Questions

1. In your opinion, what was wrong with Copernicus?

Copernicus considered the orbits of the planets around the Sun to be circular, while in fact they have the shape of ellipses.

2. What were the similarities and differences between empiricism and rationalism?

Rationalism taught to draw conclusions based primarily on logic (rational thinking). In contrast, empiricism emphasized the observation of nature: the acquisition of empirical experience. But at the same time, according to the teachers of empiricism, this experience then had to be comprehended with the help of rationalistic thinking. Thus, common to both schools was a belief in the powers of the human mind.

3. Why mathematics played for scientists and thinkers of the 17th century. a particularly important role?

Because mathematics became the basis of all natural sciences (and still is). All theoretical calculations and proofs of the fidelity of one or another theory were essentially mathematical.

4. What obstacles arose in the XVI century. on the way to the development of medicine?

Obstacles:

The views of the Catholic Church on the creation of man, because of which the ban was imposed on many discoveries;

Church prohibitions on autopsies, which prevented the study of anatomy in practice;

Due to the actions of the Inquisition, many discoveries remained unknown (as can be seen in the example of Servetus);

Physicians had to contend with many superstitions of both authorities and patients.

5. How did the picture of the world that developed in the 16th-17th centuries differ from the medieval one?

In the Middle Ages, the picture of the world was based on theology and part of ancient science, which became part of theology. In addition, it was not the same for all Europeans. Most of them represented the Earth as flat with a center in Jerusalem with three continents diverging from it: Europe, Africa and Asia (this is clearly seen on medieval maps in the form of a three-leafed clover). Few of the most learned men knew that the Earth is a sphere, supported by nothing in space. But they considered this ball to be the center of the universe.

The picture of the world of the XVI-XVII centuries is based on mathematical calculations. In addition, it became the same for all educated people in Europe (only the completely uneducated, the poorest sections of society had a different picture of the world). This picture is based on the heliocentric system of the world and the doctrine of the infinity of the universe.

Tasks

1. Make a table "Scientific discoveries and inventions of the 17th century", indicating in it the names of scientists, the countries where they lived, the discoveries themselves and, if possible, their significance. If you wish, you can use additional literature for this work.

2. Give definitions of geocentric and heliocentric systems. Using dictionaries (foreign words, mythological), find out why they are called that.

Geocentric system of the world. The name comes from the words "center" and the Greek "ge" (Gaia) - the earth. It assumes that the Earth in the form of a ball is in the center of the universe, and the Moon, the Sun, stars and planets revolve around it in orbits. Some of them revolve around each other, and others around them, but in general they still revolve around the Earth.

Heliocentric system of the world. The name comes from the words "center" and the Greek "helios" - the sun. Assumes that the Earth revolves around the Sun, other planets do the same.

3. Based on the text of the paragraph and additional materials, write a story about one of the famous scientists of the 17th century.

Giordano Bruno was born in the family of a soldier, Giovanni Bruno, in the town of Nola near Naples in 1548 under the name Filippo Bruno. He was educated in Naples, from the age of 15 - in a Dominican monastery.

In 1572, 24-year-old Giordano became a Catholic priest. In the 1580s he continued his education in Toulouse (France). Here, at the same time, he himself reads a course of lectures (a common practice for that time). In 1583 Bruno went to London, where he remained for two years, then lived and worked in France and various cities of the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation, including Prague.

Developing the heliocentric theory of Copernicus and the philosophy of Nicholas of Cusa, Bruno made a number of conjectures: about the absence of material celestial spheres, about the infinity of the Universe, about the fact that stars are distant suns around which planets revolve, about the existence of planets unknown at his time within our solar systems.

In 1591, Bruno accepted an invitation from the young Venetian aristocrat Giovanni Mocenigo to teach the art of memory and moved to Venice. Apparently, he did not consider his views seditious, as he agreed to move back to Italy, although he could remain in the Protestant lands of the empire. Soon the relationship between Bruno and Mocenigo deteriorated. On May 23, 1592, Mocenigo sent his first denunciation of Bruno to the Venetian inquisitor. On May 25 and May 26, 1592, Mocenigo sent new denunciations to Bruno, after which the philosopher was arrested and imprisoned. On February 27, 1593, Bruno was transferred to the Papal States. In Roman prisons, he spent the remaining years of his life, not agreeing to recognize his natural-philosophical and metaphysical beliefs as a mistake. On January 20, 1600, Pope Clement VIII approved the decision of the congregation and decided to transfer Brother Giordano into the hands of secular authorities. By decision of a secular court, on February 17, 1600, Bruno was burnt.

2nd millennium BC e. 19th century BC e. 18th century BC e. 17th century BC e. 16th century BC e. 15th century BC e. 1709 1708 1707 1706 ... Wikipedia

1603. Revolt of peasants and serfs in Russia led by Cotton. Founding of the first Dutch colony on the island of Java. 1603 1867. Reign in Japan of the shoguns from the Tokugawa dynasty. 1603 1649, 1660 1714. The rule of the Stuart dynasty in England ... encyclopedic Dictionary

Onuphrius, saint (XVII century), see article Onuphrius (the name of the saints of the Orthodox Church) ... Biographical Dictionary

- ... Wikipedia

2nd millennium XV century XVI century XVII century XVIII century XIX century 1590s 1591 1592 1593 1594 1595 1596 1597 ... Wikipedia

2nd millennium XV century XVI century XVII century XVIII century XIX century 1590s 1591 1592 1593 1594 1595 1596 1597 ... Wikipedia

2nd millennium XV century XVI century XVII century XVIII century XIX century 1590s 1591 1592 1593 1594 1595 1596 1597 ... Wikipedia

2nd millennium XV century XVI century XVII century XVIII century XIX century 1590s 1591 1592 1593 1594 1595 1596 1597 ... Wikipedia

- "Century of Women" (XVIII century) Marquise de Pompadour. Often in historical literature this term is used to characterize the 18th century. Despite the fact that men still ruled the world, women began to play a prominent role in society ... Wikipedia

Books

• Book centers of Ancient Russia. XVII century,. A collection of materials on the book centers of Ancient Russia of the 17th century, the century of a gradual transition from ancient Russian literature to the literature of the new time, when a new type of it arose ...
• Historical lexicon. XVII century. Encyclopedic reference book, . The English Revolution, the Thirty Years' War in Europe, the Time of Troubles in Russia, the bloody change of dynasties in China, the colonization of America - all this is the 17th century. But this is also the age of brilliant scientists, ...

Lecture questions: "New time" in Europe as a special phase of the world-historical process. Strengthening of the Russian state under Ivan IV (the Terrible). Troubles as a crisis of Russian statehood. The reign of the first tsars of the Romanov dynasty. 2

First question. The beginning of the "New Age" was associated with the discovery of America by Christopher Columbus in 1492 and other major events such as the first circumnavigation of the world by the Portuguese Ferdinand Magellan (1480 - 1521), the Englishman Francis Drake (1577 - 1580), the reformation and strengthening of absolutism in many European states and, of course, with the English bourgeois revolution in the 17th century. 3

Meanwhile, for the formation of a new society, which was called capitalist, bourgeois, industrial, one of the main factors was the revision of a person's views on his destiny in this world. This revision took place over several centuries and in different ways. But this process began with the Renaissance of the revival, which we talked about earlier. four

The Renaissance in many countries gave rise to outstanding people, whose names have forever entered the world culture and science. Many branches of human creativity have received a powerful impetus in their development. For example, Francis Bacon, in opposition to the scholastic method, put forward observation and experiment as a reliable tool for scientific knowledge. In science, the English scientist saw the way to building a perfect society. The Polish scientist Nicolaus Copernicus created a new heliocentric theory that revolutionized the understanding of the universe. The work of Andreas Vesalius 1514-1564 was of fundamental importance. "On the structure of the human body", which marked the beginning of anatomy. Miguel Servet stated the position on the presence of the pulmonary circulation, etc. 5

N. Copernicus. 1473 -1543 F. Bacon. 1561 -1626 M. Servet. 1511 -1553 6

In the context of significant political and socio-economic changes in many European countries, especially in fragmented Germany, the Catholic Church caused general irritation. Why? Peasants were dissatisfied with the weight of the tithe, petty rulers and chivalry claimed church lands, great envy among all groups of the population caused the privileged position of archbishops, prelates and monasteries. The demand to "throw off the back" idle and vicious Rome was put forward as one of the most important political slogans. Germany became the first country in which the Reformation began - a movement to revise outdated religious dogmas and reform the church organization, the theorist of which was the German theologian Martin Luther. 7 M. Luther. 1483 -1546

Luther's main idea was that every person is saved only by sincere faith in God and does not need mediators in the form of a church; - Every believing Christian - whether he is educated or not, whether he is a man or a woman - is his own priest; - The clergy should be abolished, monastic orders should be dissolved, and the property and lands of the church should be secularized (transferred to the state); - Luther demanded to follow the spirit of the Gospel, and not its letter; - Church sacraments and rituals do not have the significance that the church ascribes to them; - Of the seven Catholic sacraments, he intended to leave only two - baptism and communion. eight

The great geographical discoveries greatly stimulated the development of capitalist relations, the processes of primitive capitalist accumulation, and the formation of a single world economy. The great geographical discoveries stimulated the development of commodity-money relations. In European states, credit is being developed, the monetary system is being transformed (trade in securities is emerging), commodity and stock exchanges are being created, and merchant and usurer's capital is developing. 9

An important source of accumulation of funds is the expansion of the scale of forced labor in their countries and the slave trade. According to historians, in the 18th century slave traders took 80 million people out of Africa. The plunder of native territories, humiliation and the most cruel exploitation, the sweat and blood of the colonies were important sources of initial capital, the progress of European states. ten

European countries in their colonies pursued a similar economic policy. Spain, Portugal, Holland, France, England created plantation farms in the colonies. They worked for the external market, but with the use of semi-slave labor of the native population. The economically growing bourgeoisie needed a strong state that could provide for the diverse interests of rich people. Such a state became an absolute monarchy. King of France Louis XIV. 1638 -1715 He owns the expression “The state is me!!!” Elizabeth Tudor. 1533 -1603 eleven

The revision of the dogmas of faith and the reorganization of the church proposed by Luther formed the basis of the program of the European Reformation. Even during the life of Martin Luther, his followers (called Lutherans) formed a new, Protestant church, which separated from the Catholic. She took a dominant position in Germany, Austria and the countries of northern Europe. 12

The beginning of the New Age and at the same time a harbinger of the end of the era of feudalism, the Middle Ages, was the English bourgeois revolution of the 17th century. which had a truly world-historical significance. In the capitalizing English society by the beginning of the 17th century. The leading economic force was people who knew how to make and count money: the commercial and industrial bourgeoisie, as well as the bourgeois nobility. They did not like the new policy of the kings from the new Stuart dynasty. 13

James I (1603 - 1625) and Charles I (1625 - 1649) did not reckon with parliament when introducing new taxes and strove for an unlimited monarchy. Charles I dissolved parliament in 1629 and convened it again only in April 1640, when it was necessary to raise money to suppress an uprising in Scotland. Parliament did not give money and the king in August 1642 declared war on parliament. The civil war ended with the defeat of the king. King of England Charles I. 14

The minor nobleman Oliver Cromwell (1599-1658) played a decisive role in the military victories of the parliamentary forces. He gained immense influence and managed to quell dissensions both within the army itself and the king's new attempt at revenge. On January 30, 1649, by the verdict of Parliament, in which the most radical deputies remained, the king was executed as a tyrant and enemy of the state, and England was declared a republic "Without a king and the House of Lords." Execution of King Charles I. 15

After the death of Cromwell, the rule of the old dynasty was restored, but already in 1688, as a result of the Glorious Revolution, a bloodless coup, more obedient relatives of the former kings were invited to the English throne and Parliament completely triumphed. England still does not have a constitution, but numerous laws have clearly defined the system of government. In England from the end of the XVII - beginning of the XVIII century. the party that won the majority in parliamentary elections began to rule. The government is formed from the leaders of this party and is subordinate to the parliament. 16

The English Revolution created the necessary conditions for the powerful development of English society, Anglo-Saxon civilization. England in the 17th - 19th centuries. in. becomes a leader in world development, a country that constantly contributes to all spheres of human existence. 17

Here are a few examples: 1) In 1662 the Royal Society of London was formed. It was, in fact, the first scientific society in modern times; 2) Manufactory production was replaced by industrial, factory production; 3) In 1733, the flying shuttle was invented, which contributed to faster processing of yarn; 4) In 1766, James White built the first commercial steam engine. By the end of the century, 5,000 steam engines had already been built, the use of which meant a great energy revolution; 5) The development of industry and trade contributed to the improvement of roads and the development of transport, etc. 18

The triumph of English achievements in two centuries was the holding of the first world exhibition in London in 1851. England kept itself apart in Europe, adhering to ... "We have no permanent enemies or friends, there are only permanent interests." England opposed the expansion of Napoleon, withstood the continental blockade organized by him, and in 1815 the British troops, together with the Prussians, defeated Napoleon at Waterloo, putting the last point in the transitional era from feudalism to capitalism. 19

In the Muscovite state in the 16th-17th centuries, processes similar in some external signs also took place. For the Russian state, the development of Siberia was no less important than the great geographical discoveries for Europe. In 1583, a detachment led by the Cossack chieftain Vasily Timofeevich Yermak laid the whole of Western Siberia at the feet of Ivan the Terrible. twenty

In the first third of the 18th century, a vast territory between the Ob and the Yenisei was colonized. In the "Tungus side", inhabited by the Eveks, the Yenisei, Krasnoyarsk, Bratsk and Yakut prisons were founded. The Lena River was opened. In 1639, the Cossack Ivan Moskvitin went to the Sea of ​​Okhotsk, to the Pacific Ocean. In 1648, Semyon Dezhnev crossed the strait between Asia and America for the first time. Vasily Poyarkov reached the Amur and reached the Sakhalin Bay in 1643-1646. Ustyug peasant Yerafey Khabarov in 1649 - 1651 explored the Amur and made a "drawing". 21

In 1652, Khabarov's detachment collided with the Manzhur detachment, an exchange of embassies between Russia and China began. For the first time, two great civilizations came into direct contact. In 1689, the Nerchinsk Treaty determined the system of trade and diplomatic relations between states, as well as an approximate border. 22

There was no serfdom in Siberia. Servants and state peasants - settlers prevailed. Indigenous people paid tax with furs - yasak. The development of the Siberian mineral resources began: iron was mined in Turinsk, gold in Nerchinsk, salt in Yakutia. Under the influence of the Russian population, agriculture began to develop among the peoples of Siberia. In the 17th century, the sale of Siberian furs gave a quarter of all state revenues. Siberia remained part of a system that developed quite differently from Western Europe. 23

Russian society also survived its "reformation". In 1564, Nikon, elected patriarch on the instructions of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich Romanov, began to zealously eradicate church disorders. Icons that were not painted according to the Byzantine model were confiscated and burned, old liturgical books, in which there were many errors, were corrected and sent to churches for use, which caused fierce resistance from believers. Nikon was called a heretic and antichrist. Many stopped attending churches and gathered for prayer in ordinary houses, where they served according to old books and old customs. 24

There was a split in the Russian Orthodox Church. A movement of the Old Believers arose, which was severely persecuted by the official authorities. The burning of Avvakum Petrovich. 1682 25

The split in the Russian Church and the Old Believers have survived to this day. A few decades later, Peter the Great carried out the complete nationalization of the church. If in Western Europe the Reformation ultimately meant an increase in the responsibility of a person for his own affairs, stimulated various forms of his life, contributed to the development of free thought and independence, then the Nikon reform, like the platform of the Old Believers, retained the former format of the relationship between a person, the state and the church organization, only partially weakening in favor of the second. 26

Russian development, outwardly similar to European, took place on a qualitatively different economic and socio-political basis, which was decisive for the fate of Russian civilization, the Russian people. V. I. Surikov. Boyar Morozova. 1887 27

The above comparison of seemingly close historical processes that took place in Europe and Russia forces us to turn to the identification of Russia's own specifics. One of the main trends (aspirations) in the development of the country remained the increment of the territory of the Muscovite kingdom, the struggle for access to the seas and the provision of calm guaranteed borders. 28

Strengthening of the Russian state under Ivan IV (the Terrible) Ivan IV's father Vasily III was the eldest son of Ivan III and Sophia Poleologist. He continued to "gather" Russian lands, annexed Pskov, Smolensk, Ryazan to the Moscow State 29

In 1533 - 1538, after the death of Vasily III under the young Ivan IV (born in 1530 and declared Grand Duke in 1533), his mother Elena Glinskaya ruled the country together with the favorite I. F. Ovchina-Telepnev-Obolensky. After the death of Elena Glinskaya and the elimination of her favorite, boyar-princely groups led by the princes Shuisky, Belsky and Glinsky continuously fought for power. thirty

The instability of the supreme power, the dissatisfaction of the population, the need to solve difficult foreign policy tasks led to the first major cycle of reforms in the history of Russia. In their implementation, the young tsar relied on a group of close associates, which was called the Chosen Rada (Prince A. M. Kurbsky, nobleman A. F. Adashev, confessor of the Tsar Sylvester, Metropolitan Macarius, etc.). For some time, even the petition hut operated, where one could complain about the boyars, treasurers and butlers. In 1547, Ivan assumed the royal title and formally equaled Western European emperors. He ruled Russia until 1584. 31

Reforms of Ivan IV Centralization of state power and administration With Ivan IV, the history of Zemsky Sobors in Russia (1549) began, the Boyar Duma began to work more actively, the network of orders and their more specific activities expanded, local power passed to the labial and zemstvo elders, the system was abolished Feedings Adoption of a new Code of Laws (1550), a set of laws providing for the strengthening of central power, and the holding of the Stoglavy Cathedral (1551) - which adopted a charter for the Russian Orthodox Church. 32

The reforms of Ivan IV Stoglavy Cathedral: 1) Drawn up the all-Russian list of saints 2) Checked church books 3) Unified worship and all church rites 4) Strengthened the moral influence of the church on society, etc. 33

Reforms of Ivan IV Creation of the archery army (1550): (Existed in the country until 1698;) Code of Service (1556) - regulated the order of military service. Nobles served from the age of 15 until death or severe injury; Carrying out a tax reform: Since 1550, a "big plow" = 400 - 600 hectares was introduced as a single unit for collecting taxes for the entire state. Land (depending on the fertility of the soil and the social status of the owner of the land), subject to a certain tax. 34

Foreign policy of Ivan IV in the East 1552 - Successful capture of Kazan. 1556 - Capture of Astrakhan. At the same time, the Nogai Horde (the middle reaches of the Volga and Yaik) also recognized vassal dependence on Russia. In 1557, the annexation of Bashkiria was completed. The annexed lands increased the territory of Russia by one and a half times. The entire Volga trade route passed to Russia. In 1581-82. Yermak's campaign to Siberia began. The defeat of the troops of Khan Kuchum by Yermak's detachment led to the beginning of the development of Siberia by Russian entrepreneurs. The territory of the country was almost doubled from 2.8 million square meters. km to 5.4 million sq. km. Less impressive were the foreign policy actions of Ivan IV in the West. The unsuccessful, exhausting Livonian War (1558 -1583) continued for 25 years 35

36

Oprichnina (1564 - 1572) Oprichnina is a form of forced centralization of power (strengthening the personal power of the king) without sufficient economic and social prerequisites. The tsar moved to Aleksandrovskaya Sloboda (120 km from Moscow), created his own court there and divided the lands into oprichnina and zemstvo. A dual government was created in the state, when the Boyar Duma was in charge of the zemshchina with state huts, and the tsar was in charge of the oprichnina with palace departments. The support of the king was the “oprichny court”, in fact, the royal guard and guards in the amount of up to 6 thousand people. With the help of the guardsmen, the tsar launched a campaign of terror against his real and imaginary enemies. Dual power, arbitrariness, bloody chaos shook the country. 22 thousand people were destroyed. The oprichnina policy of Ivan IV, which contained such important political actions as the liquidation of the staritsa inheritance, the campaign against Novgorod, the deposition of the metropolitan of the Russian Orthodox Church and his imprisonment in a monastery, large-scale movements of various social. groups to new territories at the behest of the king, led to the establishment of a despotic form of autocratic rule. 37

Oprichnina and its results The most important problem for the young country of the relationship between power (the state) and society was resolved in favor of power. Oprichnina subordinated society to the unlimited power of the Moscow Tsar. She completed the formation of autocracy - a despotic, rigidly centralized system of power based on the relationship of allegiance, the apex of which was the tsar - the autocrat. 38

Oprichnina and its results As a result of the oprichnina, the role of the Boyar Duma fell. The place of the most obstinate and recalcitrant boyars, who for the most part were exterminated, was taken by the bureaucracy: devious, duma nobles. The Boyar Duma was preserved as a tribute to tradition, it became more manageable and obedient. 39

Oprichnina and its results The bureaucracy became the main social support of power. The layer of service bureaucracy expanded. Landowners, regardless of the size of their possessions, were turned into a mass of employees who were dependent on the king. Owners who were economically independent of the authorities were eliminated, which could become the basis for the formation of a society of a progressive type of development. There was a stateization of society, everyone depended on the state and personally on the king. The state appropriated to itself the highest property rights, giving citizens only 40 rights to rule.

Oprichnina and its results Oprichnina inflicted enormous damage on the state. The main thing is that the bloody mess of terror claimed many human lives. The pogroms led to the ruin and desolation of the central regions of the country. Economic disruption assumed catastrophic proportions. The spiritual and intellectual potential of the country was weakened by repression. All this taken together marked the beginning of a severe crisis in the country, which turned into turmoil and almost turned into the collapse of the Muscovite state. 41

Despite the strengthening of the personal power of the tsar, who strove for absolute monarchy and the weakening of the activities of the Boyar Duma, in Moscow Russia in the 16th century. formed a class-representative monarchy. The main class-representative body - the Zemsky Sobor, which formally limited the royal power, was actually used by it to counterbalance the Boyar Duma, which really limited the autocracy. Estate-Representative Monarchy in Russia in the 16th century 42

Conclusions on the first question: 1. 2. 3. As a result of reforms in many states of Europe, the church was placed at the service of the industrial and commercial bourgeoisie, it did not interfere with the activity of rich, enterprising people, did not withdraw a significant part of their income for their own needs. The English bourgeois revolution dealt a crushing blow to feudalism. Following England, the process of breaking feudal relations began in other countries. The formation of bourgeois relations in Western Europe accelerated. The first Russian Tsar Ivan IV (the Terrible) is one of the most mysterious and controversial personalities in world history. He is both a bloody despot, and a great reformer, and a unifier of the Russian state. Every time we remember the past in our own way. In October 2010, there was a discussion on Channel 5 TV for several days. “Ivan the Terrible is a bloody or outstanding politician. Viewers voted anonymously. 13% - a bloody tyrant 87% - a smart ruler and politician. 43

Second question: Troubles as a crisis of Russian statehood. The reign of the first tsars of the Romanov dynasty. - Government of the country during the Time of Troubles. In 1598, the childless Tsar Theodore Ioannovich dies. With his death, the Rurik dynasty is interrupted. (862 - 1598) 1598 - 1605 - The reign of Boris Godunov. 1605 - 1606 - The reign of False Dmitry I. 1606 - 1610 - The reign of Vasily Shuisky. 1610 - 1612 - "Seven Boyars" (F. I. Mstislavsky, I. M. Vorotynsky, A. V. Trubetskoy, A. V. Golitsyn, B. M. Lykov, I. N. Romanov, F. I. Sheremetiev) . One of the first decisions was not to elect a representative of the Russian families as tsar. The boyars concluded an agreement with the Poles on the recognition of the son of the Polish king Sigismund III, Vladislav, as the Russian tsar. Fearing performances by Muscovites and not trusting the Russian troops, the government committed an act of treason: on the night of September 21, 1610, it secretly let Polish troops into Moscow. 44

1589 - the introduction of the patriarchate (Job). 1580s - the introduction of reserved years (years in which the transition of peasants from one landowner to another will be prohibited even on St. George's Day). 45

General signs of turmoil Lack of agreement in society on the most important issues of human existence and the life of the country. (after us at least a flood). 46

Common signs of Troubles Absence of legitimate authority, the origin of which would not be implicated in the blood, suffering and deceit of the people. The absence of the necessary unity of secular and spiritual authorities. Tsar Boris Godunov. 47

Common signs of the Time of Troubles Lack of effective mechanisms for coordinating the interests of various social groups. The uprising of I. Bolotnikov. (1606 -1607) thin. G. Gorelov. 1944 48

Common signs of Troubles Weakening of the instinct of self-preservation of society, giving rise to the possibility of interference by external forces in internal affairs. (Poland, Sweden) Lack of strong state unity, incapacity of the central government. False Dmitry I 49 Maria Mnishek

Preconditions of Troubles Economic crisis; Plague epidemic; Hunger; Strengthening serfdom; The struggle for power of the boyar clans. dissatisfaction with all sectors of society. fifty

They lead to any confusion: Submissive ignorance of some (“My hut is on the edge, I don’t know anything”) 2. Greed and lust for power of others (people say: “if you want to test a person, give him power”) 3. Shyness and cowardice of others. (“Be afraid of wolves - do not go into the forest”; “If we do not fight together, we will hang alone.” Abraham Lincoln) 1. 51

Factors that aggravated the turmoil: Imposture and the crisis of power; Civil war and intervention; Deepening economic crisis. 52

National Unity During the turmoil, the outer realm brought to the fore national and religious interests, temporarily uniting the warring classes. As a result of the campaign of the first and second (led by Prince D. M. Pozharsky and K. M. Minin) militias against Moscow in the autumn of 1612, the capital was liberated from the Polish garrison on October 26 (November 4 - new style) 1612. In 2012 we will celebrate the 400th anniversary. Now we celebrate this date as National Unity Day. The Russian people developed and strengthened a sense of national and religious unity, they began to realize that the government of the state is not only a personal matter of the tsar and his advisers, but also a matter of "zemstvo", Russian society for the first time felt the possibility of choosing a monarch. 53

Monument to Minin and Pozharsky in Moscow. Sculptor I. Martos Expulsion of Polish invaders from the Moscow Kremlin in 1612 Art. E. Lissner 54

Thus, turmoil is a nationwide crisis resulting from the previous development of the state and society. The origins of the Troubles are in the era of Ivan the Terrible. The state and society overcame the Time of Troubles, but this happened on the basis of the preservation and strengthening of serfdom and autocracy. 55

The reign of the first tsars of the Romanov dynasty Mikhail Fedorovich (1613-1645) Elected tsar at the Zemsky Sobor on February 21, 1613. On July 11, 1613 he was crowned on the throne. Alexei Mikhailovich (1645 - 1676) Over time, the king received the nickname "the quietest", although the years of his reign were quite stormy. Fedor Alekseevich (1676-1682) Was very sick, suffered from scurvy and could not get out of bed for months. 56

The main activities of the first Romanovs Overcoming the consequences of the turmoil - the state power in the country was strengthened; - after the Russian-Polish war, Smolensk was returned to Russia; -Vladislav, who became the Polish king, renounced formal rights to the Russian throne, etc. Enslavement of the peasants (Council Code of 1649) The transition from a class-representative monarchy to absolutism, a form of government in which the supreme power in the state belongs completely and undividedly to the monarch. 57

The main activities of the first Romanovs The emergence of capitalism; Formation of a single internal market; Church reform by Patriarch Nikon. The government is moving from a land tax system to a household tax system, in which the peasant household becomes the taxable unit. 58

Main events: Cathedral Code of 1649; Accession of Ukraine to Russia. Decision of the Zemsky Sobor in 1653, Pereyaslav Rada. Entry of Ukraine into Russia - 1654; In 1682, during the reign of Fyodor Alekseevich Romanov, localism was officially abolished - the procedure for distributing official places according to the nobility of origin. Bit books were burned, fixing the degree of nobility. XVII century - the age of "rebellious" (Trouble, Salt and Copper riots, an uprising led by Stepan Razin, an uprising in the Solovetsky Monastery (1667 - 1676) against church reform, the Streltsy uprising in Moscow - 1682) at their request by the first tsar Ivan was proclaimed, Peter the second, and until they came of age, a regent, Princess Sophia, was appointed. 1682 - 1689 - Regency of Princess Sophia during the reign of minor Ivan V Alekseevich together with Peter Alekseevich. 59

Conclusion on the second question The main historical result of the activity of the first Romanovs was overcoming the turmoil and successful state building. Burning of class books under Tsar Fyodor Alekseevich. Lithograph 1863 60

Conclusion from the lecture: The 17th century was a turning point in our history, when the prerequisites for the transition from tradition and antiquity to Western novelty were created. In order to maintain independence and secure a worthy place for the country among the European powers rushing forward, the Muscovite state needed modernization, it needed a leader, a leader who would lead people to this modernization. And he appeared - it was Peter the Great. 61

The Russian people contributed to the great geographical discoveries of the 16th - first half of the 17th centuries. significant contribution. Russian travelers and navigators made a number of discoveries (mainly in the northeast of Asia) that enriched world science.

The reason for the increased attention of Russians to geographical discoveries was the further development of commodity-money relations in the country and the associated process of folding the all-Russian market, as well as the gradual inclusion of Russia in the world market. During this period, two main directions were clearly outlined: northeast (Siberia and the Far East) and southeast (Central Asia, Mongolia, China), along which Russian travelers and sailors moved.

Of great educational importance for contemporaries were the trade and diplomatic trips of Russian people in the 16th-17th centuries. to the countries of the East, a survey of the shortest land routes for communication with the states of Central and Central Asia and with China.

By the middle of the XVII century. the Russians thoroughly studied and described the routes to Central Asia. Detailed and valuable information of this kind was contained in the embassy reports (“article lists”) of the Russian ambassadors I. D. Khokhlov (1620-1622), Anisim Gribov (1641-1643 and 1646-1647) and others.

Distant China aroused close attention among the Russian people. Back in 1525, while in Rome, the Russian ambassador Dmitry Gerasimov informed the writer Pavel Iovius that it was possible to travel from Europe to China by water through the northern seas. Thus, Gerasimov expressed a bold idea about the development of the Northern Route from Europe to Asia. Thanks to Jovius, who published a special book on Muscovy and Gerasimov's embassy, ​​this idea became widely known in Western Europe and was received with lively interest. It is possible that the organization of the expeditions of Willoughby and Barents was caused by the messages of the Russian ambassador. In any case, the search for the Northern Sea Route to the east was already in the middle of the 16th century. led to the establishment of direct maritime links between Western Europe and Russia.

The first reliable evidence of a journey to China is information about the embassy of the Cossack Ivan Petlin in 1618-1619. Petlin from Tomsk through the territory of Mongolia passed to China and visited Beijing. Returning to his homeland, he presented in Moscow "a drawing and painting about the Chinese region." The information collected as a result of Petlin's trip about the routes to China, about the natural resources and economy of Mongolia and China contributed to the expansion of the geographical horizons of contemporaries.

Of great importance in the history of geographical discoveries of that era was the exploration of the vast expanses of the north and northeast of Asia from the Ural Range to the coast of the Arctic and Pacific Oceans, i.e. throughout Siberia.

The annexation of Siberia was started in 1581 by a campaign of a detachment of the Cossack ataman Ermak Timofeevich. His detachment, consisting of 840 people, carried away by rumors about the untold riches of the Siberian Khanate, was equipped at the expense of large landowners and salt producers of the Urals Stroganovs. The government-supported campaign of Yermak (1581-1584) led to the fall of the Siberian Khanate and the annexation of Western Siberia to the Russian state.

Even in the middle of the XVI century. Sailings of Russian polar sailors from the European part of the country to the Gulf of Ob and to the mouth of the Yenisei are mentioned. They moved along the coast of the Arctic Ocean on small keel sailing ships - koches, well adapted to sailing in the ice of the Arctic due to the egg-shaped hull, which reduced the danger of ice compression. Used by Russian sailors of the XVI-XVII centuries. compass ("womb") and maps. In the first two decades of the 17th century there was already a fairly regular water communication of the West Siberian cities with Mangazeya along the Ob, the Gulf of Ob and the Arctic Ocean (the so-called "Mangazeya passage"). The same message was maintained between Arkhangelsk and Mangazeya. According to contemporaries, from Arkhangelsk to Mangazeya, “many merchants and industrial people with all sorts of German (i.e. foreign, Western European) goods and with bread go all over the years.” It was extremely important to establish the fact that the Yenisei flows into the very “Cold Sea”, along which people from Western Europe swim to Arkhangelsk. This discovery belongs to the Russian merchant Kondraty Kurochkin, who was the first to explore the fairway of the lower Yenisei up to the mouth.

A serious blow to the "Mangazeya move" was inflicted by government prohibitions of 1619-1620. use the sea route to Mangazeya, aimed at preventing the penetration of foreigners there.

Moving east into the taiga and tundra of Eastern Siberia, the Russians discovered one of the largest rivers in Asia - the Lena. Among the northern expeditions to the Lena, the Penda campaign (until 1630) stands out. Starting his journey with 40 companions from Turukhansk, he went through the entire Lower Tunguska, crossed the portage and reached the Lena. Having descended along the Lena to the central regions of Yakutia, Penda then sailed along the same river in the opposite direction almost to the upper reaches. From here, passing through the Buryat steppes, he ended up on the Angara (Upper Tunguska), the first of the Russians to sail down the entire Angara, overcoming its famous rapids, after which he went to the Yenisei, and returned along the Yenisei to the starting point - Turu-Khansk. Penda and his companions made an unparalleled circular journey of several thousand kilometers through difficult terrain.

The discovery of Dezhnev - Alekseev was reflected on the geographical maps of Russia in the 17th century, which marked the free passage from the Kolyma to the Amur.

During 1643-1651. Russian detachments of V. Poyarkov and E. Khabarov made campaigns on the Amur, which delivered a number of valuable information about this river not studied by Europeans.

So, over a relatively short historical period (from the 80s of the 16th century to the 40s of the 17th century), Russian people traveled through the steppes, taiga, tundra through the whole of Siberia, sailed through the seas of the Arctic and made a number of outstanding geographical discoveries.

Russia in the 16th century

XVII century in the history of Russia

9.1. Russia in the 16th century

Completion of the merger

In the XVI century. Basil III(1505-1533) the unification of the Russian principalities-lands around Moscow was completed.

In 1510, Pskov was annexed to the Russian state, in 1514. Smolensk, previously captured by the Lithuanian feudal lords, was returned; in 1521, the Ryazan principality was annexed, which in fact had long been subordinate to Moscow. Thus, all the principalities and lands of Russia were united into one state, which, in addition to Russians, included other peoples: Udmurts, Mordovians, Karelians, Komi, etc. In terms of population, the Russian centralized state was multinational.

The international significance of the Russian state grew, and its defense capacity strengthened. During the reign of Ivan III and Vasily III, Moscow received numerous ambassadors from foreign states and sovereigns - the German emperor, the Hungarian king, the king of Denmark, the Venetian doge, the Turkish sultan, etc.

Board of Elena Glinskaya

After the death of Vasily III, the throne was taken by Ivan IV (1530-1584). But since he was only three years old, his mother, the Grand Duchess, ruled the state Elena Glinskaya. She ruled for a short time, but under her certain reforms were carried out aimed at centralizing the state, including a ban on the purchase of land from service people, increased control over the growth of monastic land ownership, and a decrease in the tax and judicial immunity of the church. The monetary reform of 1535 was of great importance. Its necessity was ripe in connection with the appearance of counterfeit, defective money in circulation. The silver ruble was recognized as the monetary unit, coinage was unified, and a single monetary system was established for all cities. Mints are left only in Moscow and Novgorod. On the ground, labial elders were introduced - elected from among service people. Tselovalniks were elected as their assistants from among the black-haired peasants. The functions of the labial elders included the right of independent legal proceedings in robbery cases.

The beginning of the reign

After the death of Elena Glinskaya in 1538, her eight-year-old son Ivan IV was left an orphan. During this period, the struggle for power resumed, in which the princes Volsky, Shuisky, Glinsky participated; it was distinguished by cruelty, violence, which, of course, influenced the formation of the character of the future ruler of the Russian state, popularly called Terrible! He passed his first death sentence in 1543, when he was only 13 years old. In 1547, Ivan IV assumed the title of tsar and was the first of the Russian rulers to be crowned king in the Assumption Cathedral. Since that year, he publicly declared himself the king of all Russia.

In the context of the struggle for the throne, the exorbitant growth of requisitions from the urban population, as well as the intensification of the exploitation of the peasants, the social situation in the country worsened: the peasants ran away from the feudal lords, arbitrarily plowed their lands, and destroyed documents on the rights of the landowners to the peasants.

In 1547, an uprising of the townspeople broke out in Moscow, the reason for which was a vast fire that destroyed the property of the townspeople. The injured and indignant people demanded that the young tsar extradite especially hated boyars. The Moscow rebellion was not the only one - unrest also took place in Pskov, Opochka, Ustyug. The protests of the people were suppressed. However, Ivan IV was forced to make concessions - some boyars were removed from the government, the feeding system was gradually eliminated.

In 1547, under Ivan the Terrible, a new government was created - Chosen council. The composition of the council included representatives of various strata of the ruling class - the princes D. Kurlyatev, A. Kurbsky (1528-1583), M. Vorotynsky, N. Odoevsky, V. Serebryany, A. Gorbaty-Shuysky, boyars Sheremetev. An important role was played in the Rada by Metropolitan Macarius and the priest of the Annunciation Cathedral of the Kremlin Sylvester(? - c. 1566), clerk of the Ambassadorial order I. Viskovaty. Headed the king's bedroll A.F. Adashev(?-1561). He was a servant of a not too noble family. Contemporaries considered him well-versed in business and smart. Thus, the composition of the Rada testified to the compromise nature of the domestic policy pursued at this stage by Ivan IV.

The elected council was not an official state institution, but it ruled on behalf of the king for 13 years and was in fact the government.

As their task, the members of the Chosen Rada set themselves to streamline the laws and government of the country, to find an expansion of sources of income for the treasury, while taking into account the interests of both the serving nobility and the boyars.

Reforms of the 50s

When developing reforms, the requirements of petitions addressed to the king and written in 1549 by a nobleman and writer were taken into account I.S. Peresvetov.

The reforms included the creation of a new system of central government - orders. In the middle of the XVI century. in Russia there were about 20 orders, each of which was in charge of certain affairs. So, the Posolsky order regulated relations with foreign countries, the Pushkarsky order - with artillery, the Robber - with cases of the protection of feudal property, the Big Order - with public finances, the Yamskaya - with postal services and postal stations (pits), Local - state lands distributed to nobles. At the head of the order was a noble boyar, a major state official, clerks and clerks were subordinate to him. The orders were in charge of tax collection and the courts. There were orders that were in charge of certain territories - the Order of the Siberian Palace, the Order of the Kazan Palace.

The composition of the Boyar Duma was expanded three times by Ivan IV. To solve the most important state affairs, Ivan IV began to convene a special meeting - Zemsky Cathedral. AT it included representatives of the boyars, the service nobility, the clergy, merchants, townspeople. This testified to the creation of a class-representative institution and the transformation of Russia into a class-representative monarchy. Issues of foreign policy and finance, as well as the election of new tsars, were discussed at the Zemsky Sobor. The first Zemsky Sobor was convened in 1549, he decided to draw up a new Sudebnik and formulated the reform program of the 16th century. The Zemsky Sobor in 1550 adopted a new Sudebnik, which confirmed the right of the peasants to move only on St. George's Day and increased the payment for the "elderly".

Zemsky Sobors had an advisory character and did not limit the power of the tsar, but, of course, thanks to them, the political activities of the supreme power were carried out locally. However, zemstvo councils in Russia were held only out of necessity, i.e. irregularly.

In the XV-XVI centuries. in Russia, local governments were also created - governorship system. The governors were sent by the sovereign and the Boyar Duma to cities and lands. The functions of the governors included the collection of taxes from the population, control over the use of the decrees of the Grand Duke, the implementation of the court and reprisals. For the performance of these duties, they did not receive a salary, but were kept at the expense of extortions from the local population. This procedure for paying for their services was called feeding. Since the governors were left to themselves, they abused their powers, from which the population suffered.

Reforms of the 50s 16th century local government was also affected - the feeding system was canceled. According to the lip reform, special positions of labial elders (district, district) were established in the localities, elected from the nobility. The functions of the labial institutions were transferred to the management of cases of robbers and thieves seized from the court of governors. Thus, the labial elders gained more power over the local population, which also testified to the strengthening of the central government. This reform provided an influx of additional funds to the treasury (taxes previously appropriated by feeders), strengthened the position of the nobility in the local administrative apparatus, and helped to eliminate the remnants of feudal fragmentation in the local government apparatus. On the other hand, it increased the resistance of the boyars. "

In 1550, a military reform was carried out, aimed at strengthening the country's armed forces. A new permanent army was created, armed with firearms (squeakers) and edged weapons (berdysh and swords). Such an army was called the Streltsy. The personal protection of the king was provided by a special detachment of 3 thousand people. At the end of the XVI century. the number of streltsy troops reached 25 thousand people. The service of the archers took place in Moscow and in almost all major cities. The permanent archery army became a powerful fighting force of the Muscovite state. The Regulations were drawn up. service (published in

1556), according to which two forms of military service were established: according to the fatherland (i.e., by origin) and by instrument (i.e., by recruitment).

Nobles and boyar children served in the fatherland. The service began at the age of 15, continued throughout life and was inherited. Such service people made up the main part of the armed forces - the cavalry militia of the feudal lords, were provided with salaries and land.

Archers served on the instrument.

The Cossacks who lived on the Don also poured into the Vtsysko. In 1571, the first Charter was drawn up for the organization of guard and stanitsa service at the borders.

By the end of the XVI century. the composition of the Russian troops exceeded 100 thousand people. In addition, there were 2,500 hired Poles, Germans and other foreigners.

agricultural revolution. Oprichnina

The agrarian reform of Ivan the Terrible was of exceptional importance. By this time, a large feudal patrimony with developed immunity, which asserted the independence of its owner from the central government, began to increasingly interfere with the socio-economic development of the Russian centralized state. The boyar nobility competed with the princes, and the princes in the fight against the boyars began to rely on the landlords - nobles.

The state, in the conditions of a lack of funds to create a mercenary army, wishing to subjugate the boyars-patrimonials and specific princes, took the path of creating a state estate system. Ivan the Terrible delivered the final blow to the feudal patrimony in 1565, when he established oprichnina, which was a system of measures aimed at strengthening the autocracy and further enslaving the peasants. Vast territories were allocated from the state land fund, the income from which was supposed to go to the sovereign treasury. "The rest of the territory was zemstvo, remained in the management of the old institutions. The oprichnina included lands with the most developed level of specific princely land ownership and the most developed cities, i.e. the better half of the country. In these regions, the princely and boyar estates were confiscated, their former owners were "withdrawn" to other regions, mainly outlying ones, where they received land on the basis of landed rights. In the old regions, the land was given to guardsmen. This reform was an agrarian revolution, the essence of which was the redistribution of land from the boyars in favor of the nobility. The result of the agrarian revolution was the weakening of large feudal patrimonial landownership and the elimination of its independence from the central government; the approval of local landownership and the nobility associated with it, which supported state power. In economic terms, this gradually led to the predominance of corvée over quitrent exploitation.

Ivan the Terrible carried out these transformations with incredible cruelty. He attacked Novgorod with an army of guardsmen, as he considered the Novgorodians opponents of his power. Thousands of innocent people died, many were drowned in the river. Volkhov, the surrounding villages were plundered. Upon his return from this campaign to Moscow, Ivan IV continued numerous executions of boyars and service people. In the hands of the tsar, the oprichnina was a powerful military punitive organization. It very soon aroused discontent and anger against the tsar both in the feudal elite and among the people.

In the life of the country, the oprichnina ominously intertwined the old and the new.

In an effort to strengthen the central government, liquidate the last appanage possessions, Grozny created a new sovereign inheritance - the oprichnina, which led to a system of duplicating orders and thoughts and the isolation of the zemshchina. The measures of the oprichnina, aimed at strengthening the personal power of Grozny, were carried out by barbaric methods. Ultimately eliminating political fragmentation, the oprichnina caused an extreme aggravation of contradictions. In addition, the oprichnina army could not protect the capital from the Tatars, and in 1571 it was plundered.

In 1572, Ivan the Terrible abolished the oprichnina and forbade even mentioning this hated word. The unification of the oprichnina and zemstvo territories, oprichnina and zemstvo troops, service people followed, the unity of the Boyar Duma was restored. Thus ended the story of the most mysterious, according to V.O. Klyuchevsky, institutions in the history of Russia.

At the beginning of the XVI century. an attempt was made to limit church land ownership, but then the supporters of the rich church, the so-called "money-grubbers", won. In 1551, at the Stoglavy Cathedral (its decisions were summarized in 100 chapters), the line to limit the monastic land ownership and establish control over it by the king won; monasteries were obliged to participate in the collection of tax for the redemption of prisoners (polonian money).

Foreign policy

Under Ivan the Terrible, changes were made in the financial and tax system: a reform of the "sosh letter" was carried out, according to which a common taxation unit for the entire state was introduced - a large plow (a plot of land 400-600 hectares), from which a "tax" was levied (in kind and cash duties). The range of monetary taxes was expanded, monetary rent was expanded, financial and tax centralization was strengthened.

These reforms contributed to the strengthening of the Russian centralized multinational state. This can be judged by the transfer of the right to collect trade duties to the state. The foreign policy of Ivan IV was carried out in three directions: in the west - the struggle for access to the Baltic Sea; in the southeast and east - the struggle with the Kazan and Astrakhan khanates and the beginning of the development of Siberia; in the south - the protection of Russian lands from the raids of the Crimean Khanate. Tatar khans made predatory raids on Russian lands. In the territories of the Kazan and Astrakhan khanates, there were thousands of Russian people captured during the raids in captivity. The local population was brutally exploited - Chuvash, Mari, Udmurts, Mordovians, Tatars, Bashkirs. The Volga route ran through the territories of the khanates, but the Volga could not be used by the Russian people throughout its entire length. Russian landowners were also attracted by the fertile sparsely populated lands of these regions.

First, Ivan the Terrible took diplomatic steps aimed at subjugating the Kazan Khanate, but they did not bring good luck. In 1552, the 100,000th army of the Russian tsar laid siege to Kazan. It was better armed than the Tatar. The artillery of Ivan IV had 150 large cannons. Using a tunnel and barrels of gunpowder, the Russians blew up the walls of Kazan. The Kazan Khanate recognized itself defeated. The peoples of the Middle Volga region became part of the Russian state. In 1556 Ivan the Terrible conquered the Astrakhan Khanate. From this period, the entire Volga region was the territory of Russia. The free Volga trade route significantly improved the terms of trade with the East.

In the middle of the XVI century. Russia included Bashkiria, Chuvashia, Kabarda. The accession of the Kazan and Astrakhan khanates opened up new prospects, access to the basins of the great Siberian rivers became possible. As early as 1556, the Siberian Khan Ediger recognized vassal dependence on Moscow, but the Khan who replaced him Kuchum(? - c. 1598) refused to recognize the power of Moscow (oppressed local residents, killed the Russian ambassador).

The merchants Stroganovs, who had a letter from the tsar granting lands to the east of the Urals, with the permission of Moscow, hired a large detachment of Cossacks to fight Khan Kuchum. The leader of the detachment was the Cossack ataman Ermak(?-1585). In 1581, Yermak's detachment defeated Kuchum's troops, and a year later occupied the capital of the Siberian Khanate, Kashlyk.

Kuchum was finally defeated in 1598, and Western Siberia was annexed to the Russian state. All-Russian laws were approved in the annexed territories. The development of Siberia by Russian industrialists, peasants and artisans began.

Russia's foreign policy actions in the West are the struggle for access to the Baltic Sea, for the Baltic lands seized by the Livonian Order. Many Baltic lands have long belonged to Novgorod Rus. The banks of the Neva River and the Gulf of Finland used to be part of the lands of Veliky Novgorod. In 1558, Russian troops moved to the West, began Livonian war, which lasted until 1583. The rulers of the Livonian Order hindered the relations of the Russian state with Western European countries.

The Livonian War is divided into three stages: until 1561, Russian troops completed the defeat of the Livonian Order, took Narva, Tartu (Derpt), approached Tallinn (Revel) and Riga; until 1578 - the war with Livonia turned for Russia into a war against Poland, Lithuania, Sweden, Denmark. The hostilities became protracted. Russian troops fought with varying success, occupying a number of Baltic fortresses in the summer of 1577.

The situation was complicated by the weakening of the country's economy as a result of the ruin of the guardsmen. The attitude towards the Russian troops of the local population has changed as a result of military extortions.

During this period, Prince Kurbsky, one of the most prominent Russian military leaders, who also knew the military plans of Ivan the Terrible, went over to the side of the enemy. The devastating raids on the Russian lands of the Crimean Tatars made the situation more difficult.

In 1569, Poland and Lithuania united into a single state - the Commonwealth. Chosen to the throne Stefan Batory(1533-1586) went on the offensive; Since 1579, Russian troops have been fighting defensive battles. In 1579, Polotsk was taken, in 1581 - Velikiye Luki, the Poles besieged Pskov. The heroic defense of Pskov began (it was headed by the governor I.P. Shuisky), lasting five months. The courage of the defenders of the city prompted Stefan Batory to abandon further siege.

However, the Livonian War ended with the signing of unfavorable for Russia Yam-Zapolsky (with Poland) and Plyussky (with Sweden) truces. The Russians had to abandon the conquered lands and cities. The Baltic lands were occupied by Poland and Sweden. The war exhausted Russia's forces. The main task - the conquest of access to the Baltic Sea - was not solved.

Economy of Russia

By the end of the XVI century. Russia's territory expanded almost twice compared to the middle of the century, and the population was up to 7 million people.

The main branch of the Russian economy in the XVI century. remained agriculture. Hunting and fur trades are pushed to the outskirts and retain their importance only in Siberia and the North. Fishing and beekeeping continued to develop, which during this period moved from primitive beekeeping to apiary (organized) beekeeping.

Agriculture developed in an extensive way - through the development of new areas and increased deforestation and land clearing for arable land in the central regions of the country.

The main agricultural tool remained a wooden plow; in forest areas, a two-toothed and three-toothed plow was used. In the central regions, they began to cultivate the land with roe deer, which is a plow-type tool.

The progress of the productive forces of agriculture in the conditions of the immutability of the tools of labor manifested itself mainly in the advancement of agriculture in new areas and in the spread of the three-field system. In the central regions of the country in the XVI century. three fields with the correct alternation of winter, spring and fallow fields became dominant.

To cultivate the land with primitive tools, working cattle were required, a trident plow and a roe deer plow were pulled by two or three horses. Therefore, the development of arable farming was accompanied by the growth of cattle breeding.

In the second half of the XVI century. the process of colonization of the outskirts began. There were two main directions of it; south and southeast of Moscow and east - Trans-Urals and Siberia. The empty lands of the southeast were called the wild field; since these outskirts of the Moscow state were constantly subjected to raids by the Nogai and Crimean Tatars, in order to strengthen the defense, measures were taken to settle and develop them. Fortified settlements and fortresses were built along the southern border - a security line where people were settled who were carrying out border service, for which they were given small plots of land. In the 60-70s of the XVI century. peasant colonization of the southern lands intensified. The landowners also rushed to the rich black earth lands. The government granted them huge estates in these areas. The eastern lands of Western and Central Siberia were inhabited mainly by peasants.

The process of uniting disparate territories into a single state was accompanied by the development of cities, where handicrafts and trade were concentrated. Cities were overgrown settlements, in where free artisans settled. In favor of the prince, the population of the townships bore duties - the township tax. By the end of the XVI century. There were about 220 cities in Russia. The largest city was Moscow with a population of 100 thousand people, in other cities of Russia 3-8 thousand people lived. The largest Russian cities were Novgorod, Pskov, Vologda, Veliky Ustyug, Kazan, Yaroslavl, Sol Kamskaya, Kaluga, Nizhny Novgorod, Tula, Astrakhan.

In the XVI century. there was an increase in handicraft production, which was expressed in the differentiation of its types, the number of industries and new specialties increased, which contributed to the development of exchange, although the links between urban craft and the market were still weak.

There are large industries that work for the market: salt production, mining and smelting of iron ore, the construction of stone buildings, forestry, potash production. The specialization of production was closely connected with the availability of local raw materials and was of an exclusively natural-geographical nature.

Trade is developing. If in the fifteenth century trade was carried out in local markets, then in the XVI century. - in the county. Along with merchants, secular and spiritual feudal lords, especially monasteries, were engaged in trade. Trade flows were formed - from the center and southern regions they brought bread to the north, from the Volga region - leather, from Pomorye and Siberia - furs, fish, salt; Tula and Serpukhov sent metal.

In the XVI century. trade relations between the Russian state and England were established through Arkhangelsk, founded in 1584. In the age of the formation of the world market and the great geographical discoveries, Russia traded with Poland, the Principality of Lithuania, with the Tatar Khanate, the Caucasus, Central Asia, Turkey, Persia. Russia mainly exported raw materials to Western countries, and handicraft products to Eastern countries.

9.2. XVII century in the history of Russia

Time of Troubles

The 17th century brought numerous trials to Russia and its statehood. After the death of Ivan the Terrible in 1584, a weak and sickly man became his heir and tsar. Fedor Ivanovich(1584-1598). A struggle for power within the country began. This situation caused not only internal contradictions, but also intensified attempts by external forces to eliminate the state independence of Russia. For almost the entire century, she had to fight off the Commonwealth, Sweden, the raids of the Crimean Tatars - vassals of the Ottoman Empire, to resist the Catholic Church, which sought to turn Russia away from Orthodoxy.

At the beginning of the XVII century. Russia went through a period called Troubled times. 17th century laid the foundation for peasant wars; in this century there are riots of cities, the famous case of Patriarch Nikon and the split of the Orthodox Church. Therefore, this century B.0. Klyuchevsky called rebellious.

The Time of Troubles covers 1598-1613. Over the years, the royal brother-in-law has been on the Russian throne Boris Godunov (1598- 1605), Fyodor Godunov(from April to June 1605), False Dmitry I (June 1605-May 1606), Vasily Shuisky (1606-1610), False Dmitry II (1607-1610), Seven Boyars (1610-1613).

Boris Godunov won a difficult struggle for the throne between representatives of the highest nobility and was the first Russian tsar who received the throne not by inheritance, but through elections at the Zemsky Sobor. During his short reign, he pursued a peaceful foreign policy, resolving disputes with Poland and Sweden for 20 years; encouraged economic and cultural ties with Western Europe. Under him, Russia advanced into Siberia, finally defeating Kuchum. In 1601-1603. to Russia about

collapsed "great smoothness", caused by crop failures. Godunov took certain measures to organize public works, allowed the serfs to leave their masters, distributed bread from the state storehouses to the starving. However, the situation could not be improved. The relationship between the authorities and the peasants was aggravated by the annulment in 1603 of the law on the temporary restoration of St. George's Day, which meant the strengthening of serfdom. The discontent of the masses resulted in an uprising of serfs, led by Khlopok Kosolap. This uprising is considered by many historians to be the beginning of the Peasants' War.

The highest stage of the Peasant War of the beginning of the XVII century. (1606- 1607) was uprising of Ivan Bolotnikov which was attended by serfs, peasants, townspeople, archers, Cossacks, as well as the nobles who joined them. The war engulfed the South-West and South of Russia (about 70 cities), the Lower and Middle Volga regions. The rebels defeated the troops Vasily Shuisky(new Russian tsar) near Kromy, Yelets, on the rivers Ugra and Lopasnya, etc. In October-December 1606, the rebels besieged Moscow, but because of the disagreements that had begun - the betrayal of the nobles were defeated and retreated to Kaluga, and then to Tula. Summer-autumn 1607. together with the detachments of the serf Ilya Gorchakov(Ileyki Muromets, ? - c. 1608) the rebels fought near Tula. The siege of Tula lasted four months, after which the city was surrendered, the uprising was suppressed. Bolotnikov was exiled to Kargopol, blinded and drowned.

At such a critical moment, an attempt was made to intervene in Poland. The ruling circles of the Commonwealth and the Catholic Church intended to dismember Russia and eliminate its state independence. In a hidden form, the intervention was expressed in the support of False Dmitry I and False Dmitry II. Open intervention under the leadership of Sigismund III began under Vasily Shuisky, when in September 1609 Smolensk was besieged and in 1610 a campaign against Moscow and its capture took place. By this time, Vasily Shuisky was overthrown by the nobles from the throne, and an interregnum began in Russia - Seven Boyars. The Boyar Duma made a deal with the Polish interventionists and inclined to call the Polish king, the young Vladislav, a Catholic, to the Russian throne, which was a direct betrayal of Russia's national interests. In addition, in the summer of 1610, Swedish intervention began with the aim of wresting Pskov, Novgorod, the northwestern and north-Russian regions from Russia.

End of intervention. Fight for Smolensk

Under such conditions, the independence of the Russian state and the expulsion of the interventionists could only be defended by the whole people. This task was completed by the people's militia led by the Nizhny Novgorod headman Kuzma Minin and prince Dmitry Pozharsky. After the liberation of Moscow in October 1612, the failure of two attempts by Sigismund (1612, 1617) to seize the Russian capital again, the Polish intervention ended with the Deulino "truce with the Commonwealth in 1618 already under the new tsar from the new Romanov dynasty - Mikhail Romanov(1596-1645). Under this agreement, Poland received Smolensk (except Vyazma), Chernigov and Novgorod Seversk lands. In total, 19 Russian cities went to the Poles, including Smolensk.

During the reign of Michael, in addition to the completion of the Polish intervention, the end of the Swedish intervention took place, when in 1617 the "Eternal Peace" was concluded in Stolbovo (near Tikhvin). Sweden returned Novgorod, Staraya Russa, Porkhov, Ladoga, Gdov with counties to Russia. However, many Russian cities remained with Sweden. In addition, Russia pledged to pay the Swedes 20 thousand rubles. and remained without access to the Baltic Sea.

In 1632-1634. the Russian-Polish (Smolensk) war was fought for the return of the Smolensk and Chernigov lands captured during the years of the Polish intervention. It ended with the surrender of the Russian army, surrounded near Smolensk. Her commander M. Shein(? -1634) was accused by the boyars of treason and hanged. According to the Polyanovsky peace, Smolensk and the Seversky lands remained with Poland. Russia paid her an indemnity of 20 thousand rubles, although from that moment on the Polish king renounced his claims to the Moscow throne.

Russia was worried about the Crimean Khanate - a vassal of Turkey, which at that time was a strong state. In 1637, the Don Cossacks captured Azov, which belonged to Turkey, which they held for five years. By decision of the Zemsky Sobor in 1642, the Cossacks were asked to leave this port in order to avoid complications.

"A village near the Trinity-Sergius Monastery.

Despite numerous wars under the first Romanov, Russia expanded its ties with the West; foreigners came to Russia, especially Germans. The West sold firearms to Russia, recruited hired officers and soldiers served in the Russian army. The Dutch merchant A. Vinius founded the first plant near Tula for the production of iron and cast iron products. During these years, the traveler A. Olearius (1603-1671) visited Russia, leaving a description of his journey to Muscovy.

Cathedral Code of 1649 and the strengthening of autocracy

The reign of the one who ascended the throne after the death of Michael Alexey Mikhailovich(1629-1676) was marked by extremely important domestic and foreign political events for Russia.

Under Alexei Mikhailovich, nicknamed Quietest, were measures were taken to strengthen the autocracy. The Order of Secret Affairs was created, the administrative apparatus was strengthened - the number of orders increased.

The largest event in the socio-political life of Russia was the drafting and adoption in 1649 of the Cathedral Code - the first Russian legislative monument, published in a typographical way in the amount of 2 thousand copies. It was sent for guidance to all governors in the cities and to all Moscow orders and was translated into almost all European languages. The Cathedral Code contains about a thousand articles grouped into 25 chapters. In the first nine chapters, punishments for crimes against the church and royal power are recorded. Burning at the stake was envisaged if God and the church were criticized. A person accused of treason and insulting the honor of the sovereign, as well as boyars, governors, was subjected to execution. The one who exposed the weapon in the presence of the king was punished by cutting off his hand. Thus, in the Cathedral Code, the personality of the sovereign, the honor of the sovereign's court were protected, Orthodoxy, the feudal system were protected. Land ownership was fixed as a privilege of the ruling feudal class, church land ownership was limited. Serfdom received legislative formalization: St. George's Day was completely abolished, the feudal lords could fully dispose of the property, labor and personality of the peasant. In general, the Cathedral Code testified to the centralization of state power, the increasing role of the nobility in strengthening the state and Russia's movement towards absolute monarchy. Soon the Zemsky Sobors lost their role.

External politics

In the 17th century the liberation war of the Ukrainian people against the Polish-gentry oppression began. It lasted from 1648 to 1654, it was headed by the Hetman of Ukraine Bohdan Khmelnytsky(c. 1595-1657). In October 1653, at the Zemsky Sobor, the proposal of the government of Tsar Alexei to accept Ukraine "under the high hand of the state" was approved. In 1654, the Pereyaslav Rada unanimously spoke in favor of the reunification of Ukraine with Russia, which would have progressive significance for the destinies of the Ukrainian and Russian peoples. Ukraine retained a special state-political structure - the hetmanate.

This decision caused the disagreement of the Commonwealth, and the war with Russia continued in 1654-1667. Russia fought for the return of the Smolensk and Chernigov lands, Belarus and the reunification of Ukraine with Russia. In 1654-1655. Russian troops defeated the main forces of the Commonwealth, liberated the Smolensk region and most of Belarus. Hostilities, resumed in 1658, went on with varying degrees of success. Since 1660, the Polish troops seized the initiative. In 1667, the Andrusovo truce was concluded, according to which Poland returned the Smolensk and Chernigov lands to Russia and recognized the reunification of Left-Bank Ukraine with Russia.

Simultaneously with the Commonwealth, Russia in 1656-1658. waged war with Sweden for access to the Baltic Sea. At the initial stage, Russian troops won major victories, in 1657-1658. military operations were carried out with varying success. This war ended with the signing of the Peace of Cardis in 1661, according to which Russia did not receive access to the Baltic Sea.

Throughout the 17th century a great danger to Russia in the south was the Crimean Khanate (remember the siege of Azov). In 1681, the Bakhchisaray peace was concluded. Under this agreement, the Dnieper was recognized as the border between Crimea and Russia; for 20 years, the Crimean Khanate pledged not to support the enemy of the Russian state. But in 1686, Russia terminated this agreement, since according to the "Eternal Peace" concluded with the Commonwealth, Russia and Poland united to fight against the Turkish-Tatar aggression.

Domestic political situation

Under the first Romanovs, the internal political situation of the country was difficult.

From 1630 to 1650 residents of 30 cities rebelled - Veliky Ustyug, Novgorod, Voronezh, Kursk, Vladimir, Siberian cities, etc. The largest uprisings were in Moscow (1648), Pskov and Novgorod (1650), They were suppressed, and their active participants were executed.

17th century brought serious shocks to the Russian Church. By the middle of this century, dissatisfaction with the church, which maintained orders that increased the oppression of the common people, was growing in Russian society, as well as the unseemly behavior of many clergy, the lack of uniformity of church services. Significant discrepancies have accumulated in religious books and church rites; sacred canons were interpreted inconsistently. Each locality had its own traditions of performing a cult. The order of the service was at odds with the Greek rite. Thus, the need for church reform arose. In 1653-1660. patriarch Nikon(1605-1681) carried out a church reform. She unified church rites and established the uniformity of worship for all Orthodox churches. The Greek rank was taken as a model, all sacred and liturgical books were corrected according to Greek models, only icons of Greek writing were allowed for worship.

Despite the fact that the reform of Patriarch Nikon was supported by the sovereign Alexei Mikhailovich, his inner circle and the highest clergy, there was a split in the Russian church. Priests and archpriests opposed the church reform in Moscow (I. Neropov, S. Vnifatiev), in Suzdal (N. Pustosvyat), in Yuryevets - Avvakum Petrov and other cities. They began to be called schismatics.

Archpriest Avvakum(1620-1682) was the ideologist of the Old Believers, the Old Believers. They demanded a return to the old rituals and traditions: to read and sing during the service at the same time different things in several voices (the reform established unanimity); make the sign of the cross with two fingers, and not three, as the reform believed; bows during worship should remain half-length, and not earthly, as the reform introduced; they demanded a return to the salting process, and not the procession towards the sun, as the reform provided.

On the side of the Old Believers there were many townspeople, peasants, archers. The split of the church became a form of social protest of the masses.

All provisions of the reform were approved by Zemsky Sobors

1654-1656; The schismatics were condemned and excommunicated from the church. Priest Avvakum was exiled to Dauria (Transbaikalia), returned to Moscow, exiled again, then cut short, cursed and burned.

The social protest of the schismatics was essentially directed towards fanaticism and asceticism, mysticism; the supporters of the schism denied everything new and foreign; were hostile to secular culture and knowledge. Therefore, it is impossible to evaluate the schism as a truly progressive phenomenon, although thanks to the Old Believers, many written monuments of past centuries have been preserved.

Nikon's intervention in the internal and foreign affairs of the state, justified by the fact that "the priesthood is higher than the kingdom" (the church is higher than the monarch), led to a break between the patriarch and the tsar. Zemsky Sobor 1666-1667 deprived Nikon of the patriarchate and exiled.

During the reign of Alexei Mikhailovich, the largest Peasant War in 1670-1671 in the history of Russia took place. Her leader is Stepan Razin(c. 1630-1671) Don Cossack, chieftain, who first fought with the Crimean Tatars, then with the Turks. In 1667, with a detachment of the Cossack poor, he made a trip to the Volga and Yaik, then to Persia along the Caspian Sea. In the spring of 1670, he led the Peasants' War, in which he showed himself to be a capable organizer and military leader. He promised to destroy slavery, to free the peasants from the power of the boyars and nobles. Along with the Cossacks, the peoples of the Volga region participated in the war. The rebels took Tsaritsyn, Astrakhan, Saratov, Samara, besieged Simbirsk, but Razin's troops were defeated. Ataman went to the Don, but was betrayed by the homely Cossacks, captured and executed in Moscow. After the execution of Razin, the war still continued, separate detachments performed in many cities of the Volga region, the Galician district, in the Solovetsky Monastery.

From 1682 to 1696 the Russian throne was occupied by the sons of Tsar Alexei from different marriages - Peter(1672-1725) and Ivan(1666-1696). Since they were minors, their sister was the ruler Princess Sophia(1657-1704), who ruled from 1682 to 1689. During this period, the role of the prince increased. V. Golitsyna(1643-1714), favorite of the princess.

In 1689, Peter I came of age, got married and showed a desire to fight against the old obsolete boyar traditions. Sophia made an attempt with the help of archers, dissatisfied with the creation of regiments of the new system, the loss of many of her privileges, to deprive Peter of power. However, she failed. Peter was supported by the Preobrazhensky and Semenovsky regiments, many boyars and nobles, the Moscow patriarch and even some archery regiments. Peter kept the throne, punished the rebellious archers, disbanded the archery army, Sophia was tonsured into a monastery.

The beginning of the reign of Peter 1

Russian economy in the 17th century.

In 1696 Ivan V died, Peter became the sovereign ruler. The first task of Peter was to continue the struggle for the Crimea. He directed his actions to the capture of Azov - a Turkish fortress at the mouth of the Don. But due to poorly prepared siege equipment and the lack of ships, the Russian troops failed. Then Peter set about building a fleet on the river. Voronezh. Having built 30 large ships in one year, doubling the land army, Peter in 1696 blocked Azov from the sea and captured it. To secure the Sea of ​​Azov, he built a fortress Taganrog.

AT In 1697, he went with the "Great Embassy" to Europe, combining diplomacy. mission with a variety of cognitive tasks in shipbuilding, military affairs, craft.

In the 17th century Russia's productive forces as a whole have evolved. The population increased significantly, amounting to 10.5 million people by the end of the century. There were 335 cities in Russia. During this period, flattening hammers, drilling machines, and paper mills are known in Russia. 55 manufactories were built, mainly metallurgical ones. For the creation of industrial enterprises in Russia, foreign capital is attracted, and on preferential terms.

Gradually, the process of social division of labor deepens, the specialization of agricultural and industrial areas is determined, handicraft is transformed into small-scale production - all this leads to an increase in commodity exchange. The local form of land ownership contributes to the decomposition of the natural character of the economy. Production is developing on the basis of processing agricultural raw materials: in the estates they are engaged in distillation, the production of cloth, linen, and they create flour-grinding and leather enterprises.

In Russia, the process of primitive accumulation of capital begins, although, unlike England, it proceeded in a feudal form - wealth was accumulated by large landowners. There was a differentiation of the population, there are rich and poor, there are "walking" people, i.e. deprived of the means of production. They become freelancers. Hired workers could be otkhodnik peasants. The status of an employee receives legislative confirmation in the Cathedral Code. All this testifies to the birth of capitalist relations. The systematic growth of trade with European and Asian countries also contributes to this. The Russian market is included in the system of the world market, world economic relations. Russia sells furs, timber, tar, potash, hemp, hemp, ropes, canvases to Western countries. If earlier 20 ships arrived in Arkhangelsk annually, then in the 17th century. -80. Among the imported goods are consumer goods for the feudal elite and silver coins as a raw material for the manufacture of domestic money. Russia traded with the Eastern countries through Astrakhan. The cities of Dagestan and Azerbaijan played an important role. In the 17th century Trade relations began with China and India.

A new stage is also beginning in the development of domestic trade. Trade relations acquire a national character. In terms of trade turnover, Moscow occupied the first place - there were 120 specialized trade rows and 4 thousand retail premises.

In the 17th century continued active development of Siberia. The Russians reached the shores of the Pacific Ocean, Kamchatka, and the Kuril Islands. In 1645 the pioneer Vasily Poyarkov sailed along the Amur to the Sea of ​​Okhotsk. In 1648 Semyon Dezhnev(c. 1605-1673) discovered the strait separating Asia from North America. In 1649-1653 Erofey Khabarov (ca. 1610-after 1667) from Yakutia made a trip to Dauria (Transbaikalia) and reached the Amur.

The explorers made maps of Siberia, drawings, reviews, paintings of cities, individual regions and the entire region as a whole. In 1672, the "Drawing of the Siberian lands" was drawn up. Gradually, the settlement of Siberia, its colonization took place, fortified cities were founded, which served them as strongholds for further advancement. They were called ostrogs. So, in 1619, the Elysian prison arose, in 1628 - the Krasnoyarsk prison, etc.

The trade of the central regions with the Urals, Siberia, the Far East, and with the southern outskirts has expanded. The centers of trade were large fairs of all-Russian importance - Makarievskaya from the 16th century, Irbitskaya from the first half of the 17th century, Svenskaya, Arkhangelskaya.

There have been shifts in the social structure of Russian society. Approval in the XV-XVI centuries. the nobility put forward a local form of land tenure, and in the 17th century. strengthened positions merchants. Domestic trade is turning into a sphere for the application of merchant capital. Merchants stand out as a special group and are subdivided into corporations: guests, living room hundred, cloth hundred.

The Russian government supported the merchant class. In 1653, a law was adopted on the internal and external trade of Russia: the Charter of Trade, which replaced the plurality of trade fees with a single ruble trade duty, in the amount of 5% of the turnover. In 1667, the New Trade Charter was adopted, which has a protectionist character and protects the Russian merchants from foreign competition.

In the 17th century in Russia, a reform of public finances was carried out, although it still had a feudal character. Instead of land tax, in 1678, household taxation was introduced, which expanded the number of taxpayers. The system of other direct taxes was also changed.

In 1649-1652. in Russia, a reform was carried out, called the "Posad construction", in accordance with which the white settlements were liquidated in the cities, they were merged with the settlements. Now the entire urban population had to bear the tax on the sovereign. The "Posad construction" was carried out on a nationwide scale.

In 1679, various taxes collected from the artisan and merchant population of the settlements were combined into a single tax - "streltsy money" or "streltsy tax". A system of ransoms was introduced - a form of tax collection. "Naddacha", received by the farmer for the right to collect taxes, was the source of the initial accumulation of capital.

State control bodies appeared: in 1655-1678. there was the Counting Order, which at the end of the century was replaced by the Middle Office. In 1654, a monetary reform was carried out, according to which copper money was put into circulation with a forced exchange rate - a copper penny was equated to a silver one. The reform ended unsuccessfully. Copper money depreciated. The response to this monetary policy was copper riot in Moscow in 1652. The rebellion was suppressed, but the government was forced to abolish copper money, they were withdrawn from circulation.

"White settlements belonged to private feudal lords; they were not taxed. The population of the settlements opposed such an unfair distribution.

The era of the XVI-XVII centuries. was a turning point not only for Europe, but also for Russia. Here the process of folding a single state was completed and its type was determined as a multinational centralized state. A state system of serfdom was established. At the same time, the trend towards the decomposition of the natural character of the economy intensified in Russia, and the formation of a single all-Russian market begins. The state increases its territory, actively participates in geographical discoveries and is increasingly involved in the orbit of pan-European politics and trade. Just as in the countries of Western Europe, in Russia in this era there was a tendency to weaken the church and move the state system from a representative monarchy to absolutism. The attempts of the papacy to draw Russia into the sphere of influence of Catholicism were not crowned with success either.

Questions for self-examination

1. Expand how the estate-representative monarchy developed in Russia in the 16th century. - XVII century. and how the transition to absolute monarchy took place in the second half of the 17th century.

2. What areas of socio-political and economic life were affected by the reforms of Ivan IV, what significance did they have?

3. How do you rate the oprichnina?

4. Tell us about the main events in Russia's foreign policy in the 16th-17th centuries. and their consequences.

5. What caused the Time of Troubles, what role did it play in the awakening of national consciousness?

6. Expand the main stages of the enslavement of peasants in Russia, show the role of the state in this process.

7. Describe the content and significance of the Council Code of 1649.

8. What caused the split of the church in Russia in the 17th century, what did it lead to?

9. Expand the causes and nature of estate and class contradictions in Russia in the XVI-XVII centuries, the forms of their resolution.