) - white stage, rubedo (rubedo) - red.
If we correlate the stages of alchemical work with the elements, then we get not three, but four stages:
Earth - MELANOSIS (blackening): - Nigredo.
Water - LEUKOSIS (whitening): - Albedo.
Air - XANTHOSIS (yellowing): - Citrine.
Fire - IOZIS (redness) - Rubedo.
Seven stages according to the colors of the planets:
BLACK: Saturn (lead)
BLUE: Jupiter (tin)
PEACOCK TAIL: Mercury (mercury)
WHITE: Moon (silver)
YELLOW: Venus (copper)
RED: Mars (iron)
PURPLE: Sun (gold)
As you can see, the number of processes leading to obtaining the Philosopher's Stone is different. Some associated them (stages) with the twelve signs of the zodiac, some with the seven days of creation, but still almost all alchemists mentioned them. In alchemical treatises, one can find mention of two Ways to accomplish the Great Work: dry and wet. Usually alchemists described the wet way, mentioning the dry very rarely. The main features of the two Paths are the differences in the modes used (terms and intensity of processes) and the main ingredients (primary matter and secret fire).
The seven alchemical processes correspond with the seven days of Creation, as well as with the seven planets, for it was believed that the influence of each planet generates the metal corresponding to it in the bowels of the earth.
Metals vary in degree of perfection; their hierarchy goes back from lead - the least noble of metals - to gold. Starting with the source material, which was in an imperfect "lead" state, the alchemist gradually improved it and eventually turned it into pure gold.
The stages of his work corresponded to the ascent of the soul through the planetary spheres.
1. Mercury - Calcification
2. Saturn - Sublimation
3. Jupiter - Solution
4. Moon - Puterification
5. Mars - Distillation
6. Venus - Coagulation
7. Sun - Tincture
Twelve alchemical processes correlated with the signs of the Zodiac. The Great Work was an imitation of natural processes, and the twelve months or signs of the zodiac make up a complete annual cycle during which Nature passes from birth and growth to decay, death and a new birth.
The English alchemist George Ripley, in his Compendium of Alchemy, written in 1470, lists all twelve processes; an almost identical list is given in 1576 by another adept in alchemical art, Joseph Kvertsetav.
These processes are:
calcination ("calcination"),
solution ("dissolution"),
separation ("separation"),
conjunction ("connection"),
putrefaction ("rotting"),
coagulation ("fixing"),
cibation ("feeding"),
sublimation ("sublimation"),
fermentation ("fermentation"),
exaltation ("excitement"),
animation ("multiplication")
projection("throw"*).
Any interpretation of these processes, both chemically and psychologically, will inevitably be arbitrary. But it is known that the goal of the initial stages (up to putrefaction) was to purify the source material, get rid of any qualitative characteristics, turn it into the First Matter and release the spark of life contained in it.
Calcination is the calcination in the open air of a base metal or other starting material. As a result of this process, the material was supposed to turn into powder or ash.
The second stage, solution, was the dissolution of the calcined powder in "mineral water that does not wet the hands." "Mineral water" here refers to mercury.
The third stage, separation, is the division of the "subject" of the Great Work into oil and water. It is not the alchemist who makes the separation, but the Lord God himself; this seems to mean that the alchemist simply left the dissolved material in the vessel until it had undergone said separation. The purpose of this process was the decomposition of alchemical raw materials into their original components - either into four primary elements, or into mercury and sulfur.
The fourth stage, conjunction, i.e., the achievement of balance and reconciliation between the warring opposites. Sulfur and mercury are reunited.
Fifth stage, putrefaction - the first of the main stages of the Great Work - the so-called nigredo, or blackening. She was called the "Black Crow", "Crow Head", "Raven Head" and "Black Sun", and her symbols were a rotting corpse, a black bird, a black man, a king killed by warriors, and a dead king devoured by a wolf. By the time the nigredo stage was completed, each adept had progressed in a different way.
Coagulation or "thickening" - at this stage, the elements that formed the Stone were connected to each other.
This process was described as an alchemical mass.
Vapors released during putrefaction. hovering over the black material in the vessel, penetrating into the First Matter, they animate it and create an embryo from which the Philosopher's Stone will grow.
When the spirit was reunited with the First Matter, a white solid crystallized from the watery material in the vessel.
The resulting white substance was the White Stone, or White Tincture, capable of turning any material into silver.
Having received the White Stone, the alchemist proceeds to the stage of cibation ("feeding"): the material in the vessel is "moderately nourished with "milk" and "meat".
The sublimation stage represented purification. The solid in the vessel was heated until it evaporated; The vapors were rapidly cooled and again condensed to a solid state. This process was repeated several times, and its symbols, as a rule, were doves, swans and other birds, which had the habit of flying up to heaven, then landing again. The purpose of sublimation was to rid the body of the Stone from the dirt in which it was born during putrefaction. Sublimation unites body and spirit;
During fermentation, the material in the vessel turns yellow and becomes gold. Many alchemists have argued that at this stage ordinary gold should be added to the vessel in order to hasten the natural development of the Philosopher's Stone to the state of gold. While not yet completely perfect, the Stone was now acquiring the ability to transmute base metals. It became an enzyme, a leaven capable of impregnating and activating the base metal and spurring its development, just as yeast impregnates the dough and makes it rise. This quality characterizes the soul of the Philosopher's Stone, the fiery, active component that excites and animates the base metal. Thus, in the process of fermentation, the soul of the Stone is connected with the already purified body. fermentation unites the spiritual body with the soul;
At the stage of exaltation, the last change in the color of the material occurs - rubedo, or redness.
Apparently, the alchemists discovered that in the last stages of the Work, the material in the vessel becomes extremely unstable. However, exaltation should bring all the components of the Stone into unity and harmony, which is no longer subject to any changes.
The soul and body, united in the fermentation process, now united with the spirit, and the Stone became resistant and stable.
The heat in the furnace was brought to the highest possible temperature, and the eye of the excited alchemist is presented with that wonderful spectacle for which he worked so hard in the sweat of his face - the birth of the Philosopher's Stone, perfect red gold, Red Tincture, or Red Elixir, the One. Exaltation unites body, soul and spirit;
Further, the newborn Stone lacks one quality - the ability to be fruitful and multiply, many times increasing the mass of base metals. The Stone was endowed with this quality in the process of multiplication ("multiplication") or augmentation ("increment").
The Stone became fruitful and fruitful thanks to another combination of opposites - the royal wedding of soul and spirit, sulfur and mercury, king and queen, Sun and Moon, red man and white woman, i.e. symbols of all opposites reconciled in the One. Animation unites soul and spirit.
The twelfth and final stage of the Great Work, projection, was that the Stone was used on a base metal to turn it into gold.
Usually the Stone was wrapped in wax or paper, placed in a crucible along with base metal and heated.
These last stages of alchemical work were several procedures for balancing and combining the components of the Stone or its inherent opposites.
Small dictionary of alchemical notation.
ACETUM PHILOSOPHERUM: Synonymous with "Virgin Milk", Philosophical Mercury, Secret Fire
ADAM: Male power. Animus.
ADAM'S EARTH: The primordial or true essence of gold that can be obtained from a homogeneous substance
ADROP: Philosophical work or antimony.
AESH MEZARETH: "A purifying flame." Alchemical work collected by Knorr von Rosenroth and set forth in The Kabalah Denudata.
ALCHEMICAL MARRIAGE: The final stage of the Great Work. Occurs between the King and the Queen
ALBEDO: A form of matter that has an impeccable perfection that it does not lose.
ALKAHEST: Secret flame. Solvent.
ALEMBROT: Philosophical salt. Salt of art. Part of the nature of metals.
MIX: The union of fire and water, male and female.
ALHOF: The formless state of the earth element. Soul of the Earth.
AMALGAMMA: The medicine of metals in melting.
AMRITA: The first transformed matter, substance.
AN: Father or Sera.
ANIMA: Feminine in a man. Hidden personality.
ANIMUS: Masculinity in a woman.
ENSIR: Son, or Mercury.
ENSIRARTO: Holy Spirit or Salt.
ANTIMONY: A substance that, in certain doses, can be both a drug and a poison.
This substance has all the properties of a metal, but under certain conditions behaves like a non-metal. Obtained by extraction from natural Stibnite sulfide by heating in the presence of iron. (There are four forms: gray metal, black soot, and unstable explosive "yellow silver".)
APR: Powder or ash.
AQUA PERMANENCE: "Pristine or Restrained Water." Mercury of philosophers. Sun and Moon dissolved and united.
AQUA VITE: Alcohol. Women's selection.
AQUA PHILOSOPHERUM: "Eagle of Philosophy." The mercury of metals is characterized as "a metal with a nature close to the first matter."
ARCHAIES: The hidden essence of the primal matter that is extracted from it.
ARGENT VIVE: "Secret flame" Mercury of philosophers; the so-called "Living Silver" is a universal solvent of metals.
SOFTENING: Make thinner
AUR: Radiance, light.
NITROGEN: The universal principle of medicine, with which all things are connected, is contained in everything healing. The names of mercury in any metallic body. Spirit of Life. Quintessence. Spirit of Water.
AURUM ALBUM: White gold.
BETYULIS: An inanimate stone containing the Spirit.
BALM VITE (Balm): Collects natural warmth and huge moisture. In mystical alchemy, it is a symbol of mercy, love, reincarnation.
Basilisk: A monster with the body of a dragon, the head of a snake, the beak of a rooster. A symbol of the conflicting duality of nature and the Elements.
MACE: Androgyne, hermaphrodite. duality of nature.
BOWL OF VENUS: Vagina.
WASHING: Cleansing by puterification.
BEAR: The blackness of primordial matter.
BEE: Sun. Purity. Rebirth.
HEADLESS: Knowledge of the Spirit through suffering and torture. Separation that is inherent in the physical body.
BENNU: The Egyptian Phoenix. Philosopher's stone symbol.
BLACK DRAGON: Death, decay, decay.
BLOOD: Spirit.
RED LION BLOOD: Male discharge.
BOOK: Universe.
ARC: A combination of masculine and feminine. Feminine crescent, shooting an arrow as a masculine principle.
BREATH: The essence of life.
CADUCEUS: The power of transformation. Unity of opposites.
CAPUTH MORTE: Product of the death of matter. Empty product. A by-product of doing.
CAUDI PAVONIS: The tail of a peacock.
KAELDRON (Bowl, Cauldron, Ritorta): Abundance. Uterus. The power of transformation.
CHAIN: Binder.
CHAOS: Void. The fourfold essence of the primordial substance.
CHILD: Potential.
CHMO: Fermentation, fermentation
CINNEAR: A product of the positive interaction of male and female. Gold of Life.
CLOUD: Gas or vapor.
COLEUM: Upgrading a Life creature. Also Virtus.
CONNECTION OF SUN AND MOON: Union of opposites.
BODY: Alchemical substance
CROSS: Manifestations of the Spirit in matter. Man sign
CROWN: Kingship or sovereignty.
CROWNED CHILD: Stone of philosophers.
CROWN BALL: Stone of philosophers.
CRUCIFICATION: Purification of all impurities.
CAPELATION: A metallurgical process to test the authenticity of Gold.
CYPARIS: Death. Male organ.
DAGGER: That which pierces and breaks matter.
DIENECH: Corrected, balanced Water.
DOG: Philosophical Mercury.
DOG AND WOLF: The double nature of Mercury.
DOUBLE-HEADED EAGLE: Male and female Mercury.
DOVE: Life Spirit.
DRAGON BLOOD: Cinnabar. mercury sulfide.
EAGLE (Also falcon or falcon): Sublimation. Mercury in its most exalted state. Emblem of knowledge, inspiration, and sign of the completed Work
EGG: Sealed Hermetic Vessel where the work is completed. Creation designation.
ELECTRUM: The metal containing all the metals assigned to the seven planets.
ELIXIR OF LIFE: Received from the Stone of the Philosopher, Elixir that gives immortality and eternal youth.
EMPEROR: King. Active impermanent principle.
EMPRESS: Passive form, balanced principle.
EVE: The female archetype. Anima.
FATHER: Solar or masculine principle.
DIRT: Spent matter. Final death. Weight.
FISHEYE: A stone at an early stage of evolution.
MEAT: Substance.
FLIGHT: Transcendental action. Rise to the highest level.
GOLDEN FLOWER: Spiritual rebirth. Elixir of Life.
PHOETUS SPAGIRIKUS: The stage in the alchemical process when matter inherits the Spirit.
FORGE: Transmutation power of the furnace holy fire.
FOUNTAIN: Source of Eternal Life. mother source.
FRUITS - FRUIT: Essence. Immortality.
FROG: First Substance. Origin of physical matter.
GLUTEN: Women's fluids.
GLUTINUM MUNDI: Glue of the world. That which unites body and mind.
GOAT: Male principle.
GOLD: Purpose of the Great Work. Perfection and harmony. Full balance
GOOSE: Nature.
GRAIL: Stone Philosophers. Immortality.
GRAIN (Barley, kernel, grain): Grain of life. Life renewal. Core.
GREAT WORK: Achieving the highest possible degree of perfection. Unification of the Lesser Universe with the Greater Universe (Microcosm and Universe).
HERMAPHRODITE: Union of male and female.
HERMES: Mercury.
HIEROGAMIA: Divine unification. Compound.
MED: Introduction. Immortality.
INCREATUM: Self-reproduction.
IGNIS AQUA: Fire Water. Alcohol.
IGNIS LEONI: Elemental Fire or "Lion's Fire."
IGNIS ELEMENTARI: Alchemical sulfur.
LAKTUM VIRGINIS: Maiden's milk. Mercury water synonym
LAMP: Spirit of Fire.
SPEAR: Masculine energy.
LAPIS LUCIDUM ANGELARIS: "Cornerstone of Light." Supreme Being.
The newest book of facts. Volume 3 [Physics, chemistry and technology. History and archeology. Miscellaneous] Kondrashov Anatoly Pavlovich
What positive role did alchemy play?
Alchemy is a pre-scientific direction in the development of chemistry that arose in the 2nd-4th centuries in Egypt and became especially widespread in Western Europe in the 12th-14th centuries. The alchemists considered their main task to be the transformation (transmutation) of base metals into noble ones with the help of an imaginary substance - the "philosopher's stone". Among the goals of the alchemists were also obtaining the elixir of longevity, the universal solvent and other substances with miraculous properties. In the process of searching for these miraculous remedies, alchemists discovered ways to obtain many practically valuable compounds and mixtures (mineral and vegetable paints, glasses, enamels, metal alloys, acids, alkalis, salts, medicines), and also created methods of laboratory work (distillation, sublimation, filtration), invented new laboratory instruments (e.g. long-term heating ovens, stills). Egyptian alchemists discovered, in particular, ammonia. Alchemy had a significant impact on medieval culture and contributed to the development of modern science.
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Introduction ................................................ ................................................. ....................3
I. The contribution of the alchemists.
1.1. Fundamentals of alchemy.
1.1.1. Alchemical theories .................................................................. .......................................4
1.1.2. Basic elements of alchemical theories .............................................................. ......5
1.1.3. "Alchemical" elements .................................................................. ...................................6
1.2. Alchemists and their discoveries. In chronological order..............................................7
1.3. (Al)chemical equipment .................................................................. .............................ten
Conclusion................................................. ................................................. ..............ten
List of used sources and literature .............................................................. ......eleven
Introduction.
ALCHEMY (late Latin alchimia) - the application of chemistry to the superstitious search for the philosopher's stone, the universal healing potion, and the secret of turning metals into gold.
Without a doubt, alchemy is one of the few unofficial sciences that still excites people.
It originated in Egypt, in the III-IV centuries AD, but its particular popularity fell on the late Middle Ages (Western Europe, XI-XIV centuries). Hundreds of young people, excited by the opportunity to get rich at lightning speed - which is only a way to obtain noble metals from simple iron - were flattered by this science and began to look for investors. No one thought about the incredible nature of the scientific research of young talents - people still believed in magic, which the church actively encouraged through "witch hunts" - and no doubt funded projects.
The positive role of alchemy consisted in the discovery or improvement of methods for obtaining practical valuable products (mineral and vegetable paints, glasses, enamels, metal alloys, acids, alkalis, salts), as well as in the development of certain laboratory techniques (distillation, sublimation, etc.).
When writing this project, I was pursued by one goal - to show that, in the pursuit of financial enrichment, people, driven by a goal and unaware of the significance of their work, are able to change the world.
Problem: misperception of the image of the alchemist in the modern world.
Relevance of the problem lies in the fact that in many works of art a stereotyped, deliberately false image of an alchemist is given, which does not have any real historical evidence.
Objective:
1. Find out the contribution of alchemists to the science of chemistry.
Work tasks:
Study the sources, analyze the collected information and draw a conclusion about the significance of the work of alchemists for chemistry.
Determine the practical value of their research.
A number of books were studied as sources of information, including both the school curriculum and additional natural science literature. It is not worth reducing the contribution of the World Wide Web, since part of the text is built on the basis of the data found using it.
I. The contribution of the alchemists.
1.1. Fundamentals of alchemy.
1.1.1. Alchemical theories.
Of the many alchemical theories, three main ones can be distinguished: the triad of alchemists, the doctrine of the four elements of Aristotle and the mercury-sulfur theory.
The triad of alchemists is sulphur, salt and mercury. A feature of the theory of the unity of sulfur, mercury and salt was the idea of macro and microcosm. Man in it was considered as a world in miniature, as a reflection of the Cosmos with all its inherent qualities. Hence the meaning of the elements: Sulfur - Spirit, Mercury - Soul, Salt - body. Thus, both the Cosmos and man consist of the same elements - body, soul and spirit.
One of the main theories - the theory of the four elements. This theory was elaborated by Greek philosophers such as Plato and Aristotle. According to the teachings of Plato, the Universe was created by the Demiurge from the spiritualized Primary matter. From it he created the four elements: fire, water, air and earth. Aristotle added to the four elements the fifth - the quintessence. Aristotle's idea of the transmutability of elements constituted, as it were, a theoretical program for more than a thousand years of searching for the transmutation of metals.
Mercury-sulfur theory - an alchemical theory that explains the origin and properties of metals and justifies the possibility of their transmutation; was created at the end of the 8th century by the Arab alchemist Jabir ibn Hayyan. According to this theory, all metals are based on two "principles" - mercury (philosophical mercury) and sulfur (philosophical sulfur). Mercury is the "principle of metallicity", sulfur is the "principle of combustibility". The principles of the theory, therefore, acted as carriers of certain chemical properties of metals, established as a result of experimental study of the effect of high temperatures on metals.
It is these theories, in fact, that laid the foundation for what is commonly called alchemy.
1.1.2. Basic elements of alchemical theories.
Hg Mercury is a silvery-white heavy metal that is liquid at room temperature. Native mercury was known for 2000 BC. e. - back in the 15th century. BC a. in Egypt, Mesopotamia, China, ancient artisans obtained mercury from cinnabar. Mercury was described by the Greek physician Dioscorides (1st century BC), getting it in the form of vapors by heating cinnabar in an iron vessel with a lid, which condensed on its inner surface.
S Sulfur is a non-metal, which is a brittle yellow crystals.
Since sulfur occurs in nature in its native state, it has been known to man since ancient times. The use of burning sulfur for disinfection is mentioned by Homer. Dioscorides reports on the use of sulfur in medicine. Approximately half of the sulfur produced is used in the production of sulfuric acid.
1.1.3. "Alchemical" elements.
The main "alchemical" elements discovered in the Middle Ages: As, Sb, Bi, P.
As Arsenic is a delicate, thin sulfur-colored substance and comes across as a red stone. Its nature is similar to the nature of orpiment. Arsenic comes in two colors - white and red. Easily sublimates and can be bleached in two ways - weathering and sublimation.
Arsenic has been known since ancient times - in the writings of Dioscorides (1st century AD), the calcination of a substance, which is now called arsenic sulfide, is mentioned. In the 13th century Albert von Bolstedt (Albert the Great) obtained a metal-like substance by heating yellow arsenic with soap; this may have been the first sample of arsenic in the form of a simple substance, obtained artificially.
Bi Bismuth is a silvery white metal with a pinkish tint.
In the Middle Ages, bismuth was often used by alchemists during experiments. It was used not only in Europe - the Incas used bismuth in the process of making edged weapons, the brilliance of which was caused by iridescent oxidation, which was the result of the formation of a thin film of bismuth oxide on the metal surface. However, bismuth was not classified as an independent element and was thought to be a type of lead, antimony, or tin.
Sb Antimony is a silvery-white metal with a bluish tinge.
Antimony has been known since ancient times. In the countries of the East, it was used approximately 3000 BC. e. for making vessels. In ancient Egypt already in the 19th century. BC e. antimony glitter powder called mesten was used to blacken the eyebrows. In ancient Greece, it was known as στίμμι and στίβι, hence lat. stibium. About 12-14 centuries. n. e. the name antimonium appeared. A detailed description of the properties and methods for obtaining antimony and its compounds was first given by the alchemist Vasily Valentin in 1604.
P Phosphorus is a non-metal. The original name is "cold fire", later - phosphorus, from the Greek "phosph6ros" - luminiferous.
Hennig Brand, who was looking for "primary matter", received phosphorus in a series of experiments, mistaking it for it and calling it "light-bearing". After conducting a series of unsuccessful experiments to obtain precious metals, he decided to sell phosphorus, but realizing that he could not keep the truth about the substance a secret for a long time, he sold the production technology to D. Kraft for 200 thalers.
1.2. Alchemists and their discoveries. In chronological order.
Pedanius Dioscorides(40-90) - ancient Greek physician, pharmacologist and naturalist.
He is also known for obtaining and describing a number of substances, for example, CaO lime, obtained by firing limestone or marble, which has been used since ancient times after quenching as a cementing mortar in construction. To designate calcium oxide, Dioscorides introduces a concept that has been retained to this day in the construction business - quicklime.
Zinc oxide is also mentioned in the writings of Dioscorides. It is the most important compound of this element for practice, especially widely used in the production of rubber, mineral paints and ceramics, but also consumed in a number of other areas of medicine (powders and ointments), cosmetics (powders), as a catalyst in the synthesis of methyl alcohol, etc. .
Dioscorides discovered a method for the production of white lead, which in his time was used in medical practice and for cosmetic purposes. The scientist deduced the method of their production from the interaction of lead and acetic acid.
Zosima Panopolitansky(c. 300) - an alchemist of the Roman era, who worked in Alexandria.
Described some practical techniques: "fixation", or hardening, Hg - probably the manufacture of mercury amalgams, "tetrasomat"; methods of imitations of Au and Ag are stated. He described a number of alchemical devices, the process of formation of lead acetate and pointed out its sweet taste.
The first mentions the term "chemistry" - in the understanding of "sacred secret art". According to the Bible, he explains the appearance of alchemy by the connection of fallen angels with human girls, in return for whose love they were given "secret knowledge".
Jabir ibn Hayyan(721-815) - famous Arab alchemist, physician and pharmacist. In the Middle Ages, it was known under the Latinized name Geber.
Among the works of Jabir ibn Hayyan, the most interesting is the Book of Seventy, which is a kind of encyclopedia consisting of 70 chapters devoted to various theological, political and natural science issues. In the last chapters of the Book of Seventy, he gives information about metals and minerals.
Jabir ibn Hayyan describes distillation, sublimation, dissolution, crystallization; vitriol, alum, alkalis, ammonia, etc.; outlines methods for obtaining acetic acid, a weak solution of nitric acid, white lead.
Abu Bakr Muhammad ar-Razi(865 - 925) - Persian scientist-encyclopedist, physician and alchemist.
In the "Book of Secrets" he divided all the material of alchemy into three main sections: Knowledge of matter, Knowledge of devices, Knowledge of operations.
It was also he who, for the first time in the history of chemistry, made an attempt to classify all substances known to him, dividing them into three large classes: earthy (mineral) substances, vegetable substances, animal substances.
Ar-Razi also described various chemical operations, in particular the melting of bodies, decantation, filtration, digestion (infusion at elevated temperatures), distillation, sublimation, amalgamation, dissolution, coagulation (thickening).
Vasily Valentin- an alchemist who lived in the XIV or XV century; his treatises became widely known in the 17th century.
He was the first to obtain hydrochloric acid by heating table salt with ferrous sulfate, and studied its effect on metals. He described in detail antimony, the method of its preparation from antimony luster and antimony compounds. He described nitric and sulfuric acids, aqua regia, ammonia, sublimate and other mercury salts, some compounds of zinc, tin, lead, cobalt. He observed "sweetening of acids" - the interaction of alcohol and acids with the formation of esters.
Johann Rudolf Glauber(1604 - 1670) - German alchemist, pharmacist and physician.
Glauber studied in detail the question of the formation and composition of salts and acids, made a significant contribution to the development of methods for obtaining a number of inorganic substances. He isolated a number of salts, which he intended for use as medicines. He was the first to describe crude benzene obtained by distillation of coal tar.
By distilling a mixture of saltpeter with sulfuric acid, he obtained pure nitric acid, and by heating common salt with sulfuric acid, pure hydrochloric acid and sodium sulfate, called Glauber's salt (1648). Of great practical importance was the reaction discovered by Glauber for the interaction of potash with nitric acid to form pure potassium nitrate.
Glauber received liquid glass (sodium or potassium metasilicate), studied and described ammonium salts; discovered that the precipitate of silver chloride dissolves in ammonia, that silver precipitates from a solution of its salts with alkali and carbonates. He was the first to describe the production of acetic acid by dry distillation of plant substances.
1.3. (Al)chemical equipment.
Maria Prophetissa. Invented benmari - a water bath of a special design used in alchemy and chemistry. The bath allowed substances to be heated very slowly, and today it is used in cooking when heating sauces. She was also the creator of kerokatis - a closed vessel in which the thinnest plates of various metals were exposed to steam, and tribicos - an apparatus resembling a distillation. With the help of these devices, having knowledge of the different boiling points of various liquids, Maria Prophetissa learned to separate liquid mixtures into separate substances. These were the first steps towards the production of strong alcohol and essences.
Abu Bakr Muhammad ar-Razi. Among the apparatus and instruments described in the writings of Ar-Razi, there are, in particular, goblets, flasks, basins, glass saucers for crystallization, jugs, pots, burners, oil lamps, braziers and furnaces (athanor), furnaces for melting, files, spatulas, ladles, scissors, hammers, tongs, sand and water baths, fabric and wool filters, alembics (alembics), funnels, mortars with pestles, metal, hair and silk sieves and other devices and accessories.
Conclusion.
Alchemy is, without a doubt, a pseudoscience, but the contribution to science that its followers made is the foundation of modern chemistry.
As a result, I would like to say that the average member of our society has a completely false idea of \u200b\u200balchemy, imagining alchemists in completely absurd images, when they are people like us, striving, in essence, for earthly values.
Sources.
Malyshkina, V. Entertaining chemistry / V. Malyshkina.
Educational portal [Electronic resource]. - 2015. - Access mode: http://ibrain.kz/
Kritzman, W.A. Robert Boyle, John Dalton, Amedeo Avogadro / Kritzman V.A.
Handbook of a chemist 21 [Electronic resource]. - 2015. - Access mode: http://chem21.info/, free. - Main page.
Rudzitis, G. E. Chemistry. Grade 8 / Rudzitis G.E., F.G. Feldman. - M.: Education, 2011.
Rudzitis, G. E. Chemistry. Grade 9 / Rudzitis G.E., F.G. Feldman. - M.: Education, 2011.
Rudzitis, G. E. Chemistry. Grade 10 / Rudzitis G.E., F.G. Feldman. - M.: Education, 2011.
Rudzitis, G.E. Chemistry. Grade 11 / Rudzitis G.E., F.G. Feldman. - M.: Education, 2011.
However, calling alchemy a pseudoscience would be unfair. It was never a science, but called itself an art.
“Alchemy can be considered the art of increasing and bringing to a perfect state already existing processes. Nature may carry out the ends she desires, or, because of the destructive action of one element upon another, she may not. But with the help of true art, Nature always achieves its goals, because this art is not subject to either waste of time in vain, or vandalism of spontaneous reactions. alchemy philosopher's stone healing
DI. Mendeleev rightly noted that alchemists “…science owes the first accurate collection of alchemical data. Superficial acquaintance with alchemists often entails an unfavorable opinion about them, in fact, very unfounded ... Only thanks to the stock of information collected by alchemists, it was possible to begin a real scientific study of chemical phenomena.
How did those who were involved in it define alchemy? Roger Bacon (XIII century) speaks of his own business as follows: “Alchemy is the science of how to prepare a certain compound, or elixir, which, if added to base metals, will turn them into perfect metals ... Alchemy is an immutable science, working on bodies by theory and experience, and striving by natural combinations to transform the lower of them into higher and more precious modifications.
Paracelsus (k. XV-mid-XVI centuries) singled out the following aspects of alchemy: “The highest aspect of alchemy is the transformation of vices into virtues by the fire of love for goodness; purification of the soul by suffering; the exaltation of the Divine principle in man over his animal elements ... The second aspect of alchemy is the doctrine of the nature of the invisible elements that make up the astral bodies of things ... The lower aspect of alchemy is the preparation, purification and combination of physical substances.
How did contemporaries, who were not its attendants themselves, treat alchemy? Abu Ali ibn Sina-Avicenna (X-XI centuries), who was quite well versed in natural history, said: “Alchemists claim that they can carry out genuine transformations of substances. However, they can only make the most excellent imitations, coloring red metal white - then it becomes like silver, or coloring it yellow - then it becomes like gold ... With such changes in the appearance of metals, it is possible to achieve such a degree of similarity, that experienced people can be deceived. But the possibility of destroying the special differences of individual metals, or of imparting to one metal the special properties of another, has always been unclear to me. I consider this impossible, for there is no way to transform one metal into another."
Charles V of France (1380) strictly forbids alchemical activities. Henry IV of England does the same at the beginning of the 15th century. Meanwhile, the court alchemist is obligatory at the court of crowned persons or sovereign princes. True, the fate of alchemists at court rarely developed successfully. Albert the Great: “You have to be very careful, especially when you work in front of your masters. Two troubles await you. If you are entrusted with a gold-digging business, they will not stop tormenting you with questions: “Well, master! How are you doing? When will we finally get a decent result? And, without waiting for the end of the work, they will in every possible way mock you. As a result, great disappointment will befall you, and great troubles will overtake you. If, on the contrary, you succeed, they will try to keep you in captivity, where you will work for their benefit, not being able to leave.
Was the chemical absolute reached by means of magic? Yes, precisely by magical means - incantatory, ritually. Yes, and the recipe sometimes mixes the material with the intangible: "... take, my son, two ounces of mercury and three ounces of anger."
No one can successfully conduct an experiment if he himself is not a magician, only a magician can do this. The human body itself was an alchemical laboratory, and no one could be recognized as an adept until he could perform the highest experiment of transforming "the base metals of ignorance into the pure gold of wisdom and understanding."
Dr. Franz Hartmann, in his comments on the writings of the alchemist and healer Paracelsus (XVI century), wrote: “A person who wants to become an alchemist must have “magnesia” in himself, which attracts and “condenses” invisible astral elements.”
Alchemy is fundamentally spiritualistic. “Alchemists, according to the custom of primitive peoples, added to their art magical formulas that were supposed to act on the will of the gods (or demons), higher beings who constantly intervene in the course of things ... Mystical minds tend to consider science, especially the science of nature, as something sacrilegious, because it brings man into competition with the gods. The concept of science really destroys the concept of an ancient god acting on the world with the help of miracles and will.
On the whole, an alchemical act is an act of creation that explodes a tradition, although outwardly it is similar to this tradition.
The idea of alchemy as "primitive chemistry", which had developed in science by the end of the 19th century, was completely revised in the 20th century. However, it is believed that it was alchemy that gave impetus to the development of modern chemistry. In studies of various alchemical traditions, the alchemical systems of transformation of a human being are often referred to as "internal alchemy", and the practices of obtaining various substances as "external alchemy" (terms derived from Chinese alchemy).
In fact, none of the "outer alchemies" is a complete independent system. They are all just a mixture of misunderstood and degraded techniques from their respective "inner alchemies" supplemented with some practical chemical and pharmacological knowledge.
The latter in the course of history served as the basis for the first purely chemical descriptions. The notion of the independent existence of independent “external alchemy” schools, and even more so of the origin of “internal alchemy” from “external” does not stand up to criticism for any of the traditions. The "external" alchemy is always either a part of the corresponding "internal" or a vulgarization and misinterpretation of the latter.
Alchemy, especially Western, is organically woven into the system of natural science knowledge and ideas of the Middle Ages. At the same time, one should critically treat the numerous manuscripts of charlatan alchemists, as well as the scholastic way of thinking characteristic of the Middle Ages, the dominion of magic and mysticism in science, which was reflected both in the language of alchemy and in its final results. However, the impossibility of "transmutation" of metals was found out by experiment, in the course of futile searches, only in the 16th century, by the time of the emergence of iatrochemistry, which, together with applied (technical) chemistry, by the end of the 18th - beginning of the 19th centuries. led to the development of chemistry as a science. The artificial production of gold or silver was simply a practical task for the science of that time. The original theoretical premise of alchemy - the idea of a single nature of matter and its universal convertibility - can hardly be called false.
In alchemy, various manifestations of the creative activity of medieval man were inseparably connected. In this regard, the allegorical nature of many alchemical treatises can be explained by the fact that natural science and artistic ideas about the world organically merged in them (such are the alchemical verses of the classic of English literature of the 14th century, J. Chaucer, etc.). In addition, the activity of an alchemist is also philosophical and theological creativity, and one in which both its pagan and Christian origins were manifested. That is why it turned out that where alchemy is Christianized (white magic), this kind of activity is legalized by Christian ideology. Where alchemy appears in its pre-Christian quality (black magic), it is recognized as unofficial, and therefore forbidden. This largely explains the tragic fate of some European alchemists (for example, Roger Bacon, alchemist Alexander Seton Cosmopolitan, etc.). Thus, in European alchemy, a theoretician-experimenter and a practical craftsman, a poet and an artist, a scholastic and a mystic, a theologian and a philosopher, a magician-sorcerer and an orthodox Christian could be combined. This view of alchemy allows us to understand it as a phenomenon that has concentrated many features of the way of life of the dark and middle ages.
From the alchemical texts that have come down to us, it can be seen that alchemists discovered or improved methods for obtaining valuable compounds and mixtures, such as mineral and vegetable paints, glasses, enamels, salts, acids, alkalis, alloys, and medicines. They used such methods of laboratory work as distillation, sublimation, filtration. Alchemists invented furnaces for long-term heating, stills.
The achievements of the alchemists of the People's Republic of China and India remained unknown in Europe. In the Russian Federation, alchemy was not widespread until the reforms of Peter the Great, but almost all Russian alchemists (the most famous of them, J. Bruce) are of foreign origin.
Despite the dubious tricks of many deceivers, there is supposedly enough evidence that real gold can be obtained from substances that do not contain gold by means of the art of alchemy. For such a transmutation (transformation) of base metals into gold, the notorious philosopher's stone, also called the great elixir or red tincture, was used. True miracles were told about the philosopher's stone: it was supposed to bring its owner not only sparkling gold and unlimited wealth, but also reveal the secret of eternal youth and long life. This wonderful liquid is allegedly a panacea for diseases and senile ailments, an elixir of life. In addition, with the help of the art of alchemy, it was also possible to obtain pure silver from substances that do not contain silver. For this, a "stone of the second order" was used, which is also a small elixir, or white tincture.
