Literary language is called the historically developed processed form of the existence of the language of the people or the national language. Literary language as the highest form of language is characterized by richness of vocabulary, orderliness of grammatical structure, developed system of styles, strict observance of spelling and punctuation rules. variance, not tied to styles and communicative areas. The literary language is standardized and codified, that is, it is fixed in the dictionaries and grammars of the modern language.

The norm of the literary language is stable and conservative. “The essence of any literary language,” wrote L.V. Shcherba, “is in its stability, in its traditional character.” Norm of the literary language

combines into a single whole all the varieties of a given language, its stylistic richness, its historical variants and dialectal and professional deviations. In this sense, literary

the standard norm represents the general vernacular. Therefore, the strengthening and dissemination of the standard of the literary language is a matter of special concern to society. The role of the school is great in strengthening the literary norm. The norm of the literary language is based on the language usage (i.e.

to mass and regular word usage) and the approval of this word usage by the educated "part of society. Being a concrete historical phenomenon, the norm of the literary language changes, moves from the old to the new quality. Literary language literally means written language The languages ​​of nationalities, as already mentioned, can have a literary and written form.The development of a unified statehood and

culture requires a written language. This is how literary-written languages ​​arise in slave-owning, feudal, capitalist and socialist societies. Writers play an important role in establishing and spreading the literary norm. Thus, the history of the Russian literary language was embodied in the works of Lomonosov and Fonvizin, Karamzin. The great role of writers in the approval and dissemination of the literary norm, and of literature in public life, sometimes leads to the idea that the literary language is the language of fiction, which, of course, is wrong. The language of a work of art, firstly, contains not only literary-normalized speech, but also the individual style of the author and the speech of the characters that are created by the author. Stylized literary texts and characters' speech suggest a departure from the norm, the creation of an individual style and expressive text. The second difference between the language of fiction and the literary language is that the latter is not only a means of artistic reflection of reality and emotional impact; literary language is a tool

communication also in the sphere of social and political life and science. The literary language is multifunctional, and this creates literary language styles designed for different areas of communication and expression of different types of messages. . An example of a literary and written language that arose in a slave-owning society is the ancient Greek and Latin languages. The Latin nation and its language arise in the course of the conquest (starting from the middle of the 7th century BC) by the Roman Republic of Italy. Medieval Latin differed significantly from the Latin language of the ancient era. As a dead language, Latin is still used in Catholic worship, medicine and some other natural sciences.

10. Historical variability of language. Synchrony and diachrony .

Synchrony- it is like a horizontal cut, i.e. the state of the language at the moment as a ready-made system of interrelated and interdependent elements: lexical, grammatical and phonetic, which have value, or significance (valeur de Saussure), regardless of their origin, but only in the strength of relationships between themselves within the whole - the system. diachrony- this is the path in time that each element of the language makes separately, changing in history. Thus, according to de Saussure, synchrony is connected with the system, but removed from the relations of time, while diachrony is connected with time, but removed from the relations of the system. In other words: “... diachrony is considered as a field of single phenomena, and language as a system is studied only in the field of synchrony. In other words, the development of a language is depicted as a change only in separate individual phenomena, and not as a change in the system, while the system is studied only in its givenness at a certain moment ... ”language should be studied and understood as a system not only in its present, but also in its past, i.e., to study its phenomena both in connection with each other and in development at the same time, noting in each state of the language phenomena receding into the past, and phenomena emerging against the background of stabilized phenomena normal for the given state of the language.

11. Individualistic hypotheses of the origin of language .

Among the conditions in which language arose were factors associated with the evolution of the human organism, and factors associated with the transformation of the primitive herd into society. That's why

a great many statements about the origin of language can be divided into two main groups: 1) biological theories, 2) social theories.

Biological theories explain the origin of language by the evolution of the human body - the sense organs, the speech apparatus and the brain. The positive thing about these theories is that they consider the emergence of language as the result of a long development of nature, thereby rejecting the one-time (divine) origin of language. Among biological theories, two are best known - onomatopoeia and interjection.

Onomatopoeic and interjection theories. The onomatopoeic theory explains the origin of language by the evolution of hearing organs that perceive the cries of animals (especially domestic ones). Language arose, according to this theory, as an imitation of animals (neighing of horses, bleating of sheep) or as an expression of an impression about a named object. Onomatopoeic words have sounds and forms that already exist in the language. That's why a duck screams for a Russian quack quack

(quacks) for an Englishman quack-quack (quack), for French kan-kan (sapsapeg), but for the Dane pan-pan (rapper). There are different and sublingual words with which a person refers to the home

animal such as pig, duck, goose. Interjectional (or reflex) theory explains the origin of language by the experiences that a person experiences. The first words, according to this theory, are involuntary cries, interjections, reflexes. They emotionally expressed pain or joy, fear or hunger. In the course of further development, cries acquired a symbolic meaning, obligatory for all members of this community. If in the onomatopoeic theory the external world (sounds of animals) was the impetus, then the interjection theory considered the inner world of a living being, his emotions, as a stimulus for the appearance of words. Common to both theories is the recognition, along with the sound language, of the presence of a sign language that expressed more rational concepts. Onomatopoeic and interjection theories put the study of the origin of the mechanism of speech, mainly in psychophysiological terms, at the forefront. Ignoring the social factor in these theories led to a skeptical attitude towards them: the onomatopoeic theory began to be jokingly called the “wow-wow theory”, and the interjection - “tfu-tfu theory”. Indeed, in these theories the biological side of the issue is exaggerated, the origin of language is considered exclusively in terms of the origin of speech. It does not take into account with due attention the fact that man and human society are emerging, essentially different from the animal and its herd.

biological theories.

1. Onomatopoeic theory

Did you try to substantiate the principles of the onomatopoeic theory at the end!? early 18th century Leibniz (1646-1716). The great German thinker argued as follows: there are derivative, late languages, and there is a primary language, a "root" language, from which all subsequent derivative languages ​​were formed. According to Leibniz, onomatopoeia took place primarily in the root language, and only to the extent that "derivative languages" developed further the foundations of the root language did they develop the principles of onomatopoeia at the same time. To the extent that derived languages ​​moved away from the root language, their word production turned out to be less "naturally onomatopoeic" and more and more symbolic. Leibniz also ascribed quality to certain sounds. True, he believed that the same sound can be associated with several qualities at once. So, the sound l, according to Leibniz, can express something soft (leben to live, lieben to love, liegen to lie), and something completely different. For example, in the words lion (lion) lynx (lynx), loup (wolf) sound l does not mean something gentle. Here, perhaps, a connection is found with some other quality, namely with speed, with running (Lauf).

Accepting onomatopoeia as the principle of the origin of language, as the principle on the basis of which the "gift of speech" arose in man, Leibniz rejects the significance of this principle for the subsequent development of language. The disadvantage of the onomatopoeic theory is the following: the supporters of this theory consider language not as a social, but as a natural (natural) phenomenon.

2. Theory of the emotional origin of language and the theory of interjections

Its most important representative was JJ Rousseau (1712-1778). In a treatise on the origin of languages, Rousseau wrote that "passions caused the first sounds of the voice." According to Rousseau, "the first languages ​​were melodious and passionate, and only later did they become simple and methodical." According to Rousseau, it turned out that the first languages ​​were much richer than the subsequent ones. But civilization has corrupted man. That is why language, according to Rousseau, has deteriorated from being richer, more emotional, more direct, and has become dry, rational and methodical.

The emotional theory of Rousseau received a peculiar development in the 19th and 20th centuries and became known as the theory of interjections.

One of the defenders of this theory, the Russian linguist Kudryavsky (1863-1920), believed that interjections were a kind of first human words. Interjections were the most emotional words in which the primitive man put different meanings depending on a particular situation. According to Kudryavsky, in interjections, sound and meanings were still inextricably linked. Subsequently, as interjections turned into words, the sound and meanings diverged, and this transition of interjections into words was associated with the emergence of articulate speech.

Soyial origin theories:

1. Theory of sound cries

This theory arose in the 19th century in the writings of vulgar materialists (Germans Noiret, Bücher). It boiled down to the fact that language arose from the cries that accompanied collective work. But these labor cries can only be a means of rhythmizing labor, they do not express anything, not even emotions, but are only an external, technical means at work.

2. Social contract theory

From the middle of the 18th century, the theory of the social contract emerged.

The essence of this theory is that in the later stages of the development of the language it is possible to agree on certain words, especially in the field of terminology.

But it is quite obvious that, first of all, in order to "agree on a language", one must already have a language in which one "agrees".

3. The human origin of the language

The German philosopher Herder spoke of the purely human origin of language.

Herder believed that human language arose not to communicate with other people, but to communicate with oneself, to realize one's own self. If a person lived in complete solitude, then, according to Herder, he would have a language. Language was the result of "a secret agreement that the soul of man entered into with itself."

There are also other theories about the origin of the language. For example, the theory of gestures (Geiger, Wundt, Marr). All references to supposedly purely "sign languages" cannot be supported by facts; gestures always act as something secondary for people who have a spoken language. There are no words among gestures, gestures are not connected with concepts.

It is also unlawful to derive the origin of the language from analogues with the mating songs of birds as manifestations of the instinct of self-preservation (Ch. Darwin), especially from human singing (Rousseau, Jespersen). The disadvantage of all the theories listed above is that they ignore language as a social phenomenon.

4. Labor theory of Engels

Special attention should be paid to Engels' labor theory.

In connection with the labor theory of the origin of language, one should first of all mention

F. Engels' unfinished work "The Role of Labor in the Process of the Transformation of Apes into Humans". In the Introduction to the Dialectic of Nature, Engels explains the conditions for the emergence of language:

“When, after a thousand-year struggle, the hand finally differentiated from the legs and a straight gait was established, then man separated from the monkey, and the foundation was laid for the development of articulate speech ...” Vertical gait was in human development a prerequisite for the emergence of speech, and a prerequisite for the expansion and development of consciousness .

The revolution that man introduces into nature consists, first of all, in the fact that human labor is different from that of animals, it is labor with the use of tools of labor, and, moreover, manufactured by those who should own them, and thus progressive and social labor. . No matter how skillful architects we consider ants and bees, they do not know what they say: their work is instinctive, their art is not conscious, and they work with the whole organism, purely biologically, without using tools, and therefore there is no progress in their work .

The freed hand became the first human tool, other tools of labor developed as an addition to the hand (stick, hoe, rake); still later, the man shifts the burden of labor onto the elephant. Camel, horse, and he manages them, finally. The technical engine appears and replaces the animals.

In short, people who were being formed came to the point that they had a need to say something to each other. Need created its own organ: the undeveloped larynx of the monkey was slowly but steadily transformed by modulations for more and more developed modulation, and the organs of the mouth gradually learned to pronounce one articulate sound after another. "Thus, language could only arise as a collective property necessary for mutual understanding. But not as an individual property of this or that incarnated individual.

Engels writes: "First, work, and then articulate speech along with it, were the two most important stimuli under the influence of which the human brain gradually turned into a human brain."

Literary language is not only the language of writers, but also a sign of an intelligent and educated person. Unfortunately, people not only do not own it, but not everyone knows about its existence, including some modern writers. The works are written in very simple words, jargon and slang are used in large quantities, which is unacceptable for the literary language. For those who want to master the language of poets and writers, the signs of the literary language will be described.

Definition

Literary language is the highest form of language, which is opposed to vernacular, jargon, dialectisms. Some experts oppose it to the colloquial form, because they consider it to be a written language (for example, in the Middle Ages they only wrote in the literary language).

This form is considered a historical category, because this category is formed in the process of language development. The literary language is an indicator of the level of national culture, because works are created and cultured people communicate in it.

There are many definitions: some are built from a linguistic point of view, others use delimitation with the help of native speakers of this language. Each definition is correct, the main thing is that you know how to distinguish it from other categories. Below the concept of signs of a literary language will be given.

The formation of a cultural language form

The basis of the literary language is the dialect, which is dominant in the political, economic and cultural center of the state. The basis for the Russian language was the Moscow dialect. The Church Slavonic language served as a great influence on the formation of this species. The first written translations into our language were Christian books, which later affected the formation of the language. For a long time, learning to write took place through the church, which undoubtedly influenced the cultural written language.

But one should not combine the literary language and the artistic one, because in the first case it is a broad concept that includes the variety with which works are written. Signs of the literary language are its strict standardization and accessibility for everyone, while some authors of works of art do not have enough knowledge of the literary form of the language in the broadest sense.

How to determine the language of writers

The cultural form of speech does not tolerate excessive use of slang words, clericalism, speech stamps, and vernacular. There are norms that allow you to keep the purity of the language by providing a language standard. These norms can be found in grammar references and dictionaries.

There are main features of the literary language:

Literary language as part of the national

Each language has its own national limits, so it reflects the entire cultural heritage of its people, its history. Due to ethnic features, each language is unique and original, has characteristic folk features. The national and literary languages ​​are closely interconnected, which creates unlimited possibilities for the language. But it is still possible to distinguish the signs of the national literary language.

The form under consideration, along with the national one, also includes the use of non-literary styles. Every nation has its own dialect. The Russian is divided into North Russian, Central Russian and South Russian. But some words for various reasons fall into the literary language. They will be called dialectisms. Their use is permissible only from the point of view of style, that is, it is considered possible in a certain context.

One of the types of the national language is jargon - these are words used by a certain group of people. Its use is also possible in the literary language, jargon was especially widely used in Russian literature in the post-Soviet period. Their use is strictly regulated by literary norms:

• characterization of the hero;
• with proof of the appropriateness of use.

Dialect is another feature of the national language, which is typical for people living in the same territory or united on a social basis. In literature, dialect words can be used in the following cases:

Signs of the modern Russian literary language

In the traditional sense, the language has been considered modern since the time of A. S. Pushkin. Since one of the main features of the literary language is the norm, you should know what norms the modern one is based on:

• stress norms;
• orthoepic;
• lexical;
• phraseological;
• word formation;
• spelling;
• punctuation;
• grammatical;
• syntactic;
• stylistic.

The literary language is characterized by strict observance of all norms in order to preserve the entire cultural heritage. But the modern literary language has problems associated precisely with the preservation of the purity of the language, namely, the large use of devalued vocabulary (foul language), a large number of borrowings, and the frequent use of jargon.

Functional style views

As it was written above, its stylistic diversity belongs to the features of the literary language.

1. Written and bookish speech, which is divided into official business, journalistic and scientific.
2. Artistic speech.

The colloquial form of speech was not included here, because it does not have strict regulation, that is, one of the main features of the literary language.

Russian literary language in the late 20th - early 21st centuries.

The processes taking place in a language are a natural phenomenon, because it is not a static unit. It also changes and develops along with society. In the same way, new signs of the literary language have appeared in our time. Now the media is becoming an influential sphere, which forms new functional language features. With the development of the Internet, a mixed written and spoken form of speech begins to develop.

The literary language performs a very complex and important task: to preserve the accumulated knowledge, to unite the entire cultural and national heritage and to pass everything on to new generations, while maintaining national identity.

IN THE RUSSIAN LANGUAGE AND SPEECH CULTURE

BY THEME: LITERARY LANGUAGE AND ITS MAIN FEATURES

KHABAROVSK, 2011

Introduction

Conclusion

Introduction

In different eras, among different peoples and nationalities, in unequal historical conditions, specific systems of social variants of the language are formed - social stratifications of languages. There was a need for a so-called supra-territorial variant of the language, unified for the state, with special communicative properties (increased accuracy of speech, the ability to convey various logical relationships, stability in time, specialization, etc.). After all, the state power must convey its orders to all the inhabitants of the country, these orders must be clear to everyone. This need is satisfied by the appearance of its own literary language.

The correctness of speech is one of the problems that interested scientists of different generations. This problem is especially acute in epochs of transition for society, when social problems push cultural ones into the background. In times of stability, public opinion, the prestige of education, the desire for a high level of personal culture are the factors that restrain the process of clogging the literary language with non-literary units. In unstable eras, there is simply no time to pay attention to these issues. A kind of censorship still exists at the level of the media, diplomacy, paperwork, science, but it is not so strict.

The state of the language today resembles the situation of the first decades of the 20th century, the time when a whole stream of non-normative elements “rushed” into literary speech. It was in the first decades of the 20th century that active work began on the study of the norms of the language and the compilation of dictionaries. During this period, G.O. wrote about the correctness and richness of speech. Vinokur, V.V. Vinogradov, K.S. Skvortsov, S.I. Ozhegov and other linguists.

1. The origin of the Russian literary language

The literary Russian language began to take shape many centuries ago. Until now, there are disputes in science about its basis, about the role of the Church Slavonic language in its origin. The Russian language belongs to the Indo-European family. Its origins date back to the time of the existence and collapse of the common European (proto-Slavic) language. From this common Slavic unity (VI-VII centuries), several groups stand out: eastern, western and southern. It is in the East Slavic group that the Russian language will later stand out (XV century).

In the Kievan state, a mixed language was used, which was called Church Slavonic. All liturgical literature, being written off from Old Slavonic Byzantine and Bulgarian sources, reflected the norms of the Old Slavonic language. However, words and elements of the Old Russian language penetrated into this literature. In parallel to this style of language, secular and business literature also existed. If the Psalter, the Gospel, and so on serve as examples of the Church Slavonic language, then the Tale of Igor's Campaign, The Tale of Bygone Years, and Russian Truth are considered examples of the secular and business language of Ancient Russia.

In Ancient Russia, two varieties of the literary language functioned:

) book-Slavonic literary language, based on Old Church Slavonic and used mainly in church literature;

) folk literary language based on the living Old Russian language and used in secular literature.

The further development of the literary language continued in the work of the great Russian writers, publicists, in the diverse activities of the Russian people. End of the 19th century up to the present time - the second period of development of the modern literary Russian language. This period is characterized by well-established linguistic norms, but these norms are being improved over time.

2. Literary language: its features and functions

Any national language exists in 4 main forms, one of which is normative, the rest are non-normative. The literary language is considered to be the main form of the national language. The literary language is an exemplary, standardized and codified form of the national language, which has a rich lexical fund and a developed system of styles.

Signs of literary language:

Normalization is a relatively stable way of expression, reflecting the historical patterns of language development, based on the language system, fixed in the best examples of literature and preferred by the educated part of society. The literary language allows the phenomenon of variation of the norm (although in different epochs of the development of the literary language, the amplitude of variation in variations is different).

codification (fixation of normative units in dictionaries, reference books, grammars),

rich vocabulary,

the presence of functional styles, each of which has special features,

obligatory for study and use by all native speakers,

wide use for communication in all areas of public life (education and science, politics, office work, media, culture, etc.),

the presence of rich fiction in this language,

relative stability of the vocabulary,

use throughout the territory of the nation.

The main task of the literary language is to unite the nation and preserve its cultural heritage.

Functions of the literary language

Modern Russian literary language multifunctional, i.e. it performs the functions of the everyday language of literate people, the language of science, journalism, public administration, the language of culture, literature, education, the media, etc. However, in certain situations, the functions of the literary language may be limited (for example, it may function mainly in writing, while territorial dialects are used in oral speech). The literary language is used in various spheres of social and individual human activity. The literary language differs from the language of fiction, but at the same time, as it were, is formed from it. The main feature of the language of fiction is that it performs a great aesthetic function, which is able to influence the reader with the help of figurative content specially organized according to the language. This also includes the function of communication, which is implemented in the dialogues and polylogues actively created on the pages of works. The highest norm of the language of fiction is its aesthetic motivation, i.e. when using language in an aesthetic function, the form of the message acts not only as a sign of a particular meaning, but also turns out to be significant in itself, represents a system of linguistic means for expressing figurative content, and ultimately the ideological and artistic design, namely, it becomes aesthetically motivated . The language of fiction contains not only literary normalized speech, but also the individual style of the author and the speech of the characters that are created by the author. Stylized literary texts and characters' speech suggest a departure from the norm, the creation of an individual style and expressive text.

Artistic speech is characterized by the use of all language means. Language means include not only words, expressions of the literary language, but also elements of vernacular, jargon, territorial dialects. The language of fiction is closely connected with the system of images of works of art, it widely uses epithets, metaphors, personifications, revival of inanimate objects, etc. Many means of the literary language acquire a special function: antonyms, synonyms are used for a more colorful description of the characters, their characters, habits, habits, etc.

The usual concept of a linguistic norm is inapplicable to the language of fiction. In the language of fiction, everything that serves to accurately express the author's thought is correct. This is the main difference between the language of fiction and the literary language.

3. The concept of the norm of the literary language

The literary norm is the rules for pronunciation, formation and use of language units in speech. Otherwise, the norm is defined as objectively established rules for the implementation of the language system. Norms are divided depending on the regulated tier of the language into the following types:

) orthoepic (norms of pronunciation of words and their forms),

2) accentological (stress norms, a special case of orthoepic),

3) lexical (norms for the use of words, depending on their meaning),

) phraseological (norms for the use of phraseological units),

) word-building (rules for creating new words according to models known to the language),

) morphological (rules for the formation and change of parts of speech),

) syntactic (rules for combining word forms into phrases and sentences). The last two norms are often combined under the general name - "grammatical norms", since morphology and syntax are closely interconnected.

Depending on the regulated form of speech, the norms are divided into:

those that are typical only for oral speech (these are orthoepic and accentological;

characteristic only for written speech (spelling, punctuation);

regulating both oral and written speech (all other types).

The literary norm is characterized by obligatoryness for all native speakers, use in all spheres of public life, relative stability, prevalence in all tiers of the language system.

The main function of the norm is security, its purpose is to preserve the richness of the literary language. The sources of changes in the norms of the literary language are different: live, colloquial speech, local dialects, vernacular, professional jargons, other languages.

The change of norms is preceded by the appearance of their variants that really exist in the language at a certain stage of its development, are actively used by its speakers. Variants of norms are reflected in the dictionaries of the modern literary language.

The historical change in the norms of the literary language is a natural, objective phenomenon. It does not depend on the will and desire of individual native speakers. The development of society, the change in the social way of life, the emergence of new traditions, the functioning of literature lead to the constant renewal of the literary language and its norms.

literary language speech sign

Conclusion

The norm of the literary language is a rather complex phenomenon that changes over time. Changes in the norm are especially noticeable in oral speech, since it is oral speech that is the most mobile layer of the language. The result of changing norms is the emergence of options. The variability of the norms of pronunciation and stress has become the subject of this work.

In the "Orthoepic Dictionary of the Russian Language" a significant number of orthoepic variants of words are recorded. Some options are equal (for example, barge and barge?), in other words, one of the options is the main one (for example, industry and additional obsolete industry).

The paper also deals with issues related to the types of norms, with the characteristics of various norms of the modern Russian literary language. In science, types of norms are distinguished depending on the level of the language, as well as norms that are strictly mandatory and not strictly mandatory. The last division is connected precisely with the presence of options.

The paper deals with issues related to orthoepic (phonetic and accentological) norms. The basic rules for the pronunciation of vowels and consonants are characterized.

List of sources used

1. Borunova S.N. and others. Orthoepic dictionary of the Russian language: Pronunciation, stress, grammatical forms. Ok.63 500 words / Under the editorship of R.I. Avanesov. M., 1983.

Vvedenskaya L.A. etc. Culture and art of speech. - Rostov-on-Don, 1995.

Golub I.B. Stylistics of the Russian language. - M., 2003. - 448 p.

Gorbachevich K.S. Word variance and language norm. - L., 1978.

Gorbachevich K.S. Norms of the modern Russian literary language. - M., 1981.

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A literary language is one in which there is a written language of a certain people, and sometimes several. That is, in this language, school education, written and everyday communication takes place, official business documents, scientific works, fiction, journalism, as well as all other manifestations of art that are expressed verbally, most often in writing, but sometimes also orally, are created. . Therefore, oral-colloquial and written-book forms of the literary language differ. Their interaction, correlation and emergence are subject to certain laws of history.

Various definitions of the concept

Literary language is a phenomenon that is understood in its own way by different scientists. Some believe that it is popular, only processed by the masters of the word, that is, writers. Proponents of this approach have in mind, first of all, the concept of a literary language, referring to the new time, and at the same time among peoples with a richly represented fiction. According to others, the literary language is bookish, written, which is opposed to living speech, that is, spoken language. This interpretation is based on those languages ​​in which writing is ancient. Still others believe that this is a language that is generally valid for a particular people, in contrast to jargon and dialect, which do not have such universal significance. Literary language is always the result of the joint creative activity of people. This is a brief description of this concept.

Relationship with various dialects

Particular attention should be paid to the interaction and correlation of dialects and literary language. The more stable the historical foundations of certain dialects, the more difficult it is for the literary language to unite linguistically all members of the nation. Until now, dialects have successfully competed with the general literary language in many countries, for example, in Indonesia, Italy.

This concept also interacts with language styles that exist within the boundaries of any language. They are varieties of it that have developed historically and in which there is a set of features. Some of them may be repeated in other different styles, but a peculiar function and a certain combination of features distinguish one style from the rest. Today, a large number of speakers use colloquial and colloquial forms.

Differences in the development of the literary language among different peoples

In the Middle Ages, as well as in the New Age, the history of the literary language developed differently among different peoples. Let us compare, for example, the role that the Latin language had in the culture of the Germanic and Romance peoples of the early Middle Ages, the functions that French played in England until the beginning of the 14th century, the interaction of Latin, Czech, Polish in the 16th century, etc.

Development of the Slavic languages

In an era when a nation is being formed and developed, there is a unity of literary norms. Most often this happens first in writing, but sometimes the process can take place simultaneously in writing and in oral form. In the Russian state of the period of the 16th-17th centuries, work was underway to canonize and streamline the norms of the business state language along with the formation of uniform requirements for the colloquial Moscow language. The same process occurs in others in which there is an active development of the literary language. For Serbian and Bulgarian, it is less typical, since in Serbia and Bulgaria there were no conditions favorable for the development of a business clerical and state language on a national basis. Russian, along with Polish and, to a certain extent, Czech, is an example of a national Slavic literary language that has retained its connection with ancient written language.

Having embarked on the path of breaking with the old tradition, this is Serbo-Croatian, and also partly Ukrainian. In addition, there are Slavic languages ​​that did not develop continuously. At a certain stage, this development was interrupted, so the emergence of national linguistic features in certain countries led to a break with the ancient, old-written tradition, or the later one - these are the Macedonian, Belarusian languages. Let us consider in more detail the history of the literary language in our country.

History of the Russian literary language

The oldest of the literary monuments that have survived date back to the 11th century. The process of transformation and formation of the Russian language in the 18-19 centuries took place on the basis of its opposition to French - the language of the nobility. In the works of the classics of Russian literature, its possibilities were actively studied, new language forms were introduced. Writers emphasized its richness and pointed out its advantages in relation to foreign languages. There were frequent disputes on this issue. For example, disputes between Slavophiles and Westernizers are known. Later, in the Soviet years, it was emphasized that our language is the language of the builders of communism, and during Stalin's rule there was even a whole campaign against cosmopolitanism in Russian literature. And at present, the history of the Russian literary language in our country continues to take shape, since its transformation is continuously taking place.

Folklore

Folklore in the form of sayings, proverbs, epics, fairy tales has its roots in a distant history. Samples of oral folk art were passed down from generation to generation, from mouth to mouth, and their content was polished in such a way that only the most stable combinations remained, and language forms were updated as the language developed.

And after the appearance of writing, oral creativity continued to exist. Urban and worker, as well as thieves (that is, prison camps) and army folklore were added to the peasant folklore in the New Age. Oral folk art today is most widely represented in jokes. It also affects the written literary language.

How did the literary language develop in Ancient Russia?

The spread and introduction that led to the formation of the literary language is usually associated with the names of Cyril and Methodius.

In Novgorod and other cities of the 11th-15th centuries, the bulk of the surviving ones were private letters that were of a business nature, as well as documents such as court records, bills of sale, receipts, wills. There are also folklore (household instructions, riddles, school jokes, conspiracies), literary and church texts, as well as records that were of an educational nature (children's scribbles and drawings, school exercises, warehouses, alphabets).

Introduced in 863 by the brothers Methodius and Cyril, Church Slavonic writing was based on a language such as Old Slavonic, which, in turn, originated from the South Slavic dialects, or rather, from the Old Bulgarian language, its Macedonian dialect. The literary activity of these brothers consisted primarily in translating the books of the Old, and Their disciples translated many religious books from Greek into Church Slavonic. Some scholars believe that Cyril and Methodius introduced the Glagolitic alphabet, and not the Cyrillic alphabet, and the latter was already developed by their students.

Church Slavonic

The language of the book, not the spoken language, was Church Slavonic. It spread among numerous Slavic peoples, where it acted as a culture. Church Slavonic literature spread in Moravia among the Western Slavs, in Romania, Bulgaria and Serbia among the southern Slavs, in the Czech Republic, Croatia, Wallachia, and also in Russia with the adoption of Christianity. The Church Slavonic language was very different from the spoken language, the texts were subjected to changes during correspondence, gradually becoming Russified. Words approached Russian, began to reflect the features characteristic of local dialects.

The first grammar books were compiled in 1596 by Lavrenty Zinany and in 1619 by Melety Smotrytsky. At the end of the 17th century, the process of formation of such a language as Church Slavonic was basically completed.

18th century - literary language reform

M.V. Lomonosov in the 18th century made the most important reforms of the literary language of our country, as well as the system of versification. He wrote a letter in 1739 in which he formulated the basic principles of versification. Lomonosov, arguing with Trediakovsky, wrote that it is necessary to use the possibilities of our language instead of borrowing various schemes from others. According to Mikhail Vasilyevich, poetry can be written in many stops: two-syllable three-syllable ones (amphibrachium, anapaest, dactyl), but he believed that the division into spondei and pyrrhia is incorrect.

In addition, Lomonosov also compiled a scientific grammar of the Russian language. He described in his book his opportunities and wealth. The grammar was reprinted 14 times and later formed the basis of another work - the grammar of Barsov (written in 1771), who was a student of Mikhail Vasilyevich.

Modern literary language in our country

Its creator is Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin, whose creations are the pinnacle of literature in our country. This thesis is still relevant, although great changes have taken place in the language over the past two hundred years, and today there are clear stylistic differences between the modern language and the language of Pushkin. Despite the fact that the norms of the modern literary language have changed today, we still consider the work of Alexander Sergeyevich as a model.

Meanwhile, the poet himself pointed to the main role in the formation of the literary language of N.M. Karamzin, since this glorious writer and historian, according to Alexander Sergeevich, freed the Russian language from someone else's yoke and returned its freedom.

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1. THE CONCEPT AND FEATURES OF THE LITERARY LANGUAGE

The most amazing and wise thing that humanity has created is language.

Literary language It is the main means of communication between people of the same nationality. It is characterized by two main properties: processing and normalization.

Processedness literary language arises as a result of purposeful selection of all the best that is in the language. This selection is carried out in the process of using the language, as a result of special studies by philologists and public figures.

normalization- the use of language means, regulated by a single universally binding norm. The norm as a set of rules of word usage is necessary to preserve the integrity and comprehensibility of the national language, to transfer information from one generation to another. If there were no single language norm, then changes could occur in the language, in which people living in different parts of Russia would cease to understand each other.

The main requirements that a literary language must meet are its unity and general intelligibility.

The modern Russian literary language is multifunctional and is used in various fields of human activity.

The main ones are: politics, science, culture, verbal art, education, everyday communication, interethnic communication, press, radio, television.

If we compare the varieties of the national language (vernacular, territorial and social dialects, jargon), the literary language plays a leading role. It includes the best ways to designate concepts and objects, express thoughts and emotions. There is a constant interaction between the literary language and non-literary varieties of the Russian language. This is most clearly seen in the sphere of colloquial speech.

In the scientific linguistic literature, the main features of the literary language are highlighted:

1) processing;

2) sustainability;

3) mandatory (for all native speakers);

4) normalization;

5) the presence of functional styles.

Russian literary language exists in two forms - oral and written. Each form of speech has its own specifics.

The Russian language in the broadest sense is the totality of all words, grammatical forms, pronunciation features of all Russian people, that is, all those who speak Russian as their native language. The more correct and accurate the speech, the more accessible it is for understanding, the more beautiful and expressive it is, the stronger it affects the listener or reader. To speak correctly and beautifully, you need to follow the laws of logic (consistency, evidence) and the norms of the literary language, observe the unity of style, avoid repetition, take care of the harmony of speech.

The main features of Russian literary pronunciation have developed precisely on the basis of the phonetics of Central Russian dialects. Nowadays, dialects are being destroyed under the pressure of the literary language.

2. MULTIFUNCTIONALITY OF THE RUSSIAN LITERARY LANGUAGE. THE DIFFERENCE IN THE FUNCTIONS OF THE LITERARY LANGUAGE AND THE LANGUAGE OF ART LITERATURE

The basis of the culture of speech is the literary language. It constitutes the highest form of the national language. It is the language of culture, literature, education, mass media.

The modern Russian language is multifunctional, that is, it is used in various fields of human activity. The means of the literary language (lexicon, grammatical constructions, etc.) are functionally delimited by their use in various fields of activity. The use of certain language means depends on the type of communication. The literary language is divided into two functional varieties: colloquial and bookish. In accordance with this, colloquial speech and book language are distinguished.

In oral colloquial speech, there are three styles of pronunciation: full, neutral, colloquial.

One of the most important properties of the bookish language is the ability to preserve the text and thus serve as a means of communication between generations. The functions of the bookish language are numerous and become more complex with the development of society. When selecting styles public language, many varieties are taken into account, covering the language material from “high”, bookish elements to “low”, colloquial. What functional styles is the bookish language divided into?

functional style- a kind of bookish language, characteristic of a certain sphere of human activity and having a certain originality in the use of language means. In the book language, there are three main styles - scientific, official business, journalistic.

Along with the listed styles, there is also the language of fiction. It belongs to the fourth functional style of the bookish language. However, artistic speech is characterized by the fact that all linguistic means can be used here: words and expressions of the literary language, elements of vernacular, jargons, territorial dialects. The author uses these means to express the idea of ​​the work, to make it expressive, to reflect the local color, etc.

The main function of artistic speech is influence. Used exclusively in works of art. Also, such speech has an aesthetic function, as an evaluation function is a communicative one. Fiction acts as an assessment of the surrounding world and an expression of attitude towards it.

Rhyme, rhythm- distinctive features of speech. The tasks of artistic speech are to influence the feelings and thoughts of the reader, listener, to arouse empathy in him.

The recipient is usually anyone. Conditions of communication - participants in communication are separated by time and space.

Language means of artistic speech (words in a figurative sense, emotionally figurative words, specific words (not birds, but thunder), interrogative, exclamatory, incentive sentences, with homogeneous members.

3. ORIGIN OF THE RUSSIAN LITERARY LANGUAGE

Until the XIV century. Old Russian existed as a common language of the ancestors of Ukrainians, Belarusians and Russians. The Russian language belongs to the eastern group of Slavic languages. This group includes Ukrainian and Belarusian languages. In addition to the eastern group, among the Slavic languages ​​there is also a southern group (Bulgarian, Serbo-Croatian, Slovene, Macedonian) and a western group of languages ​​(Polish, Slovak, Czech and some other languages). All Slavic languages ​​are closely related, have many common words, and are significantly similar in grammar and phonetics. In the XIV century. there was a separation of this East Slavic language (in connection with the formation of the Russian, Belarusian and Ukrainian nation), and since then the Russian language of the Russian people has existed.

In the combination "modern Russian literary language", first of all, the term "literary" requires clarification. Most people think that literary language is the language of fiction. But this understanding of the term is incorrect.

Literary language is the language of culture; it is the language of cultured people. The modern Russian literary language fulfills both of these purposes. But this is not always the case. For example, in the XVII century. in Russia, the language of written culture was mainly Church Slavonic, and the living language of cultured people, the means of their last communication, was Russian.

Artistic works and scientific works are created in the Russian literary language; it is the language of the theater, schools, newspapers and magazines, radio and television. At the same time, it is spoken in the family, at work, among friends, in public places. The fact that the same language performs both functions enriches the culture; it is built with the help of a lively, dynamic means of communication, capable of conveying the newest, newly emerging meanings, and conveys their very dynamics, helps them to arise and form.

But in different eras, the Russian language faced various dangers. In the 20s. 20th century - this is an influx of borrowed words (and borrowed without need), slang vocabulary, colloquial, i.e. non-normative, phenomena in the field of pronunciation and grammar.

In the 1930s many cultural figures fought against the excessive influence of dialects on the literary language, against the influx of jargon. And this problem was solved in the 1930s. thanks to the efforts of writers, teachers, journalists.

One of the dangers for literary speech is the influence on everyday, journalistic and even artistic speech of book stamps of an official business style.

The habit of using clichés, fused blocks of habitual, official-soulless words leads to the loss of a living sense of the language, and this is reflected in its grammatical side.

So, literary language is:

1) the language of national culture;

2) the language of communication of cultured people.

3) a language that has firm norms, the preservation of which is taken care of by the whole society.

4. TERRITORIAL DIAECTS AND SPEECH

Dialect - a kind of national language used as a means of communication between people connected by a close territorial community.

There are three groups of territorial dialects.

1. Northern Russian dialects are common north of Moscow, on the territory of Yaroslavl, Kostroma, Vologda, Arkhangelsk and some other regions. They have the following features:

1) okane- sound pronunciation [about] in an unstressed position where in the literary language [a];

2) clatter- indistinguishability of sounds [c] and [h](tsasy, kuricha);

3) [know], [know]- contraction of vowels in the personal endings of the verb;

4) the coincidence of the form of the instrumental case of the plural of nouns with the form of the dative case [let's go for mushrooms and berries].

2. Southern Russian dialects are common south of Moscow, in the territories of Kaluga, Tula, Oryol, Tambov, Voronezh and other regions. They have features:

1) akanye- indistinguishability of sounds [about] and [a] [vada];

2) yak- sound pronunciation [e] after a soft consonant in place I › E;

3) special pronunciation of sound [G], it's pronounced like a slit [G];

3. Central Russian dialects occupy an intermediate position between northern and southern Russian. They are located between the distribution areas of northern and southern dialects. Distinguishing features:

1) hiccup - sound pronunciation [and] on the spot I and E(rooster);

2) sound pronunciation [w] on the spot sch(chaste);

3) pronunciation [and] long soft in place LJ and zzh.

Dialects are destroyed under the pressure of the literary language, which, with the help of the mass media, penetrates into the most remote areas.

vernacular- a kind of national Russian language. It has no attachment to any particular place - this is the speech of an urban poorly educated population who does not know the norms of the literary language. The main feature of vernacular is anorativity, i.e., the absence of the norms of the literary language in speech.

Modern Russian vernacular has the following characteristic features.

1) the use of words denoting the degree of kinship when referring to strangers: father, brother, daughter, sister, man, woman;

2) the use of nouns in a diminutive suffix: do you want a seagull? Shave your temples?;

3) replacement of some words that are falsely understood as rude: rest (instead of sleeping), express (instead of talking), eat (instead of eating);

4) the use of emotional vocabulary in a "blurred" meaning: to play up, to spit, to chip, to scratch.

5) alignment of consonants in the stem of a word during conjugation: want - want, bake - bake;

6) mixing genders of nouns: eat all the jam, what apples are sour;

7) building up the end - ov in the genitive plural: a lot of business, no bridges;

8) declension of indeclinable nouns.

5. JARGON AND ARGO AS LIMITED SPEECH

Under argonisms it is necessary to understand such a specially limited vocabulary in use, which is an emotionally expressive expression of stylistically neutral words.

Jargon- the speech of people who make up separate groups that are united by a common profession. Jargons do not represent a complete system. The specificity of jargons lies in their vocabulary. Many words in them have a special meaning and sometimes differ in form from commonly used words.

Professional jargons are used by people of the same profession, mainly when communicating on industrial topics. In the jargon of pilots, the bottom of the fuselage of an aircraft is called belly, aerobatics - barrel, slide, loop. In the speech routine of physicians, for example, the words brilliant green, castor oil, injections are slang.

social jargon is the speech of a socially isolated group of people. Often the emergence of social jargon is dictated by the needs of the functioning and livelihood of a social group. An example is the argot ofenei that existed in pre-revolutionary Russia. Ofenya is a wandering merchant of small goods, a peddler. It happened that pedlars were attacked, their money and goods were taken away from them, so they were forced to hide their intentions and actions from outsiders. A specially developed “language” helped them in this, incomprehensible

Hny surrounding. Some elements of the beggarly, thieves' and Offen jargons have survived in our time, and some words have become common, having lost their jargon coloring and undergone semantic changes: double-dealer(among the poor, this was the name of the one who collected alms with two hands), Linden(fake), rogue, sly.

In modern Russian, there are no such jargons that would be created with the special purpose of encrypting a way of communication. Now there are such groups of jargons that reflect specific associations of people according to their interests (“fans”, “car enthusiasts”, “movie fans”, etc.).

In many languages ​​there are youth jargons- school and student (ancestors, spurs, tail, cool). Sometimes, when characterizing speech, representatives of various social strata use the following terms: slang, pidgin, koie.

Slang is a set of slang words that make up a layer of colloquial vocabulary, reflecting a rudely familiar, sometimes humorous attitude to the subject of speech.

pidgins name the structural-functional types of languages ​​that do not have a community of native speakers and have developed by simplifying the structure of the source language. Pidgin - languages ​​widely spoken in former colonies: in Southeast Asia, in India, Bangladesh, where pidgin English is spoken. This is "corrupted" English. In African countries, the population, communicating with foreigners, speaks pidgin French, pidgin Portuguese.

Koyie- a functional type of language used as the main means of everyday communication and used in various communicative areas.

6. FOREIGN LANGUAGE WORDS IN THE MODERN LITERARY LANGUAGE

The question of foreign borrowings is connected with the general problem of the historical formation of the vocabulary of the modern Russian language. In stylistic terms, the conditions and expediency of using such words in various styles of speech are of interest.

According to F. Engels, such words in most cases - generally accepted scientific and technical terms - would not be necessary if they could be translated. Translation often only distorts the meaning. V. G. Belinsky said: “A lot of foreign words have necessarily entered the Russian language, because a lot of foreign concepts and ideas have entered Russian life. Therefore, with a new concept, which one takes from another, he also takes the very word that expresses this concept. M. Gorky adhered to the same point of view.

... All these sounds merge into a deafening symphony of a working day. The boat sped off again, tackling silently and lightly among the ships. Revision 1935:

... All these sounds merge into the deafening music of the working day. The boat sped off again, moving silently and lightly among the ships.

Nominative and stylistic functions are performed by exotic vocabulary (words that characterize the life of different peoples).

A. S. Pushkin: Throw off your mantilla, dear angel; Panna weeps and yearns; Delibash is already at its peak. They play a double function barvariums(words from foreign languages). On the one hand, they are introduced into the Russian text (sometimes in a foreign language spelling) to convey the relevant concepts and create "local color". A. S. Pushkin in "Eugene Onegin": wearing a wide bolivar; and far niente my law...

Barvariums serve as a means of satire to ridicule people who grovel before foreigners. The speech saturated with barvariums is called pasta; most often it takes the form of poetry (macaronic verses). For example, the comic poem by I. P. Myatlev “Sensations and remarks of Mrs. Kurdyukova”: Adyu, adyu, I'm leaving, Luan de wu I will live, Me sepandan I'll try En souvenir de wu to keep ... The 1955 Concise Dictionary of Foreign Words explains the meaning of new foreign words used by some motorists. Who has been to Germany says: "autobahn" - a wide highway for high-speed traffic of cars. A Russian driver will simply say: highway, concrete without thinking about the fact that the first word is foreign, and the second is native.

Most of our common names are Greek, they began to be used in Russia from the end of the 10th century, after its baptism. In Greek, these names had a special symbolic meaning. For example: Nikita - "winner"

In our time, the main evil is the unjustified replacement of understandable Russian words with borrowed, pseudoscientific and sometimes not entirely clear ones.

7. STYLES OF THE MODERN RUSSIAN LANGUAGE

Language style- this is its variety, which serves any side of public life: everyday communication; official business relationship; agitation and mass activity; science; verbal and artistic creativity. Each style is characterized by the following features: the purpose of communication, a set of language tools and forms (genres) in which it exists. Each style uses linguistic means of the national language, but under the influence of a number of factors (theme, content, etc.), their selection and organization in each style is very specific and serves the most optimal communication.

Functional style of speech- this is a peculiar character of speech of one or another of its social varieties, corresponding to a certain field of activity and a form of consciousness correlative with it. Thus, the style of the literary language is called functional, as it performs a specific function in speech.

Conversational style speech is used in everyday speech, in conversations with friends in a relaxed atmosphere. The purpose of the conversational style is communication, the exchange of thoughts. In conversational style, extralinguistic factors play an important role: facial expressions, gestures. The implementation form of this style is dialogue.

In book speech several styles stand out: scientific, journalistic, business. The authors turn to the artistic style if they need to paint a picture with words, to convey their feelings to the reader.

scientific style- a kind of literary language, used in the scientific works of scientists to express the results of research. The purpose of scientific style is communication, explanation of scientific results. The implementation form of this style is dialogue.

The scientific style uses linguistic means: terms, special phraseology, complex syntactic constructions. The scientific style is realized in the genres: monograph, article, dissertation, report, abstract, thesis, etc.

Formal business style used in the official business sphere - in the correspondence of citizens with institutions, institutions with each other, etc. The task of style is to provide accurate information of practical importance, to give precise recommendations, instructions. The official business style has its own genres: charter, code, law, decree, order, power of attorney, receipt, act, protocol, instruction, statement, report. The usual form of implementation is a dialogue.

Journalistic style used in the socio-political sphere of life, in newspapers, in radio and television broadcasts, in speeches at meetings. The purpose of the style is to communicate information of socio-political significance; influence listeners and readers. It is implemented in the form of a journalistic article, essay, feuilleton.

Art style used in verbal and artistic creativity. Its goal is to draw a living picture, depict an object or events, convey the author's emotions to the reader, influence the feelings and thoughts of the listener and reader with the help of the created images.

Readers widely use linguistic means of various styles of the Russian language, including colloquial. In artistic speech, there is a deep metaphor, figurativeness of units of different language levels, the rich possibilities of synonymy, ambiguity are used.

8. LANGUAGE NORM, ITS ROLE IN THE FORMATION AND FUNCTIONING OF THE LITERARY LANGUAGE

The most important feature of the literary language is its normativity, which is manifested in written and oral form.

Language norm- this is a uniform, exemplary, generally recognized use of language elements (words, phrases, sentences); rules for the use of speech means of the literary language.

Characteristic features of the norm of the literary language: relative stability, prevalence, general use, universal validity, compliance with use, custom, and the capabilities of the language system.

The main sources of the language norm include the works of classical and contemporary writers, analysis of the language of the media, generally accepted modern usage, data from live and questionnaire surveys, scientific research by linguists.

Norms help the literary language to maintain its integrity and general intelligibility. They protect the literary language from the flow of dialect speech, social and professional slang, and vernacular. This allows the literary language to fulfill its main function - cultural.

The literary norm depends on the conditions in which speech is carried out. Language means that are appropriate in one situation (everyday communication) may turn out to be ridiculous in another (official business communication).

For example, in Russian you cannot use such forms as “my last name”, “they ran away”; need to talk "my last name", "they ran." The norms are described in textbooks, special reference books, as well as in dictionaries (spelling, explanatory, phraseological, synonyms). The norm is approved and supported by the speech practice of cultured people. The norm in colloquial speech is the result of a speech tradition, determined by the appropriateness of using an expression in a given situation. Depending on how clearly the words are pronounced, there are three styles of pronunciation: full, neutral, colloquial.

Language norms are a historical phenomenon. The change in literary norms is due to the constant development of the language. What was the norm in the last century and even 15-70 years ago may become a deviation from it today. For example, in the 1930s and 1940s words were used "graduate student" and diplomat to express the same concept: student doing a thesis. In the literary norm of the 1950s-1960s. there was a distinction in the use of these words: the former colloquial "graduate student" now denotes a student, a student in the period of defending a thesis, receiving a diploma. Word diplomat began to be called mainly the winners of competitions, prize-winners of reviews awarded with a diploma (Diploma winner of the All-Union Piano Competition).

The indicators of various normative dictionaries give grounds to speak of three degrees of normativity:

1st degree - strict, rigid, not allowing options;

2nd degree - neutral, allows equivalent options;

3rd degree - more mobile, allows the use of colloquial, as well as obsolete forms.

The historical change in the norms of the literary language is a natural phenomenon and does not depend on the will and desire of people. The development of society, the emergence of new traditions lead to a constant renewal of the literary language and its norms.

9. SPEECH INTERACTION

Speech- this is the main way to satisfy personal, and not only personal, communication needs.

Voice communication- this is a motivated living process of interaction, which is aimed at the implementation of a specific, vital goal setting, proceeds on the basis of feedback in specific types of speech activity.

Communicating Interaction- this is an exchange in the process of communication not only by speech statements, but also by actions, deeds. Interaction is carried out in the form of contact, conflict, partnership, cooperation, competition, etc. Verbal and non-verbal interaction of communication participants is distinguished.

The means of verbal communication is language, and the mode is speech. Communication channels of non-verbal communication are vision, gestures, motor skills, kinesthesia (smell, touch, sensations). Speech interaction is preceded by social.

Social interaction begins with the establishment of psychological contact (he saw, nodded, smiled or turned away sharply). Social interaction (began to listen and understand the purpose of what is being communicated by the interlocutor) proceeds to influence (began to look at the message through the eyes of a partner), and then to semantic contact. There are three interrelated components in the structure of interpersonal interaction:

1) behavioral component. It includes the results of activities, speech actions and non-verbal actions of each of the participants in the communication, as well as facial expressions, pantomime, gestures, everything that other X people can observe in their interlocutors. Observing the behavior of a person, one can interpret his personal characteristics, motives of behavior, character, temperament. Thanks to auxiliary means of communication (gestures, facial expressions), a person more easily and quickly assimilates the information that the interlocutor conveys;

2) effective ingredient. Includes everything related to the expression of the emotional state of a person, such as satisfaction and dissatisfaction with communication;

3) information component- awareness by the interlocutor of the goals and objectives of interaction, the situation of communication in general.

Living and working together, people constantly communicate: exchange knowledge, thoughts, feelings, agree on joint work, consult with each other. Thus, the interaction of people is a versatile manifestation of joint human activity. It is carried out in the labor process, friendly conversation, scientific debate, etc. Interaction in the labor process involves understanding production activities, developing a strategy and its improvement, change, transformation.

Interaction is a complex process between people, the purpose of which is to establish contacts in the process of joint activities. For communication to be successful, you must first of all know the language and have a good command of speech. We must always take into account for what purpose and to whom we are addressing, that is, the characteristics of the addressee of the speech. After all, we will ask for something in different ways or convince a loved one or a stranger, an adult or a child, which means that we must be familiar with the elements of speech etiquette. According to the data of linguistics and psychology, the main types of speech activity are listening, reading, speaking and writing.

10. BASIC UNITS OF COMMUNICATION

Communication is a complex process of human interaction, the phenomenon is far from unambiguous. Therefore, the peculiarities of people's behavior in the process of communication, the use of various methods and techniques, the use of speech means are largely determined by the type and method of communication that have to be dealt with in each case. The main components of communication:

1) the conversation will take place if at least two people (the subject and the addressee) participate in it, and often there are much more participants in the conversation;

2) this is a thought, that is, the main and relevant topic for conversation;

3) knowledge of the language in which they communicate. Depending on various features, both domestic and business communication can be divided into the following types:

1) contact - remote;

2) direct - indirect;

3) oral - written;

4) dialogic - monologue;

5) interpersonal - mass, etc. The effectiveness of communication depends on how much a person involved in its process imagines the real conditions of communication and, in accordance with it, corrects his speech communication. Usually a person does this intuitively, without thinking.

For communication to take place, the interlocutors need a communication channel. When speaking, these are the organs of speech and hearing (auditory contact). The form and content of the letter are perceived through the visual (visual) channel. A handshake is a way of conveying a friendly greeting through a kinesico-tactile (motor-tactile) channel, i.e. the message came to us through visual contact, but not visual-verbal, since no one told us verbally (verbally).

Language is the perfect means of communication. Thanks to language, it is possible to exchange information in different areas of life. For communication to be successful, you need to know the language and have a good command of speech. We must always take into account the purpose for which we are addressing, as well as the characteristics of the addressee's speech, since each person communicates differently: with a loved one - one way of communicating, and with a stranger - another, with an adult - one, with a child - another, and accordingly, we must be familiar with the elements of speech etiquette.

The ability to communicate allowed a person to reach a high civilization, break into space, sink to the bottom of the ocean, penetrate into the bowels of the earth. Mastering the art of communication, the art of the word, the culture of written and oral speech is necessary for every person, regardless of what type of activity he is engaged in or will be engaged in. Being able to communicate is especially important for business people, entrepreneurs, managers, production organizers, people involved in management.

Communication is carried out through speech, in the process of speech.

Speech- this is language in action, this is the use of language, its system for the purpose of speaking, transmitting thoughts, communicating.

Communication- a complex process of human interaction, the phenomenon is far from unambiguous. Therefore, the peculiarities of people's behavior in the process of communication, the use of various methods and techniques, the use of speech means are largely determined by the type of communication that has to be dealt with in each case.

literary language artistic jargon

11. ORAL AND WRITTEN VARIETY OF THE RUSSIAN LANGUAGE

Russian literary language exists in two forms - oral and written.

Oral speech- this is a sounding speech, it uses a system of phonetic and prosodic means of expression, it is created in the process of conversation. It is characterized by verbal improvisation and some linguistic features: freedom in the choice of vocabulary, the use of simple sentences, the use of incentive, interrogative, exclamatory sentences of various kinds, repetitions, incomplete expression of thought.

The oral form is presented in two of its varieties: colloquial speech and codified speech.

Speaking serves such a language sphere, which is characterized by: ease of communication; informality of relations between speakers; unprepared speech; the use of non-verbal means of communication (gestures and facial expressions); the fundamental possibility of changing communication "speaking - listening".

codified speech used in official areas of communication (conferences, meetings, etc.). Usually it is prepared in advance (delivering a lecture, reports) and does not always rely on a non-linguistic situation; it is characterized by a moderate use of non-verbal means of communication.

Written speech- this is a speech graphically fixed, premeditated and corrected, it is characterized by some linguistic features: the predominance of book vocabulary, the presence of complex prepositions, strict adherence to language norms,

Xlack of extralinguistic elements. Written speech is usually directed to visual perception.

Any written text is a complex statement about reality.

To construct a written text, it is necessary to observe the rules of reference and predication.

The design of predicativity and reference is associated with the actual division of the sentence, with the allocation of a “topic” or “new” in the message in it.

Written and oral forms of speech have different material bases: moving layers of air (sounds) - in oral speech and paint (letter) - in written speech. This difference is associated with the rich intonational possibilities of oral speech and the absence of such in written speech. Intonation is created by the melody of speech, the place of logical stress, its strength, the degree of clarity of pronunciation, the presence or absence of pauses. Written speech is not able to convey all this. At her disposal are only punctuation marks, punctuation.

In oral speech, the language means of conveying meaning is intonation, and in writing it is a derivative. In oral speech, there are no such means of writing as quotation marks, capital letters, which can cause difficulties in listening to the text. The use of the written form means the possibility of restructuring the sentence, replacing words, referring to dictionaries and reference books.

The first two differences of the oral form unite it with the written speech spoken aloud. The third difference characterizes speech produced orally. Oral speech is divided into colloquial and non-verbal. Conversational is divided into scientific, journalistic, business, artistic, non-conversational - into public speech and non-public. Public speech is divided into mass and collective. This division coincides with the division into monologue and dialogic speech.

12. NORMATIVE, COMMUNICATIVE, ETHICAL ASPECTS OF ORAL AND WRITTEN SPEECH

Culture of speech - science axiological, as it evaluates the quality of speech. She considers both her own data and the data of other related sciences that are relevant to her from an evaluative point of view. It gives overall estimates of speech quality and estimates for individual levels-aspects, as well as for more specific indicators. Moreover, the higher the level, the more “weighty” it is estimated. We are ready to forgive defects in pronunciation of a speaker who touches on really acute problems in his speech and speaks clearly, logically, truthfully, boldly. And the other speaker has a well-placed voice, and the pronunciation is excellent, but if we guess a toady behind all this, then this speech causes us drowsiness and irritation.

It is necessary to distinguish between insufficient or weak knowledge of the culture of speech in one or another type of speech activity and anticulture of speech. Anti-culture is understood as a conscious and deliberate violation, distortion of the generally accepted principles and criteria of the culture of speech and speech behavior, usually in the name of immoral goals. “The norms of speech behavior,” write N. D. Artyunova and E. V. Paducheva, “although they are part of the education system, they belong to the sphere of tacit agreements between communicatively obliged members of society. The main thing is to find and form them. The very existence of these unspoken rules becomes apparent when they are violated.” The authors establish, for example, the relationship between speech goals and the quality (truth) of the real content of the statement. As they write, "most reprehensible purposes (deceit, slander, slander, gossip, boasting, insult) either directly imply the falsity of the sentence, or distort the picture of reality in one form or another."

The generally accepted communicative rules are due to the very nature of human society and constitute a set of conditions without which social production, as the basis of the life of society, cannot normally exist and develop, science cannot develop, morality is destroyed; normal relations between states are disrupted, etc. However, as long as social antagonisms, exploitative classes, and the activity of possessive instincts do not disappear in society, various manifestations of the anticulture of speech will also exist.

One of the speech culture theorists B. N. Golovin emphasized that “speech in the process of its manifestation and understanding always solves certain communicative tasks and is always correlated with other structures external to it (language itself, consciousness, thinking)”. He highlights five "levels" of the communication circle. The first level is from reality to the consciousness of the author. Here the idea of ​​the statement is born, the communicative task is manifested. At the second level, the intention of the utterances is "connected" with the linguistic data of the author. On the third stage, the “verbal execution” of the idea takes place. At the fourth stage, the utterance is perceived by the addressee. The addressee is required to understand the transmitted information. And at the fifth level, the recipient correlates the information received during perception with reality, with previously accumulated knowledge and draws appropriate conclusions.

13. FUNCTIONAL STYLES IN THE MODERN RUSSIAN LITERARY LANGUAGE

The problem of style, which many researchers refer to as central in linguistic stylistics, is solved by them in different ways. The disagreements are:

2) principles of classification (number of distinguished styles);

3) the question of the place of the literary and artistic style in the system of styles of the literary language.

Style- this is a speech concept, and it can be defined by going beyond the language system, taking into account such extra-linguistic circumstances as the tasks of speech, the sphere of communication.

Functional style of speech- this is a peculiar character of speech of a particular social variety, corresponding to a certain sphere of social activity and, in relation to it, a form of consciousness, created by the peculiarities of the functioning of language means and a specific speech organization in this area, bearing a certain stylistic coloring. There are the following functional styles: scientific, technical, official-business, newspaper-journalistic, colloquial-everyday. The styles of the literary language are most often compared on the basis of an analysis of their lexical composition, since it is in the lexicon that the difference between them is most noticeable.

It should be borne in mind that the functional and stylistic boundaries of the modern Russian literary language are very mobile. Functional styles are not a closed system. The main part of the language material is general language, interstyle means. Therefore, it is very important to know and subtly feel the specific features of each style, to skillfully use the language means of different styles, depending on the situation of communication and the purpose of the statement. Possession of functional styles is a necessary element of the speech culture of every person.

Functional styles are divided into two groups associated with specific types of speech. The first group (scientific, journalistic, official business) is characterized by monologue speech. For the second group (conversational style), dialogic speech is a typical form. Forms of speech - written and oral - should be distinguished from functional styles.

Most often, styles are compared on the basis of their lexical content, since it is in the field of vocabulary that the difference between them is most noticeable.

The style-forming factors include the content of the statement, the attitude of the speaker (writer) to the quality of speech, the presence or absence of feedback, the number of participants in communication, the relationship between them, etc. The attachment of words to a certain style of speech is explained by the fact that the lexical meaning of many words includes emotional and stylistic coloring.

The word is able to express feelings, as well as an assessment of various phenomena and real styles of speech. Emotionally expressive vocabulary is presented in colloquial and everyday speech, which is marked by liveliness and accuracy of presentation. Such words are typical for journalistic style. In scientific, technical and official business styles of speech, emotionally colored words are inappropriate. Spoken words are opposed to book vocabulary. Words of colloquial style are distinguished by greater semantic capacity and brilliance, give speech liveliness and expressiveness.

14. INTERACTION OF FUNCTIONAL STYLES

The most important public functions of the language - communication, communication and impact. To implement these functions, separate varieties of the language historically developed and took shape, characterized by the presence in each of them of special lexico-phraseological, partially syntactic, means used exclusively or mainly in this variety of language. These varieties are called functional styles.

Functional styles often interact with each other. In the journalistic style, the communicative and informational functions, i.e., the functions of communication, are mixed to a greater or lesser extent with the function of influence. The combination of two functions - aesthetic and communicative - is characteristic of the language of fiction.

Literary and artistic style belongs to the number of book styles, but due to its inherent originality, it does not fall on a par with other book styles.

Functional styles can be divided into two groups: the first group includes scientific, journalistic and official business styles; for the second group, formed by various types of conversational style, dialogic speech is a typical form. The first group - book styles, the second - colloquial style.

It is necessary to distinguish between the forms of speech - oral and written - from functional styles and types of speech. They converge with styles in the sense that bookish styles are clothed in written forms, and colloquial styles in oral.

The material for the stylistic differentiation of linguistic means and the selection of individual styles can be either a literary language or a common language as a whole.

Scientific and journalistic styles can function in oral form (lecture, report, speeches, etc.), in the form of a political polylogue (discussion, debate), there is a penetration into them of elements of a colloquial style.

Depending on the goals of communication and the sphere of language use, our speech is formed in different ways. These are different styles.

Style- the concept of speech, and it can be defined only by going beyond the language system, taking into account extra-linguistic circumstances, for example, tasks of speech, the sphere of communication.

Each speech style uses the linguistic means of the national language, but under the influence of factors (theme, content, etc.), their selection and organization in each style is specific and serves to ensure optimal communication.

Among the factors underlying the allocation of functional styles, the leading function of each style is common: for colloquial - communication, for scientific and official - communication, for journalistic and artistic - impact. The leading functions of styles are distinguished according to the classification of V. V. Vinogradov.

Speech functions:

1) communication (establishment of contact - an actual, incentive function), exchange of thoughts, feelings, etc.;

2) message (explanation);

3) influence (beliefs, influence on thoughts and actions);

4) message (instructing);

5) influence (image, influence on feelings, imagination of people).

15. SCIENTIFIC STYLE

The scientific style is one of the bookish styles of the literary language, which has a number of common language features: preliminary consideration of the statement, monologue, strict selection of language means, gravitation towards normalized speech.

At first, the scientific style was close to the artistic style. The separation of styles occurred in the Alexandrian period, when scientific terminology began to be created in the Greek language.

In Russia, the scientific style began to take shape in the first decades of the 8th century.

The scientific style has a number of common features that manifest themselves regardless of the nature of the sciences and genre differences. The scientific style has varieties (sub-styles): popular science, business science, science and technology, science and journalism and educational and science.

The scientific style is used in the works of scientists to express the results of research activities. The purpose of scientific style is communication, explanation of scientific results. The form of implementation is a dialogue. Typical for scientific speech are semantic accuracy, ugliness, hidden emotionality, objectivity of presentation, rigor.

The scientific style uses linguistic means: terms, special words and phraseology.

The words are used in their direct meaning. Genres are inherent in it: monograph, article, dissertation, report, etc. One of the features of scientific speech is the operation with concepts that reflect the properties of entire groups, objects and phenomena. Each concept has its own name and term. For example: console(a term naming the concept being defined) is a significant part of the word (generic concept), which is located before the root and serves to form new words (specific features).

The scientific style has its own phraseology, which includes compound terms (angina pectoris, solar plexus, right angle, freezing and boiling points, participle turnovers etc.).

The language of science and technology also has a number of grammatical features. In the field of morphology, this is the use of shorter variant forms, which corresponds to the principle of “saving” language means (key - keys).

In scientific works, the singular form of nouns is often used in the meaning of the plural. For example: wolf - a carnivorous animal from the genus of dogs(a whole class of objects is called with an indication of their characteristic features); linden begins to bloom at the end of June(the specific noun is used in the collective concept).

Of the syntactic features of the scientific style, a tendency to complex constructions is distinguished. For this purpose, sentences with homogeneous members and a generalizing word are used. In the scientific literature, different types of complex sentences are common. They often contain subordinating conjunctions characteristic of book speech.

To unite parts of the text, paragraphs, words and their combinations are used, indicating their connection with each other.

Syntactic structures in scientific prose are more complex and richer in lexical material than in fiction. Sentences of a scientific text contain one and a half times more words than sentences of a literary text.

16. THE SPECIFICITY OF USING ELEMENTS OF DIFFERENT LANGUAGE LEVELS IN SCIENTIFIC SPEECH

The scientific style belongs to the book styles of the literary language, which are characterized by a number of general conditions for functioning and linguistic features: reflection on the statement, its monologue character, strict selection of language means, and a tendency towards normalized speech.

The scientific style has a number of common features that manifest themselves regardless of the nature of science (natural, exact, humanitarian) and the differences between the genres of expression (monograph, scientific article, report, textbook, etc.), which makes it possible to talk about the specifics of the style as a whole. And it is clear that texts on physics and mathematics differ markedly in the nature of presentation from texts on philosophy or history.

The style of scientific works is determined by their content and the goals of the scientific message - to explain the facts as accurately and fully as possible, to show cause-and-effect relationships between phenomena, to find out the patterns of historical development, etc. The scientific style is characterized by a logical sequence of presentation, an ordered system of connections between parts of the statement, the desire of the authors for accuracy, unambiguity, conciseness of the expression while maintaining the richness of the content.

Scientists say about the language that it is “dry”, devoid of elements of emotionality and figurativeness. Such an opinion is of a generalized nature: often in scientific works emotionally expressive and pictorial means of language are used, which, although being an additional means, stand out noticeably against the background of a purely scientific presentation, giving scientific prose more persuasiveness.

A characteristic feature of the style of scientific works is their saturation with terms. On average, terminological vocabulary usually makes up 15-25% of all vocabulary used in the work.

An important role in the style of scientific works is played by abstract vocabulary. The Russian language serves as the main instrument of culture, the main factor in the spiritual development of the nation, its creativity, and national self-consciousness. Abstract nouns - factor, development, creativity, self-awareness.

The scientific style has its own phraseology, where compound terms can be attributed (solar plexus, voiced consonants), various kinds of clichés (consists of ..., consists of ...). In scientific works, the singular form of nouns is often used in the plural sense: studying the shape of the ear, nose - the word "form" is used instead of form, since it is in the same relation to subsequent nouns. Real and abstract nouns are used in the plural form: noise in the radio.

When constructing sentences, nouns are used more often than verbs, that is, the names of concepts are mainly given, less often - the names of actions. Adjectives are used, clarifying the content of the concept by pointing to its various features and performing a terminological function.

In scientific works, a tendency to complex constructions is noticeable. Often sentences are built with homogeneous members and a generalizing word: a broader concept is revealed by listing narrower ones. To combine paragraphs, words are used that indicate the connection between them: thus. The average sentence size in the author's narrative in novels is 17.2 words, in scientific research - 28.5 words.

17. SPEECH STANDARDS OF EDUCATIONAL AND SCIENTIFIC FIELDS OF ACTIVITY

In the first years of high school in relation to educational literature, the following installation principle mainly operates: read - understand - remember - retell or apply in educational and practical actions. Students must first master at least the passive-informative (basic disciplines) and speech (scientific style in its educational variety) base of their future specialty.

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