The Roman civilization left behind a huge contribution to history, despite the fact that in most cases it was in the shadow of its neighbors from Greece. The Romans borrowed many sciences, and counting using Roman numerals was generally unpleasant. However, there are at least 10 technologies created in Rome that are still in use today.
In ancient times, it was believed that in order to learn the basics of geometry or philosophy, it is preferable to turn to the Greek. If it is necessary to build a bridge, a sewer or a powerful weapon, then it is better to turn to a Roman. Indeed, unsurpassed technological achievements distinguish this civilization from other representatives of its time. The result of Roman inventions was the fact that many technologies are used to this day throughout the planet. We will talk about ten of the most famous.
10. Dome
What is now taken for granted: arches, atriums, glass walls and ceilings, was unthinkable in the ancient world: before the Romans managed to create the technology to improve buildings, the best architects of that time suffered for a long time with stone roofs. All architectural works created before the heyday of Roman civilization, such as the pyramids, look much more impressive from the outside than they were inside - they were dark rooms with limited space. It was the Romans who were the first in history to create vast open interior spaces thanks to the realization that the arch could be rotated in three dimensions. And to create a powerful reliable force to hold such structures, it was necessary to have a special substance, which became concrete - the achievement of the Romans. In this rating, we will return to this achievement of civilization
9. Armament
Like most of the technology of the time, siege weapons were first created by the Greeks but were perfected by the Romans. Thanks to the captured samples of Greek weapons, the world saw ballistas - gigantic crossbows, light and accurate. The use of ballistas was widely directed both against infantry, while on their basis "siege engines" were created - powerful and maneuverable mini-catapults, which, although they were not as aimed as ballistas, inflicted huge damage, which made it possible to successfully use them for siege
8. Concrete
Liquid stone, aka concrete, is one of the greatest achievements of the Romans. Nowadays, concrete is widely used in construction of various sizes. Antique concrete consisted of a mixture of volcanic ash, pozzolan, crushed stone, lime and sand. Concrete allowed for pouring of any shape, and was unusually strong. Initially, Roman architects used it to cast the bases of altars, but in later times various experiments were carried out with this material, which resulted in the appearance of such wonders as the Pantheon - the world's largest unreinforced concrete structure and is still 2000 years old.
7. Roads
Talking about the achievements of Roman civilization, one cannot keep silent about such an invention as roads, which were created so well that many of them are still suitable for use. Of course, it would be incorrect to compare Roman roads with modern asphalt highways, but they were really durable, and were created for centuries in several stages. At the beginning, a huge pit was dug about a meter deep, then wide stone blocks were installed at the bottom of the trench, after which the remaining space was filled with a thick layer of gravel. The uppermost layer was laid with special plates with bulges, on which water could flow. As you know, the engineers of the empire insisted on the creation of exclusively straight roads, which required huge resources to clear the area through which these roads passed. However, by 200 BC, the Roman Empire had 85,000 kilometers of roads to its credit.
6. Sewerage
The monumental collectors of the Romans became one of the most iconic creations, despite the fact that they were originally built for a completely different purpose. Initially, the "Cloaca Maxima" ("The largest sewer" in the literal translation), was created to drain part of the water from local swamps. Beginning in 600 BC and over the following hundreds of years, many waterways were added. At the moment, it is difficult to determine exactly at what point the cesspool became a full-fledged sewer, however, as cities grew, sewers began to penetrate deeper and deeper into them, eventually completely covering them. The main achievement of the sewer was the fact of inconspicuousness and ridding society of most infectious diseases, and Pliny the Elder stated that the Roman sewer is a much more complex architectural structure than the Egyptian pyramids
5. Heated floor
Creating an optimal temperature is the most difficult engineering task that requires a powerful scientific potential even in our time, let alone ancient times. However, the Romans coped with this task. They first applied the idea that is still used in the construction of underfloor heating - it was a structure of clay hollow columns that were built under the base of the floor, and solved several problems at once: the problem of fire and the problem of smoke. Fire at that time was the main source of heat, but the buildings had the properties of burning, and the smoke released during this carried a huge danger of suffocation. In the Roman heating system, the floor was raised, which allowed the hot air from the furnace never to come into contact with the room: it passed through the hollow tiles, and as it left the building was absorbed by the clay tiles, which made it possible to achieve the desired effect.
4. Aqueduct
Like roads, aqueducts of phenomenal length became a hallmark and a real engineering marvel in the life of the Romans. One of the limitations to the growth of ancient cities was the impossibility of getting drinking water from any point in it, and this problem was solved. After all, although Rome was located on the Tiber River, it was excessively polluted by another invention of architecture: sewage. The Roman aqueducts were a complex system that stretched over 400 kilometers and supplied clean drinking water to the city.
3. Hydropower
The Romans were able to combine Greek technology and their own engineering skills, which made it possible to create the world's first water-powered mills, turbines and sawmills. Also, the Romans created the world's first inverted wheel, which later became widespread throughout the world. It is noteworthy that despite the abundance of engineering ideas, affordable and cheap manual labor continued to be used in most of the empire.
2. Arch of segments
Although such an invention as an arch does not belong to the hands of the Romans, they found the possibility of improving it. Roman engineers managed to comprehend that in order to give strength to the structure, the arch should not consist of one segment, when it can be broken into many small parts. This allowed the creation of much more powerful and reliable bridges.
1. Pontoon bridges
A huge number of Roman roads implied the possibility of rapid movement of armies, and the pontoon bridge created in 55 BC by Julius Caesar, more than 400 meters long, allowed the Romans to cross the Rhine with lightning speed, in which the ancient tribes of the Germans saw reliable protection from invasion. The bridge over the Rhine turned out to be an extremely clever creation, because building a bridge across the river without disturbing the flow is a very difficult task, especially in a military situation. Engineers worked quickly and efficiently: the piles were assembled together within ten days, after which the bridge was assembled
The Western Roman Empire fell over 1,500 years ago, but its rich legacy of technology and innovation can still be seen today. The Romans were amazing builders and engineers, and their flourishing civilization produced advances in technology, culture, and architecture that endured through the ages. From our list, you will learn more about the innovations created in ancient Rome.
aqueducts
The Romans used many amenities that seem common to us, but were not common at the time. Among them are fountains, public baths, underground sewers and toilets. But these water innovations would not have been possible without the aqueduct. First developed around 312 BC. BC, this engineering marvel provided water for pipelines in urban centers. Aqueducts made Roman cities independent of a water supply and proved invaluable for public health and sanitation. Although the Romans did not invent plumbing - the primitive canals for irrigation and transportation of water that existed earlier in Egypt, Assyria and Babylon - they improved this process using their skill in construction. Eventually, hundreds of aqueducts sprang up throughout the empire, some of which carried water over 100 kilometers. But most of all, the quality of the structure of the aqueducts is impressive, because some of them are still used today. The famous Trevi Fountain, for example, is fed by a restored version of the Virgin's aqueduct, one of 11 in ancient Rome.
Concrete
Many ancient Roman structures, such as the Pantheon, the Colosseum and the Roman Forum, have survived to this day due to the fact that cement and concrete were used for their construction. The Romans first began to use concrete in the construction of aqueducts, buildings, bridges and monuments over 2100 years ago throughout the Mediterranean basin. Roman concrete is not as strong as its modern counterpart, but it has proven to be surprisingly resilient due to its unique formulation. The Romans used slaked lime and volcanic ash, which together created a kind of sticky paste. Combined with volcanic rock, this ancient cement formed concrete that endured chemical decay. Concrete retained its properties even when immersed in sea water, which made it possible to use it for the construction of complex baths, piers and harbors.
Newspapers
The Romans were known for their public discussions. They used the official texts to decide civil, legal and military matters. Known as "daily acts," these early newspapers were written in metal or stone and then distributed in places like the Roman Forum. It is believed that the "acts" first appeared in 131 BC. e. They typically contained details of Roman military victories, lists of games and gladiator fights, birth and death notices, and even interesting stories. There were also "senatorial acts" that detailed the work of the Roman Senate. Traditionally, they were closed to public access, until in 59 BC. e. Julius Caesar did not order their publication as part of the many reforms he introduced during his first consulship.
Security
Ancient Rome was the source of ideas for modern government programs, including measures aimed at subsidizing food, education, etc. These programs date back to 122 BC. e., when the ruler Gaius Gracchus instructed to supply the citizens of Rome with grain at lower prices. This early form of provision continued under Mark Trajan, who ran a program for poor children to be fed, clothed and educated. A list of goods was also compiled, the prices of which were controlled. It included corn, butter, wine, bread and pork. They could be bought with special tokens called mosaics. Such actions helped the Roman government win the favor of the people, but some historians believe that this was one of the reasons for the economic fall of Rome.
Related pages
For most of our history, literature took the form of bulky clay tablets and scrolls. The Romans simplified them, and began to use a stack of linked pages. This invention is considered an early version of the book. The first books were made from bound wax tablets, but these were soon replaced with parchment, which looked more like modern pages. Ancient historians note that the first version of such a book was created by Julius Caesar: putting together the papyrus, he received a primitive notebook. However, bound books were not popular in Rome until the first century. The early Christians were among the first to adopt the new technology and use it to make copies of the Bible.
Roads and highways
At its peak, the Roman Empire covered an area of 4.4 million square kilometers and included most of southern Europe. To ensure the efficient administration of such a vast area, the Romans built the most complex road system in the ancient world. These roads were built from mud, gravel, and bricks made from granite or hardened volcanic lava. When designing roads, strict standards were followed and special ditches were created that ensured the flow of water. The Romans built over 80,000 kilometers of roads before 200 AD. e., and first of all they had to serve for military conquests. These roads allowed the Roman legions to move at speeds of 40 kilometers a day, and the complex network of post houses meant that messages traveled at astounding speeds. Often these roads were managed in the same way as modern highways. Signs on stones told travelers the distance to their destination, and special detachments of soldiers acted as traffic police.
Roman arches
Arches have existed for 4,000 years, but the ancient Romans were the first to use their knowledge effectively to build bridges, monuments, and buildings. The original design of the arch made it possible to evenly distribute the weight of the building over various supports, preventing the destruction of massive structures under its own weight. Engineers improved them by smoothing the shape to create a segmental arch and repeating it at different intervals. This allowed the construction of stronger supports that could span large gaps, which are used in bridges and aqueducts.
Julian calendar
The modern Gregorian calendar is very similar to its Roman version, which appeared more than 2 thousand years ago. The early Roman calendars were most likely derived from Greek models, which were based on the lunar cycle. But since even numbers were unlucky for the Romans, they changed their calendar so that each month had an odd number of days. This continued until 46 BC. when Julius Caesar and the astronomer Sosigenes decided to align the calendar with the solar year. Caesar lengthened the number of days in a year from 355 to 365, resulting in 12 months. The Julian calendar was near perfect, but it didn't calculate the solar year by 11 minutes. Those few minutes eventually set back the calendar by a few days. This led to the adoption of the nearly identical Gregorian calendar in 1582, which added a leap year to correct these discrepancies.
Legal system
Many modern legal terms come from the Roman legal system that dominated for centuries. It was based on the Twelve Tables, which formed an essential part of the Constitution during the Republican era. First adopted around 450 BC. e., Twelve tables contained detailed laws that dealt with property, religion, as well as punishments for many offenses. Another document is the Corpus Juris Civilis, an ambitious attempt to collect the history of Roman law into one document. Founded by the emperor Justinian between 529 and 535, the Corpus Juris Civilis included modern legal notions, such as that an accused is presumed innocent until proven guilty.
Field Surgery
In Rome, many instruments for surgical operations were invented. The Romans were the first to use caesarean sections, but field medicine became the most valuable. Under the leadership of Augustus, a military medical corps was established, which became one of the first specialized units of field surgery. Specially trained physicians have saved countless lives through the use of Roman medical innovations such as hemostatic bandages and arterial surgical clamps. Roman field doctors also examined recruits and helped stop common diseases by controlling the level of sanitation in military camps. They were also known for disinfecting instruments in hot water before they were used, and for pioneering a form of antiseptic surgery that only began to be widely used in the 19th century. Roman military medicine was so successful in healing wounds and general health that soldiers tended to live longer than the average citizen, despite the dangers they constantly faced on the battlefield.
Some of the things the ancient Romans invented were very good and continue to work to this day. However, in terms of abstract literature, they have always been in the shadow of their Greek neighbors. Their poetry never reached the same heights, their Stoic and Epicurean philosophies were borrowed, and anyone who has ever used Roman numerals knows how difficult they are even to apply in simple arithmetic.
If you want to be explained the geometry, then the best thing would be to turn to the Greek, but if you need to build a floating bridge, a sewer network, or build a weapon that shoots flaming balls of gravel and resin at a distance of up to 274 meters, then you should take the help of a Roman. The brilliant architectural, organizational and technical exploits of the Romans distinguish them, as well as the Greeks, among the ancient peoples. Although their knowledge of mathematics was rudimentary, they modeled, experimented, and built as solidly as was possible at the time.
As a result, we can see their works to this day: they stretch from Limyra Bridge in Turkey to Hadrian's Wall in Scotland. Below are the most significant achievements of the ancient Romans.
10. Dome
We take the inner space of the modern world for granted, however, we should not do this. Our huge vaulted arches, large atriums, glass walls, ceilings, and more were all unthinkable in the ancient world.
Before the Romans perfected the domes of buildings, even the best architects of those times had to struggle for a long time with the creation of stone roofs. Even the greatest architectural achievements before Roman architecture, such as the Parthenon and the pyramids, looked more impressive on the outside than on the inside. Inside, they were dark, and represented a limited space.
Roman domes, by contrast, were spacious, open, and created a real sense of interior space. For the first time in history. Based on the understanding that the principles of the arch could be rotated in three dimensions to create a shape that had the same strong supporting force but "acted" over a larger area, dome technology was made available largely through concrete, another achievement of the ancient Romans, which we will talk about later.
9. Weapon
Like many technologies, Roman siege weapons were originally developed by the Greeks and later improved by the Romans. The ballista, essentially a giant crossbow that could shoot large stones during a siege, was constructed from Greek weapons that fell into the hands of the Romans.
Using the tendons of animals, the ballistas worked like springs in giant mousetraps, so they could throw projectiles up to 457 meters away. Since the weapon was light and accurate, it was equipped with spears and arrows, thus it was used as an anti-personnel weapon. Ballistas were also used to besiege small buildings.
The Romans invented their own "siege engines", called wild donkeys because of the powerful blow that the wild donkey delivers. Although they also used animal tendons in their work, the "wild donkeys" were much more powerful mini-catapults that shot fireballs and whole buckets of large stones. At the same time, they were less accurate than ballistas, but more powerful, which made them ideal weapons for undermining walls and setting fires during sieges.
8. Concrete
In terms of construction innovation, liquid stone, which is lighter and stronger than ordinary stone, is the greatest creation of the Romans. Today, concrete is an integral part of our daily lives, so it's easy to forget how revolutionary its invention once was.
Roman concrete was a mixture of crushed stone, lime, sand, pozzolana and volcanic ash. It could be poured into any form to build a structure, it was also very strong. Although it was originally used by Roman architects to build strong bases for altars, from the 2nd century B.C. the Romans began to experiment with concrete in order to construct self-contained forms. Their most famous concrete structure, the Pantheon, is still the largest unreinforced concrete structure in the world, standing for over two thousand years.
As mentioned earlier, this was a significant improvement on the old Etruscan and Greek rectangular architectural styles, which required columns and heavy walls to be placed around the entire perimeter of any building. Moreover, concrete, as a building material, was cheap and fireproof. It was also quite flexible, as it was able to survive the numerous earthquakes that hit the volcanic Italian peninsula every now and then.
7. Roads
It is impossible to talk about the achievements of Roman engineering without talking about the roads, which were so well built that many of them are still quite usable even today. Comparing our today's asphalt highways to ancient Roman roads is like comparing a cheap watch to a Swiss one. They were strong, durable and built to last for centuries.
The best Roman roads were built in several stages. To begin with, the workers dug a pit, about a meter deep in the area where it was planned to build a road. Further, wide and heavy stone blocks were installed at the bottom of the trench, the remaining space was covered with a layer of dirt and gravel. Finally, the top layer was paved with slabs with bulges in the center so that water could drain. In general, Roman roads were extremely resistant to the effects of time.
In typical Roman fashion, the engineers of the empire insisted on the creation and use of straight roads, that is, on their construction through any obstacles, and not bypassing them. If there was a forest on the way, they cut it down; if there was a mountain, they built a tunnel through it; if there was a swamp, they dried it out. The downside of this type of road building was of course the sheer amount of manpower needed for the job, but labor (in the form of thousands of slaves) was something the ancient Romans owned in abundance. By 200 B.C. The Roman Empire had about 85,295 kilometers of highways.
6. Sewerage
The huge sewers of the Roman Empire are one of the strangest creations of the Romans, since they were not originally built to serve as sewer systems at all. The cloaca Maxima (or the Great Sewer, if translated literally) was originally built in order to drain some of the waters of the local swamps. The construction of the "cesspool" began in 600 BC. and more and more waterways were added in the following hundreds of years. Since channels continued to be dug regularly, it is difficult to say exactly when Maxim's cesspool ceased to be a drainage ditch and became a proper sewer. Initially a very primitive system, the Cloaca Maxima spread like a weed, stretching its roots deeper and deeper into the city as it grew.
Unfortunately, the Cloaca Maxima had access directly to the Tiber, so the river quickly filled with human waste. However, the Romans did not have to use the water of the Tiber for drinking or washing. It is worth noting that they even had a special goddess who monitored the work of this system - Cloacina.
Perhaps the most important achievement of the Roman sewer system was the fact that it was hidden from human eyes, did not allow any diseases, infections, odors and unpleasant sights to spread. Any civilization can dig a ditch in order to cope with natural needs, however, to build and maintain such a grandiose sewer system, it was necessary to have serious engineering minds. The system was so complex in design that Pliny the Elder declared it to be a more grandiose human structure than the structure of the pyramids.
5. Heated floors
Efficient temperature control is one of the most difficult engineering challenges humans face, but the Romans managed to solve it, or at least almost solved it.
Using an idea that is still used today in underfloor heating technology, the hypocaust was a set of hollow clay columns under the floor through which hot air and steam were pumped from a separate furnace to other rooms.
Unlike other, less advanced heating methods, the hypocaust neatly solved two problems that had always been associated with heating systems in the ancient world - smoke and fire. Fire was the only source of heat, however, buildings caught fire from time to time, and the resulting smoke in an enclosed space often played a fatal role.
However, since the floor was raised in the hypocaust system, the hot air from the stove never made contact with the room itself.
Instead of "being" in the room, the heated air passed through the hollow tiles in the walls. At the outlet of the building, the clay tiles absorbed the warm air, resulting in a warm room.
4. Aqueduct
Along with roads, aqueducts were another marvel of Roman engineering. The point of aqueducts is that they are very long, very long actually.
One of the difficulties of supplying water to a large city is that when the city grows to a certain size, you cannot access clean water from anywhere in it. And although Rome is located on the Tiber, this river was very polluted by another Roman engineering achievement, sewers.
To solve this problem, Roman engineers built aqueducts, a network of underground pipes, overhead lines of water, and bridges designed to carry water to and from the city.
Just like roads, Roman aqueducts were a very complex system. Although the first aqueduct, built around 300 BC, was only 11 kilometers long, by the end of the third century AD. There were 11 aqueducts in Rome, with a total length of 250 miles.
3. Hydropower
Vitruvius, the godfather of Roman engineering, describes several of the techniques the Romans used to use water. By incorporating Greek technology such as crenellated doors and the water wheel, the Romans were able to develop their advanced sawmills, mills and turbines.
The flip wheel, another Roman invention, turned under the influence of flowing rather than falling water, making it possible to create floating water wheels used to grind grain. This came in very handy during the siege of Rome in 537 AD. when General Belisarius solved the problem of the siege by cutting off food supplies by building several floating mills on the Tiber, thus providing people with bread.
Strangely, archaeological evidence suggests that the Romans had all the necessary knowledge to create various kinds of water devices, but they used them extremely rarely, preferring instead cheap and widely available slave labor. However, their watermill was one of the largest industrial complexes in the ancient world before the industrial revolution. The mill consisted of 16 water wheels that ground flour for neighboring communities.
2. Segment arch
As with almost all of the above engineering feats, the Romans did not take part in the invention of the arch, however, they are sure they perfected it. Arches and arched bridges had been around for nearly two thousand years when the Romans took over. Roman engineers realized that arches did not have to be continuous, that is, they did not have to cover a given gap "in one go". Instead of traversing space in one jump, they can be broken down into several, smaller pieces. Thus, segmental arches appeared.
The new arch shape had two distinct advantages. First, the potential space of a span bridge could be increased exponentially. Second, because they required less material to make, segmental arch bridges were more pliable when water passed underneath them. Instead of forcing water to flow through one small hole, the water under the segmented bridges flowed freely, thus reducing the risk of flooding and the rate of wear on the piers.
1. Pontoon bridges
Roman engineering technology is often referred to as synonymous with military technology. The world-famous roads were not built for the daily use of the common people, they were built to ensure that the legions quickly reached their destination and also quickly left from there. The Roman-designed pontoon bridges, built mostly during the wartime period, served the same purpose and were the brainchild of Julius Caesar. In 55 BC. he built a pontoon bridge, about 400 meters long, to cross the river Rhine, which traditionally the German tribes considered their defense against the Roman invasion.
Caesar's bridge across the Rhine was an extremely clever structure. The construction of a bridge across the river, while not disturbing the flow of the river itself, is a very difficult undertaking, especially in a military situation, where the construction site must be guarded around the clock, and engineers must work very quickly and efficiently. The engineers set the supports at the bottom of the river at an angle against the current, thereby giving the bridge additional strength. Protective piles were also installed, which eliminated a potential threat that could float on the river. As a result, all the piles were assembled together, and a wooden bridge was built on their tops. In total, the construction took only ten days, using only lumber. Thus, information about the all-encompassing power of Rome quickly spread among the local tribes: if Caesar wanted to cross the Rhine, he did it.
Perhaps the same apocryphal story accompanies the pontoon bridge of Caligula, built across the sea between Baiae and Puzzuoli, about 4 km long. Presumably, Caligula built this bridge after he heard from a soothsayer that he had about the same chance of becoming emperor as the opportunity to cross the bay of Baia on horseback. Caligula took this as a challenge, and built this very bridge.
Recently, progress has been going so rapidly that the thought involuntarily creeps in that human civilization has reached its maximum development only recently. At the same time, numerous paleontological and archaeological finds indicate that a person with a high level of development existed on the planet several tens of thousands of years ago. And there is no reason to say that ancient man was in some way more stupid than modern man, no.
At present, the stereotype is widespread about the ancient man as a half-naked, shaggy savage armed with a club. But in reality, already 15 thousand years ago, our ancestors knew how not only to make, but also to use high-quality specialized tools - from bone needles to arrows and spearheads. They really lived in caves, but not in gloomy and dark ones, but decorated with paintings and carvings. Their leather clothing was practical, comfortable and not without beauty. In ancient times, people were able to build houses of brick, of the correct form, with a clear layout of yards, streets and squares. They processed metal, wood, clay and precious stones, raised cattle, and cultivated the land. And all this is about 7 thousand years BC.
Alexandria can be considered the peak of the development of ancient civilization. It was a large city (even by modern standards) with almost half a million inhabitants. Here you could see temples with automatic doors, multi-deck ships, theaters with moving figures and mechanical scenery.
Many discoveries were made in ancient Egypt. From the documents discovered during the excavations, it is known for certain that the Egyptians own many discoveries that are successfully used by modern man. For their historical period, the Egyptians had a fairly well developed culture.
Modern man mostly associates Ancient Egypt with pyramids and mummies, but in fact the Egyptians invented more than just mummification. So, in particular, the world owes the invention of papyrus to the Egyptians. In 3000 B.C. they developed a technology for making paper from the papyrus plant that grew on the banks of the Nile. To make paper, the core of the plant was cut out and cut into long strips. Then they were placed diagonally above each other and placed under the press for several days. The quality of the papyrus was excellent, as evidenced by the letters that have survived to this day. It should be noted that the Egyptians kept the technology of making papyrus secret, since it was one of the main export goods. This is what allowed the ancient inhabitants of Egypt to maintain a monopoly in the market.
After the invention of papyrus, the Egyptians thought about how to write on it. The papyrus sheet was tough and hard. Therefore, the writing instrument must also be durable. This is how the first prototypes of fountain pens appeared. They were discovered during some excavations. Obviously, they were widely used.
In addition, the Egyptians made reed pens that could also be used to write on papyrus.
The amazing inventions of the ancient Egyptians include black ink. For their manufacture, soot was mixed with beeswax and vegetable oils. To obtain inks of other colors, organic dyes were used, for example, ocher. All mixtures were quite powerful and effective. Therefore, Egyptian manuscripts have survived to our time in a complete or partially readable state.
The Egyptians are the inventors and hieroglyphs. The first records were made in the form of pictures. This system was called a pictogram. Over time, new symbols and images were added to convey sounds and words, and even later, hieroglyphs appeared to denote abstract ideas and names. With the help of hieroglyphs, they wrote about politics, war and culture.
The Egyptians invented water and sundials to tell time. The sundial was an obelisk that cast shadows that determined morning, afternoon and evening. The water clock was a stone container with sloping walls and a small hole in the bottom. Water dripped through this hole at a constant rate. The container was divided into 12 columns, and a change in the water level along these marks meant the passage of each hour.
It is impossible not to mention the pyramids, which have become symbols of the tombs of the pharaohs. The first was the pyramid of Djoser, which was built in 2750 BC. Prior to this, the pharaohs were buried in rectangular brick graves. The pyramids had a spiritual meaning, each side representing God as a guardian, creator and transformer.
Such an adornment as fashionable in our time as a wig also comes from Ancient Egypt. The most ancient wigs were found in ancient Egyptian artifacts. In Egyptian culture, baldness was not considered aesthetic, so both women and men used wigs. In addition to the desire to cover a bald spot, wigs were also used to protect from the sun. Wigs were made in accordance with all the fashion trends of the time, as well as in accordance with the desires and style of the wearer. For wigs, human hair, sheep wool and vegetable fibers were used and covered with beeswax.
Approximately 4 thousand years BC. The Egyptians used mascara. They made it from soot with the addition of the mineral galena. In some ancient Egyptian paintings, you can see people with green eye makeup. Ink of this shade was made from minerals, for example, by mixing galena and malachite. Makeup was used by both men and women. Moreover, the amount of cosmetics used depended on the social class. And it was also believed that makeup protects a person from enemies and the evil eye.
Another interesting invention of the ancient Egyptians, which appeared about 3.5 thousand years ago, is high heels. Shoes with high heels were worn by representatives of the upper class, both women and men. Representatives of the lower classes could not afford such shoes, so they were equated with works of art. Butchers and executioners were forced to wear heels, so that it would be convenient to walk on blood during work.
In addition, the ancient Egyptians invented the plow, the first condoms, bowling, door locks, and toothpaste. In general, the Egyptians can be called the ancestors of technology, because they were very resourceful. The ancient Romans, who left behind bridges, roads, architectural monuments, laws and customs, did not lag behind them.
In ancient Rome, water was highly valued. Aqueducts carried water through numerous fountains. In those days, it should be noted that the fountains were not decoration, but served as sources from which people took water. In ancient fountains, the water flowed down, and did not spurt up. By the way, in ancient Rome there were practically no stomach diseases, because the water was triple purified - through sand, coal and herbal filters.
The Romans were the first to build roads and bridges. Not a single civilization could do without roads, but it was the ancient Romans who began to build paved roads from stone. The first such road was built in 312-308 BC. between Rome and Capua. It is still being used today. Moreover, in some places, areas with original coatings and traces of chariots are still preserved. Mile pillars helped travelers and warriors to navigate along the way.
The ancient Romans were the first to take traffic control seriously. So, Julius Caesar introduced strict rules of conduct on the road. At the same time, one-way streets were introduced to avoid collisions. Private wagons, carriages and chariots were not allowed to move during the day. Nonresident owners of vehicles did not have the right to enter the city, they left their vehicles outside the city walls.
In ancient Rome, paid public transport existed. When the wagon traveled 5,000 steps, one pebble was thrown from one box to another. At the end of the trip, the number of pebbles was counted, after which a monetary settlement was made.
Among the inventions of the Romans were illuminated tunnels, which were cut through the mountains to shorten the path. Some of them were quite long - up to 1.5 km. From the treasury people were paid who filled the lamps with oil and made sure that the lights were constantly on in the tunnels.
In ancient Rome, the first mass media also appeared, the prototype of which can be considered handwritten news reports. They appeared around 168 BC. It was a wooden board on which they wrote about the main events with chalk, after which they left it in the busiest squares.
Gradually, this newspaper became an official organ that reported on the decisions of the authorities and the people's assemblies. Copies were distributed outside the city. Moreover, copies of newspapers were not destroyed, but were archived.
The ancient Romans were also the founders of a legal system that survived the collapse of this ancient civilization. It carefully and comprehensively developed the ideals of justice and fairness. By the way, some modern legislations are based on this system, in particular, French and American ones.
In addition, the Romans had a love for the holidays in their blood. The ancient Romans devoted themselves to this occupation selflessly. Most of the holidays had a religious or social significance, although games and entertainments were also arranged in honor of the emperor or great victories. For example, during the reign of Augustus, there were 115 days off and holidays in a year. Later this number was increased to 200 celebrations per year.
All of the above examples only to a small extent reveal the enormous influence that the Egyptians and Romans had on subsequent historical eras. The discoveries made by these civilizations find application in the modern world. Thus, discoveries in the field of architecture are applied in modern architecture, the principles of public administration have become the ideal state structure in European society, and there is no need to talk about cosmetics, high heels and wigs.
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The Romans created a world empire that lasted for several centuries and left to posterity the imperial idea, the idea of a special mission for Rome, which passed through many subsequent civilizations. The Greeks laid the foundations of law, the Romans created a system of law that is still the core of the legal systems of many countries. The Greeks gave the world the ideal of a harmoniously developed personality, the Romans gave the ideal of a citizen and a system of civic values: virtus, ius, libertas (courage, justice, freedom). The Greeks created the majestic world of the gods. The Romans, not abandoning their gods (Vesta, Janus), being tolerant of the gods of Egypt and other countries, accepted the Greek gods without worship, but with reverence for them, as a force capable of acting for the good of Rome and the Roman. But here, too, they went further than the Greeks, because one of the results of the development of the Ancient Roman civilization was the adoption and spread of Christianity, the new monotheistic religion of salvation, which had such a powerful influence on the entire course of civilizational development in subsequent millennia. The Greeks created a language that had a significant impact on the development of national languages and cultures of many peoples. The Romans created the language that all educated Europe spoke in the Middle Ages, and which formed the basis of a whole group of European languages.
The Romans, unlike the Greeks, did not create new philosophical schools or cosmogonic theories. They were rational and practical people. But it was in ancient Rome that those sciences (astronomy, mathematics, agronomy, etc.) developed that were turned to solving earthly practical problems, whether it was war, the construction of temples and roads, the cultivation of fields, or the treatment of wounds and diseases. And the Roman Colosseum amazes us no less than the Greek Pantheon, and the Roman basilica became the architectural basis for many temples of subsequent centuries.
The Romans did not have their own Phidias and Polykleitos. They were more interested not in the image of a god or a mythical hero (although they were happy to copy Greek statues), but in a specific person. Isn't that why the Romans left us so many magnificent sculptural portraits, surprising with their psychological depth and reality. And the wall paintings of the Romans and their mosaics were not inferior to the Greek ones. Appeal to the earthly man, his thoughts, feelings and actions was also characteristic of Roman literature. Virgil writes the Aeneid in imitation of Homer's Iliad, but it is dedicated, in fact, not to the gods and heroes of antiquity, but gives a mythical history of Rome, raising the family of the completely earthly emperor Augustus to Aeneas, the son of Aphrodite, i.e. to the Olympic gods. And he also writes Georgiki a poem about agriculture. Horace and Ovid create beautiful poems, far from the sublime passions and deeds of the gods, but filled with subtle lyricism. And, probably, only a Roman could, like Ovid, write the graceful and mocking Science of Love and the Cure for Love. And his Metamorphoses, together with the Golden Ass of Apuleius, Daphnis and Chloe and a number of other prose works, became the prototype of a new literary genre of the novel, which received its brilliant development centuries later.
Ancient Roman civilization was measured out its historical period. But, like the Greeks, the Romans proved the possibility of the historical immortality of their civilization. The ancient Roman civilization is still alive today in the constitutions and laws of states, in the mentality of many peoples, in world culture, and even the images of ancient Roman soldiers on the TV screen are often more attractive to us than modern supermen. And, perhaps, it is worth learning from the pragmatic Romans, for whom historical science was a worthy occupation, and historical works attracted no less attention than the speeches of Cicero. They understood: there is no person without his ancestors, just as there is no power without its history. We can add that there is no modern civilization outside the history of all mankind, and in this history the ancient Roman civilization occupies a great place.
