The tribes of the Aryans - the eastern branch of the Indo-Europeans - by the beginning of the 1st millennium BC. e. inhabited almost the entire territory of present-day Iran. The word "Iran" itself is a modern form of the name "Ariana", i.e. land of the Aryans. Initially, these were warlike tribes of semi-nomadic pastoralists who fought on war chariots. Part of the Aryans moved even earlier and captured it, giving rise to the Indo-Aryan culture. Other Aryan tribes, closer to the Iranians, remained nomadic in Central Asia and the northern steppes - the Scythians, Saks, Sarmatians, etc. The Iranians themselves, having settled on the fertile lands of the Iranian Highlands, gradually abandoned their nomadic life, took up farming, adopting the skills of the Mesopotamian civilization. It reached a high level already in the XI-VIII centuries. BC e. Iranian craft. His monument is the famous "Luristan bronzes" - skillfully made weapons and household items with images of mythical and really existing animals.

"Luristan bronzes" - a cultural monument of Western Iran. It was here, in the immediate vicinity and confrontation with Assyria, that the most powerful Iranian kingdoms were formed. The first of them Mussel intensified(Northwest Iran). The Median kings participated in the crushing of Assyria. The history of their state is well known from written monuments. But the Median monuments of the 7th-6th centuries. BC e. very poorly studied. Even the capital of the country, the city of Ecbatany, has not been found yet. It is only known that it was located in the vicinity of the modern city of Hamadan. Nevertheless, two Median fortresses already explored by archaeologists from the time of the struggle with Assyria speak of a rather high culture of the Medes.

In 553 BC. e. Cyrus (Kurush) II, the king of the subject tribe of the Persians, rebelled against the Medes from the Achaemenid family(Achaemenids - a dynasty of kings of Ancient Persia (558-330 BC)). In 550 BC. e. Cyrus united the Iranians under his rule and led them to conquer the world. In 546 BC. e. he conquered Asia Minor, and in 538 BC. e. Babylon fell. The son of Cyrus, Cambyses, conquered Egypt, and under King Darius I at the turn of the 6th-5th centuries. before. n. e. The Persian state reached its greatest expansion and flourishing.

The monuments of its greatness are the royal capitals excavated by archaeologists - the most famous and best studied monuments of Persian culture. The oldest of them is Pasargada, the capital of Cyrus.

Pasargady

It is located in the Pars region in southwestern Iran. A settlement on this site arose even before the arrival of the Persians, in the 4th millennium BC. e. Cyrus, after the conquest of Asia Minor, erected a palace complex in Pasargadae, which copied the palaces of the defeated Middle Eastern rulers. These are the most ancient monumental buildings in Persia. The most famous building Pasargad - the tomb of the founder of the state. The crypt of Cyrus was erected on a powerful pedestal, made up of six slabs. The tomb was crowned with the corner of a gable roof directed to the sky. But the building itself is far from, say, the Egyptian pyramids. The Persians were just beginning to adopt the luxury of the vanquished, and Cyrus was the first sovereign to be buried in a stone mortuary "house". The oldest of the reliefs, which later decorated the palaces and tombs of the Achaemenid kings, was also found in Pasargadae. The relief depicts the patron spirit of the king with four wings, and under the image - the most ancient Achaemenid inscription: "I am Kurush, king of the Achaemenids." Later, the image of the winged spirit is often repeated on numerous Persian inscriptions and reliefs. Sometimes they tried to depict Ahura Mazda himself, the Lord the Wise, whom the Iranians revered as the only good god. So, Ahura Mazda is depicted blessing King Darius I on the most majestic of the Achaemenid inscriptions - Behistun. But more often the idea of ​​divine patronage was conveyed symbolically - primarily through the image of a bird similar to an eagle. It was a symbol of farn - according to the teachings of the Iranian prophet Zarathushtra (Zoroaster), a special grace bestowed on the king from above and confirming his right to power.

Persepolis

A little south of Pasargad is located Pars city, known by the Greek the name of Persepolis(Persograd). A spacious palace was excavated here, in which the king lived with his harem and numerous servants. Darius I and his successors spent a considerable part of their lives in this palace. The core of the palace complex is the throne room, where official receptions were held. According to modern estimates, the hall could accommodate up to 10,000 people. Its stairs are decorated with images of representatives of different nations, offering tribute to the Persian king. Archaeologists counted 33 peoples, and the creators of the reliefs conveyed the appearance of each with all possible accuracy. Both in Pasargadae and in Persepolis, during excavations, rich treasures were discovered - the treasures of kings and members of their family.

In the fortress wall that protected Persepolis, archaeologists in 1933 found more than 2,000 immured cuneiform tablets. So, the state archive of the Persian state fell into the hands of researchers. In 1936, several hundred more from the Persepolis royal treasury were added to the “tablets of the fortress wall”. These texts became the most important source of knowledge about the inner life of Persia. Interestingly, only a few are written in Persian - officials used Elamite and Aramaic, the most common in the Middle East.

A little north of Persepolis, in the area of ​​Naqsh-i-Rustam, the graves of the Achaemenid kings are carved into the rocks. This is no longer the modest tomb of Cyrus from Persepolis. In front of the entrance to the burial chambers hidden in the depths, monumental reliefs were carved. On them we again meet people from the conquered tribes, bowing before the kings Darius and Artaxerxes. One of the inscriptions carved nearby contains a list of Persian kings and the lands they conquered. The other contains Persian laws and moral standards, praising their justice.

Susa

The third capital of the Persian kings - Susa. Having captured Elam, the Persians rebuilt its ancient center as the residence of their kings. The construction of the palace in Susa was begun by Darius, and completed by his son and heir Xerxes. Numerous inscriptions testify to the progress of construction. Found in Susa one of the most significant works of Persian art. In front of the entrance to the palace stood a three-meter statue of Darius. The king was depicted in full growth, in full dress. The statue of the king was surrounded by smaller figures of people from the peoples he conquered. It is possible that masters from Egypt worked on the entire composition. At least the captions for the sculptures of the vanquished are in Egyptian hieroglyphs. The Egyptian inscription is the most detailed of the four on the central statue.

A large number of inscriptions of Persian kings have been found - both in the capitals and beyond. As a rule, they are made in several languages. The Achaemenids aspired to be sovereigns not only for the Persians. Already on the relief of Cyrus, the embodied farn is dressed in Elamite robes and crowned with the crown of the Egyptian pharaohs. Another capital of the state was considered, however, there are no traces of major reconstructions - the Achaemenids moved into the restored palace of the Babylonian rulers.

One of the signs of the unity of the state was the circulation of the royal coin, the minting of which began under Darius. The round coin was borrowed from the conquered kingdom of Lydia in Asia Minor. On the gold coin (darik) and the silver coin (sikle) the king-warrior was depicted in battle - kneeling down on one knee, in marching attire and with weapons. In monetary circulation, one can also observe the beginning of a weakening of unity in a vast country. Already at the end of the 5th c. BC e. satrap governors and individual rich cities began to mint their coins.

The Persians never managed to create a single culture and a single economy within their power. Ordinary Iranians rarely settled outside their homeland, and the nobility quickly adopted the customs of the defeated highly developed peoples. In the daily life of individual regions, the Persian conquest changed almost nothing. All this weakened the seemingly mighty state. It lasted only two centuries.

The territory of Persia before the formation of an independent state was part of the Assyrian Empire. 6th century BC. became the heyday of the ancient civilization, which began with the kingdom of the ruler Persia Cyrus II the Great. He managed to defeat a king named Croesus of the richest country of antiquity, Lydia. It went down in history as the first state formation in which silver and gold coins were minted in the history of the world. It happened in the 7th century. BC.

Under the Persian king Cyrus, the borders of the state were significantly expanded and they included the territories of the fallen Assyrian Empire and the powerful. By the end of the period of the reign of Cyrus and his heir, Persia, which received the status of an empire, occupied an area from the lands of Ancient Egypt to India. The conqueror honored the traditions and customs of the conquered peoples and accepted the title and crown of the king of the occupied states.

The death of the king of Persia Cyrus II

In ancient times, the Persian emperor Cyrus was considered one of the most powerful rulers, under whose skillful leadership numerous successful military campaigns were carried out. However, his fate ended ingloriously: the great Cyrus fell at the hands of a woman. Near the northeastern border of the Persian Empire lived Massagetae. Small tribes were very savvy in military affairs. They were ruled by Queen Tomyris. She answered Cyrus' proposal for marriage with a decisive refusal, which made the emperor extremely angry and he undertook a military campaign to capture the nomadic peoples. The queen's son died in the fight, and she promised to force the king of an ancient civilization to drink blood. The battle ended with the defeat of the Persian troops. The head of the emperor was brought to the queen in a leather fur filled with blood. Thus ended the time of despotic rule and conquests of the king of Persia, Cyrus II the Great.

Rise to power of Darius

After the death of the mighty Cyrus, his direct heir came to power Cambyses. Militia began in the state. As a result of the struggle, Darius I became the emperor of Persia. Information about the years of his reign has come down to our days thanks to Behistunskaya inscriptions, which contains historical data in Old Persian, Akkadian, and Elamite. The stone was found by an officer of Great Britain G. Rawlinson in 1835. The inscription testifies that during the reign of a distant relative of Cyrus II the Great Darius, Persia turned into an oriental despotism.

The state was divided into 20 administrative divisions, which were ruled by satraps. The regions were called satraps. Officials were in charge of administration and their duties included control over the collection of taxes to the main treasury of the state. The money went to the development of infrastructure, in particular, roads were built connecting areas throughout the empire. Postal posts were established to convey messages to the king. During his reign, extensive construction of cities and the development of handicrafts were noted. Gold coins - "dariki" - are introduced into monetary use.

Centers of the Persian Empire

One of the four capitals of the ancient civilization of Persia was located on the territory of the former Lydia in the city of Susa. Another center of social and political life was in Pasargada, established by Cyrus the Great. The residence of the Persians was also located in the conquered Babylonian kingdom. Emperor Darius I was put on the throne in a city specially established as the capital of Persia persepolis. Its wealth and architecture amazed the rulers and ambassadors of foreign countries, who stayed in the empire to bring gifts to the king. The stone walls of the palace of Darius in Persepolis are decorated with drawings depicting the immortal army of the Persians and the history of the existence of the "six peoples" living in the ancient civilization.

Religious representations of the Persians

In ancient times in Persia there was polytheism. The adoption of a single religion came with the doctrine of the struggle of the god of good and the generation of evil. The name of the prophet Zarathustra (Zoroaster). In the tradition of the Persians, in contrast to the religiously strong Ancient Egypt, there was no custom of erecting temple complexes and altars for performing spiritual rites. The sacrifices were made on the hills, where the altars were arranged. god of light and goodness Ahura Mazda depicted in Zoroastrianism in the form of a solar disk, decorated with wings. He was considered the patron saint of the kings of the ancient civilization of Persia.

The Persian state was located on the territory of modern Iran, where ancient architectural monuments of the empire have been preserved.

Video about the creation and fall of the Persian Empire

PERSIA ancient
Persia is the ancient name of a country in Southwest Asia, which since 1935 has been officially called Iran. In the past, both names were used, and today the name "Persia" is still used when referring to Iran. In ancient times, Persia became the center of one of the greatest empires in history, stretching from Egypt to the river. Ind. It included all previous empires - Egyptians, Babylonians, Assyrians and Hittites. The later empire of Alexander the Great contained almost no territory that had not previously belonged to the Persians, while it was smaller than Persia under King Darius. Since its inception in the 6th c. BC. before the conquest by Alexander the Great in the 4th century. BC. for two and a half centuries, Persia occupied a dominant position in the ancient world. Greek domination lasted for about a hundred years, and after its fall, the Persian state was revived under two local dynasties: the Arsacids (Parthian kingdom) and the Sassanids (New Persian kingdom). For more than seven centuries, they kept Rome in fear, and then Byzantium, until in the 7th century. AD the Sassanid state was not conquered by Islamic conquerors.
The geography of the empire. The lands inhabited by the ancient Persians only roughly coincide with the borders of modern Iran. In ancient times, such boundaries simply did not exist. There were periods when the Persian kings were the rulers of most of the then known world, at other times the main cities of the empire were in Mesopotamia, to the west of Persia proper, and it also happened that the entire territory of the kingdom was divided between warring local rulers. A significant part of the territory of Persia is occupied by high arid highlands (1200 m), crossed by mountain ranges with individual peaks reaching 5500 m. Zagros and Elburs mountain ranges are located in the west and north, which frame the highlands in the form of the letter V, leaving it open to the east. The western and northern borders of the highlands roughly coincide with the current borders of Iran, but in the east it extends beyond the borders of the country, occupying part of the territory of modern Afghanistan and Pakistan. Three areas are isolated from the plateau: the coast of the Caspian Sea, the coast of the Persian Gulf and the southwestern plains, which are the eastern continuation of the Mesopotamian lowland. Directly to the west of Persia lies Mesopotamia, home to the world's most ancient civilizations. The Mesopotamian states of Sumer, Babylonia and Assyria had a significant impact on the early culture of Persia. And although the Persian conquests ended almost three thousand years after the rise of Mesopotamia, Persia was in many ways the heir to the Mesopotamian civilization. Most of the important cities of the Persian Empire were located in Mesopotamia, and Persian history is largely a continuation of Mesopotamian history. Persia lies on the paths of the earliest migrations from Central Asia. Slowly moving westward, the settlers skirted the northern tip of the Hindu Kush in Afghanistan and turned south and west, where through the more accessible regions of Khorasan, southeast of the Caspian Sea, they entered the Iranian plateau south of the Elburz mountains. Centuries later, the main trade artery ran parallel to the early route, linking the Far East with the Mediterranean and providing control of the empire and the transfer of troops. At the western end of the highlands, it descended into the plains of Mesopotamia. Other important routes connected the southeastern plains through the heavily rugged mountains with the highlands proper. Away from a few main roads, the settlements of thousands of agricultural communities were scattered in long and narrow mountain valleys. They led a subsistence economy, due to their isolation from their neighbors, many of them remained aloof from wars and invasions and for many centuries carried out an important mission to preserve the continuity of culture, so characteristic of the ancient history of Persia.
STORY
Ancient Iran. It is known that the most ancient inhabitants of Iran had a different origin than the Persians and their kindred peoples, who created civilizations on the Iranian plateau, as well as the Semites and Sumerians, whose civilizations arose in Mesopotamia. During excavations in caves near the southern coast of the Caspian Sea, skeletons of people dated to the 8th millennium BC were discovered. In the north-west of Iran, in the town of Goy-Tepe, the skulls of people who lived in the 3rd millennium BC were found. Scientists have proposed calling the indigenous population the Caspians, which indicates a geographical connection with the peoples who inhabited the Caucasus Mountains to the west of the Caspian Sea. The Caucasian tribes themselves, as is known, migrated to more southern regions, to the highlands. The "Caspian" type, apparently, has been preserved in a greatly weakened form among the nomadic Lurs in modern Iran. For the archeology of the Middle East, the central issue is the dating of the appearance of agricultural settlements here. Monuments of material culture and other evidence found in the Caspian caves indicate that the tribes inhabiting the region from the 8th to the 5th millennium BC. engaged mainly in hunting, then switched to cattle breeding, which, in turn, approx. IV millennium BC replaced by agriculture. Permanent settlements appeared in the western part of the highlands before the 3rd millennium BC, and most likely in the 5th millennium BC. The main settlements include Sialk, Goy-Tepe, Gissar, but the largest were Susa, which later became the capital of the Persian state. In these small villages, adobe huts crowded together along winding narrow streets. The dead were buried either under the floor of the house or in the cemetery in a crooked (“uterine”) position. The reconstruction of the life of the ancient inhabitants of the highlands was carried out on the basis of a study of utensils, tools and decorations that were placed in the graves in order to provide the deceased with everything necessary for the afterlife. The development of culture in prehistoric Iran proceeded progressively over many centuries. As in Mesopotamia, large brick houses began to be built here, objects were made from cast copper, and then from cast bronze. Carved stone seals appeared, which were evidence of the emergence of private property. Found large jugs for food storage suggest that stocks were made between harvests. Among the finds of all periods there are figurines of the mother goddess, often depicted with her husband, who was both her husband and son. The most noteworthy is the huge variety of painted pottery, the walls of some of which are no thicker than the shell of a chicken egg. The bird and animal figurines depicted in profile testify to the talent of prehistoric artisans. Some pottery depicts the man himself, hunting or performing some rituals. Around 1200-800 BC painted pottery is replaced by one-color - red, black or gray, which is explained by the invasion of tribes from as yet unidentified regions. Pottery of the same type was found very far from Iran - in China.
Early history. The historical era begins on the Iranian plateau at the end of the 4th millennium BC. Most of the information about the descendants of the ancient tribes who lived on the eastern borders of Mesopotamia, in the mountains of Zagros, is gleaned from the Mesopotamian chronicles. (There is no information about the tribes that inhabited the central and eastern regions of the Iranian Highlands, because they had no ties with the Mesopotamian kingdoms.) The largest of the peoples inhabiting the Zagros were the Elamites, who captured the ancient city of Susa, located on a plain at the foot of Zagros, and founded the powerful and prosperous state of Elam there. The Elamite Chronicles began to be compiled c. 3000 BC and fought for two thousand years. Further to the north lived the Kassites, barbarian tribes of horsemen, who by the middle of the 2nd millennium BC. conquered Babylonia. The Kassites adopted the civilization of the Babylonians and ruled southern Mesopotamia for several centuries. Less significant were the tribes of the Northern Zagros, the Lullubei and Gutii, who lived in the area where the great Trans-Asian trade route descended from the western tip of the Iranian Highlands to the plain.
The Aryan Invasion and the Median Kingdom. Starting from the II millennium BC. waves of invasions of tribes from Central Asia hit the Iranian plateau one after another. These were the Aryans, Indo-Iranian tribes who spoke dialects that were the proto-languages ​​of the present-day languages ​​of the Iranian Highlands and Northern India. They also gave Iran its name ("homeland of the Aryans"). The first wave of conquerors surged approx. 1500 BC One group of Aryans settled in the west of the Iranian Highlands, where they founded the state of Mitanni, another group - in the south among the Kassites. However, the main flow of the Aryans passed Iran, turning sharply to the south, crossed the Hindu Kush and invaded North India. At the beginning of the 1st millennium BC. along the same path, a second wave of newcomers, the Iranian tribes proper, arrived in the Iranian Highlands, and much more numerous. Some of the Iranian tribes - Sogdians, Scythians, Saks, Parthians and Bactrians - retained a nomadic way of life, others went beyond the highlands, but two tribes, the Medes and Persians (Pars), settled in the valleys of the Zagros ridge, mixed with the local population and took their political , religious and cultural traditions. The Medes settled in the vicinity of Ecbatana (modern Hamadan). The Persians settled somewhat to the south, on the plains of Elam and in the mountainous region adjacent to the Persian Gulf, which was later called Persis (Parsa or Fars). It is possible that the Persians initially settled northwest of the Medes, west of Lake Rezaye (Urmia), and only later moved south under the pressure of Assyria, which was then at the peak of its power. On some Assyrian bas-reliefs of the 9th and 8th centuries. BC. battles with the Medes and Persians are depicted. The Median kingdom with its capital in Ecbatana gradually gained strength. In 612 BC the Median king Cyaxares (reigned from 625 to 585 BC) entered into an alliance with Babylonia, captured Nineveh and crushed the Assyrian power. The Median kingdom stretched from Asia Minor (modern Turkey) almost to the Indus River. During just one reign, Media from a small tributary principality turned into the strongest power in the Middle East.
Persian state of the Achaemenids. The power of Media did not last longer than the life of two generations. The Persian dynasty of the Achaemenids (named after their founder Achaemenes) began to dominate Pars even under the Medes. In 553 BC Cyrus II the Great, Achaemenid, the ruler of Parsa, raised an uprising against the Median king Astyages, the son of Cyaxares, as a result of which a powerful alliance of the Medes and Persians was created. The new power threatened the entire Middle East. In 546 BC King Croesus of Lydia led a coalition directed against King Cyrus, which, in addition to the Lydians, included the Babylonians, Egyptians and Spartans. According to legend, the oracle predicted to the Lydian king that the war would end with the collapse of the great state. Delighted, Croesus did not even bother to ask which state was meant. The war ended with the victory of Cyrus, who pursued Croesus all the way to Lydia and captured him there. In 539 BC Cyrus occupied Babylonia, and by the end of his reign expanded the borders of the state from the Mediterranean Sea to the eastern outskirts of the Iranian Highlands, making the capital of Pasargada, a city in southwestern Iran. Cambyses, son of Cyrus, conquered Egypt and proclaimed himself pharaoh. He died in 522 BC. Some sources claim that he committed suicide. After his death, a Median magician took over the Persian throne, but a few months later he was overthrown by Darius, a representative of the younger branch of the Achaemenid dynasty. Darius (ruled from 522 to 485 BC) - the greatest of the Persian kings, he combined the talents of a ruler, builder and commander. Under him, the northwestern part of India, up to the river, passed under the rule of Persia. Indus and Armenia to the mountains of the Caucasus. Darius even organized a trip to Thrace (modern territory of Turkey and Bulgaria), but the Scythians threw him back from the Danube. During the reign of Darius, the Ionian Greeks in the western part of Asia Minor revolted. Supported by the Greeks in Greece itself, it marked the beginning of the struggle against Persian domination, which ended only after a century and a half due to the fall of the Persian kingdom under the blows of Alexander the Great. Darius suppressed the Ionians and began a campaign against Greece. However, the storm swept away his fleet at Cape Athos (Chalcedon Peninsula). Two years later he launched a second campaign against Greece, but the Greeks defeated the huge Persian army at the Battle of Marathon, near Athens (490 BC). Darius' son Xerxes (reigned from 485 to 465 BC) renewed the war with Greece. He captured and burned Athens, but after the defeat of the Persian fleet at Salamis in 480 BC. forced to return to Asia Minor. Xerxes spent the remaining years of his reign in luxury and amusements. In 485 BC he fell at the hands of one of his courtiers. During the long years of the reign of his son Artaxerxes I (reigned from 465 to 424 BC), peace and prosperity reigned in the state. In 449 BC he made peace with Athens. After Artaxerxes, the power of the Persian monarchs over their vast possessions began to noticeably weaken. In 404 BC Egypt fell away, mountain tribes rose up one after another, the struggle for the throne began. The most significant in this struggle was the rebellion raised by Cyrus the Younger against Artaxerxes II and ended with the defeat of Cyrus in 401 BC. in the battle of Kunaks, not far from the Euphrates. A large army of Cyrus, consisting of Greek mercenaries, fought their way through the crumbling empire to their homeland, Greece. The Greek commander and historian Xenophon described this retreat in his work Anabasis, which has become a classic of military literature. Artaxerxes III (reigned from 358/359 to 338 BC), with the help of Greek mercenaries, briefly restored the empire to its former borders, but soon after his death, Alexander the Great destroyed the former power of the Persian state.

Organization of the Achaemenid state. Apart from a few brief Achaemenid inscriptions, we draw the main information about the state of the Achaemenids from the works of ancient Greek historians. Even the names of the Persian kings entered the historiography as they were written by the ancient Greeks. For example, the names of the kings known today as Cyaxares, Cyrus, and Xerxes are pronounced in Persian as Uvakhshtra, Kurush, and Khshayarshan. The main city of the state was Susa. Babylon and Ecbatana were considered administrative centers, and Persepolis - the center of ritual and spiritual life. The state was divided into twenty satrapies, or provinces, headed by satraps. Representatives of the Persian nobility became satraps, and the position itself was inherited. Such a combination of the power of an absolute monarch and semi-independent governors was a characteristic feature of the political structure of the country for many centuries.
All provinces were connected by postal roads, the most significant of which, the "royal road" 2400 km long, ran from Susa to the Mediterranean coast. Despite the fact that a single administrative system, a single monetary unit and a single official language were introduced throughout the empire, many subject peoples retained their customs, religion and local rulers. The reign of the Achaemenids was characterized by tolerance. The long years of peace under the Persians favored the development of cities, trade and agriculture. Iran was experiencing its golden age. The Persian army differed in composition and tactics from the previous armies, for which chariots and infantry were typical. The main striking force of the Persian troops was mounted archers, who bombarded the enemy with a cloud of arrows, without coming into direct contact with him. The army consisted of six corps of 60,000 soldiers each and elite formations of 10,000 people, selected from members of the noblest families and called "immortals"; they also constituted the personal guard of the king. However, during campaigns in Greece, as well as during the reign of the last Achaemenid king Darius III, a huge, poorly controlled mass of horsemen, chariots and foot soldiers went into battle, unable to maneuver in small spaces and often significantly inferior to the disciplined infantry of the Greeks. The Achaemenids were very proud of their origin. The Behistun inscription, carved on a rock by order of Darius I, reads: "I, Darius, the great king, the king of kings, the king of countries inhabited by all peoples, have long been the king of this great land that stretches even further, son of Hystaspes, Achaemenides, Persian, son Persian, Aryan, and my ancestors were Aryans. However, the Achaemenid civilization was a conglomeration of customs, culture, social institutions and ideas that existed in all parts of the Ancient World. At that time East and West came into direct contact for the first time, and the resulting exchange of ideas never ceased thereafter.

Hellenic dominion. Weakened by endless rebellions, uprisings and civil strife, the Achaemenid state could not resist the armies of Alexander the Great. The Macedonians landed on the Asian continent in 334 BC, defeated the Persian troops on the river. Granik and twice defeated the huge armies under the command of the mediocre Darius III - in the battle of Issus (333 BC) in the south-west of Asia Minor and at Gaugamela (331 BC) in Mesopotamia. Having captured Babylon and Susa, Alexander went to Persepolis and set it on fire, apparently in retaliation for the burning of Athens by the Persians. Continuing to move east, he found the body of Darius III, who had been killed by his own soldiers. Alexander spent more than four years in the east of the Iranian Highlands, founding numerous Greek colonies. He then turned south and conquered the Persian provinces in what is now West Pakistan. After that, he went on a hike in the Indus Valley. Returning in 325 BC in Susa, Alexander began to actively encourage his soldiers to take Persian women as their wives, cherishing the idea of ​​​​a single state of Macedonians and Persians. In 323 BC Alexander, at the age of 33, died of a fever in Babylon. The huge territory conquered by him was immediately divided between his military leaders, who competed with each other. And although the plan of Alexander the Great to merge together Greek and Persian culture was never realized, the numerous colonies founded by him and his successors for centuries retained the originality of their culture and had a significant impact on local peoples and their art. After the death of Alexander the Great, the Iranian Highlands became part of the Seleucid state, which got its name from one of its commanders. Soon the local nobility began the struggle for independence. In the satrapy of Parthia, located southeast of the Caspian Sea in the area known as Khorasan, a nomadic tribe of Parns rebelled, expelling the governor of the Seleucids. The first ruler of the Parthian state was Arshak I (ruled from 250 to 248/247 BC).
Parthian state of the Arsacids. The period following the uprising of Arshak I against the Seleucids is called either the Arsacid period or the Parthian period. Constant wars were waged between the Parthians and the Seleucids, ending in 141 BC, when the Parthians, under the leadership of Mithridates I, took Seleucia, the capital of the Seleucids on the Tigris River. On the opposite bank of the river, Mithridates founded the new capital of Ctesiphon and extended his dominion over most of the Iranian plateau. Mithridates II (ruled from 123 to 87/88 BC) further expanded the borders of the state and, having taken the title "king of kings" (shahinshah), became the ruler of a vast territory from India to Mesopotamia, and in the east to Chinese Turkestan. The Parthians considered themselves the direct heirs of the Achaemenid state, and their relatively poor culture was replenished by the influence of Hellenistic culture and traditions introduced earlier by Alexander the Great and the Seleucids. As before in the Seleucid state, the political center moved to the west of the highlands, namely to Ctesiphon, so few monuments testifying to that time have been preserved in Iran in good condition. During the reign of Phraates III (ruled from 70 to 58/57 BC), Parthia entered into a period of almost continuous wars with the Roman Empire, which lasted almost 300 years. The opposing armies fought over a vast area. The Parthians defeated the army under the command of Marcus Licinius Crassus at Carrhae in Mesopotamia, after which the border between the two empires ran along the Euphrates. In 115 AD Roman emperor Trajan took Seleucia. Despite this, the Parthian power resisted, and in 161 Vologes III devastated the Roman province of Syria. However, long years of war bled the Parthians, and attempts to defeat the Romans on the western borders weakened their power over the Iranian highlands. Riots broke out in a number of areas. The satrap of Fars (or Parsa) Ardashir, the son of a religious leader, declared himself ruler as a direct descendant of the Achaemenids. After defeating several Parthian armies and killing the last Parthian king Artaban V in battle, he took Ctesiphon and inflicted a crushing defeat on the coalition trying to restore the power of the Arsacids.
State of the Sassanids. Ardashir (reigned from 224 to 241) founded a new Persian empire known as the Sassanid state (from the ancient Persian title "sasan" or "commander"). His son Shapur I (reigned from 241 to 272) retained elements of the former feudal system but created a highly centralized state. The armies of Shapur first moved east and occupied the entire Iranian Highlands up to the river. Indus and then turned west against the Romans. At the Battle of Edessa (near modern Urfa, Turkey), Shapur captured the Roman emperor Valerian along with his 70,000-strong army. The prisoners, among whom were architects and engineers, were forced to work on the construction of roads, bridges and irrigation systems in Iran. Over the course of several centuries, about 30 rulers changed in the Sassanid dynasty; often successors were appointed by the higher clergy and the feudal nobility. The dynasty waged continuous wars with Rome. Shapur II, who ascended the throne in 309, fought three times with Rome during the 70 years of his reign. The greatest of the Sassanids is Khosrow I (ruled from 531 to 579), who was called the Just or Anushirvan ("Immortal Soul"). Under the Sassanids, a four-tier system of administrative division was established, a flat rate of land tax was introduced, and numerous artificial irrigation projects were carried out. In the southwest of Iran, traces of these irrigation facilities are still preserved. Society was divided into four estates: warriors, priests, scribes and commoners. The latter included peasants, merchants and artisans. The first three estates enjoyed special privileges and, in turn, had several gradations. From the highest gradation of the estate, the Sardars, governors of the provinces were appointed. The capital of the state was Bishapur, the most important cities were Ctesiphon and Gundeshapur (the latter was famous as a center of medical education). After the fall of Rome, Byzantium took the place of the traditional enemy of the Sassanids. Violating the treaty on eternal peace, Khosrow I invaded Asia Minor and in 611 captured and burned Antioch. His grandson Khosrow II (reigned from 590 to 628), nicknamed Parviz ("Victorious"), briefly returned the Persians to their former glory of the Achaemenid times. During several campaigns, he actually defeated the Byzantine Empire, but the Byzantine emperor Heraclius made a bold throw at the Persian rear. In 627 Khosrow II's army suffered a crushing defeat at Nineveh in Mesopotamia, Khosrow was deposed and slaughtered by his own son Kavad II, who died a few months later. The powerful state of the Sassanids found itself without a ruler, with a destroyed social structure, exhausted as a result of long wars with Byzantium in the west and with the Central Asian Turks in the east. Within five years, twelve half-ghostly rulers were replaced, unsuccessfully trying to restore order. In 632, Yazdegerd III restored central authority for several years, but this was not enough. The exhausted empire could not withstand the onslaught of the warriors of Islam, irresistibly rushing north from the Arabian Peninsula. They struck the first crushing blow in 637 at the battle of Kadispi, as a result of which Ctesiphon fell. The Sassanids suffered their final defeat in 642 at the Battle of Nehavend in the central part of the highlands. Yazdegerd III fled like a hunted beast, his assassination in 651 marked the end of the Sassanid era.
CULTURE
Technology. Irrigation. The entire economy of ancient Persia was based on agriculture. Rainfall in the Iranian Plateau is insufficient for extensive agriculture, so the Persians had to rely on irrigation. The few and shallow rivers of the highlands did not provide irrigation ditches with sufficient water, and in summer they dried up. Therefore, the Persians developed a unique system of underground canals-ropes. At the foot of the mountain ranges, deep wells dug through the hard but porous layers of gravel to the underlying impervious clays that form the lower boundary of the aquifer. The wells collected melt water from the mountain peaks, covered in winter with a thick layer of snow. From these wells erupted underground conduits the height of a man with vertical shafts located at regular intervals, through which light and air entered for the workers. Water conduits came to the surface and served as sources of water all year round. Artificial irrigation with the help of dams and channels, which originated and was widely used on the plains of Mesopotamia, also spread to the territory of Elam, similar in natural conditions, through which several rivers flow. This area, now known as Khuzistan, is densely indented with hundreds of ancient canals. Irrigation systems reached their highest development during the Sasanian period. Numerous remains of dams, bridges and aqueducts built under the Sassanids still survive today. Since they were designed by captured Roman engineers, they are like two drops of water reminiscent of similar structures found throughout the Roman Empire. Transport. The rivers of Iran are not navigable, but in other parts of the Achaemenid Empire, water transport was well developed. So, in 520 BC. Darius I the Great reconstructed the canal between the Nile and the Red Sea. In the Achaemenid period, extensive construction of land roads was carried out, but paved roads were built mainly in swampy and mountainous areas. Significant sections of narrow, stone-paved roads built under the Sassanids are found in the west and south of Iran. The choice of the place for the construction of roads was unusual for that time. They were laid not along the valleys, along the banks of the rivers, but along the ridges of the mountains. Roads descended into the valleys only to make it possible to cross to the other side in strategically important places, for which massive bridges were erected. Along the roads, at a distance of a day's journey from one another, postal stations were built, where horses were changed. A very efficient postal service operated, with postal couriers covering up to 145 km per day. Since time immemorial, the breeding center of horses has been a fertile region in the Zagros Mountains, located next to the Trans-Asian trade route. Iranians from antiquity began to use camels as beasts of burden; this "mode of transport" came to Mesopotamia from Media ca. 1100 BC
Economy. The basis of the economy of Ancient Persia was agricultural production. Trade also flourished. All the numerous capitals of the ancient Iranian kingdoms were located along the most important trade route between the Mediterranean and the Far East or on its branch towards the Persian Gulf. In all periods, the Iranians played the role of an intermediate link - they guarded this route and kept part of the goods transported along it. During excavations in Susa and Persepolis, beautiful items from Egypt were found. The reliefs of Persepolis depict representatives of all the satrapies of the Achaemenid state, offering gifts to the great rulers. Since the time of the Achaemenids, Iran has exported marble, alabaster, lead, turquoise, lapis lazuli (lapis lazuli) and carpets. The Achaemenids created fabulous stocks of gold coins minted in various satrapies. In contrast, Alexander the Great introduced a single silver coin for the entire empire. The Parthians returned to the gold monetary unit, and during the Sassanid times, silver and copper coins prevailed in circulation. The system of large feudal estates that developed under the Achaemenids survived until the Seleucid period, but the kings in this dynasty greatly facilitated the position of the peasants. Then, during the Parthian period, huge feudal estates were restored, and this system did not change under the Sassanids. All states sought to obtain maximum income and established taxes on peasant farms, livestock, land, introduced poll taxes, and collected tolls on roads. All these taxes and fees were levied either in imperial coin or in kind. By the end of the Sassanid period, the number and magnitude of taxes became an unbearable burden for the population, and this tax pressure played a decisive role in the collapse of the social structure of the state.
Political and social organization. All Persian rulers were absolute monarchs who ruled over their subjects according to the will of the gods. But this power was absolute only in theory, but in reality it was limited by the influence of hereditary large feudal lords. The rulers tried to achieve stability through marriages with relatives, as well as by taking as wives the daughters of potential or actual enemies, both internal and foreign. Nevertheless, the rule of monarchs and the continuity of their power were threatened not only by external enemies, but also by members of their own families. The Median period was distinguished by a very primitive political organization, which is very typical for peoples moving to a settled way of life. Already among the Achaemenids, the concept of a unitary state appears. In the state of the Achaemenids, the satraps were fully responsible for the state of affairs in their provinces, but could be subjected to unexpected checks by inspectors, who were called the eyes and ears of the king. The royal court constantly emphasized the importance of the administration of justice and therefore constantly moved from one satrapy to another. Alexander the Great married the daughter of Darius III, retained the satrapies and the custom of prostrating himself before the king. The Seleucids adopted from Alexander the idea of ​​the fusion of races and cultures in the vast expanses from the Mediterranean Sea to the river. Ind. During this period, there was a rapid development of cities, accompanied by the Hellenization of the Iranians and the Iranianization of the Greeks. However, there were no Iranians among the rulers, and they were always considered outsiders. Iranian traditions were preserved in the area of ​​Persepolis, where temples were built in the style of the Achaemenid era. The Parthians tried to unite the ancient satrapies. They also played an important role in the fight against the nomads from Central Asia advancing from east to west. As before, satrapies were headed by hereditary governors, but a new factor was the lack of natural continuity of royal power. The legitimacy of the Parthian monarchy was no longer undeniable. The successor was chosen by a council made up of the nobility, which inevitably led to an endless struggle between rival factions. The Sasanian kings made a serious attempt to revive the spirit and the original structure of the Achaemenid state, partly reproducing its rigid social organization. In descending order were vassal princes, hereditary aristocrats, nobles and knights, priests, peasants, slaves. The state administrative apparatus was led by the first minister, to whom several ministries were subordinate, including the military, justice and finance, each of which had its own staff of skilled officials. The king himself was the supreme judge, while justice was administered by the priests.
Religion. In ancient times, the cult of the great mother goddess, a symbol of childbearing and fertility, was widespread. In Elam, she was called Kirisisha, and throughout the Parthian period, her images were cast on Luristan bronzes and made in the form of statuettes of terracotta, bone, ivory and metals. The inhabitants of the Iranian Highlands also worshiped many deities of Mesopotamia. After the first wave of Aryans passed through Iran, such Indo-Iranian deities as Mithra, Varuna, Indra and Nasatya appeared here. In all beliefs, a pair of deities was certainly present - the goddess, personifying the Sun and the Earth, and her husband, personifying the Moon and the natural elements. The local gods bore the names of the tribes and peoples who worshiped them. Elam had its own deities, primarily the goddess Shala and her husband Inshushinak. The Achaemenid period was marked by a decisive turn from polytheism to a more universal system reflecting the eternal struggle between good and evil. The earliest inscription from this period, a metal tablet made before 590 BC, contains the name of the god Aguramazda (Ahuramazda). Indirectly, the inscription may be a reflection of the reform of Mazdaism (the cult of Aguramazda) carried out by the prophet Zarathushtra, or Zoroaster, as narrated in the Gathas, ancient sacred hymns. The identity of Zarathushtra continues to be shrouded in mystery. He appears to have been born c. 660 BC, but possibly much earlier, and perhaps much later. The god Aguramazda personified the good beginning, truth and light, apparently in opposition to Ahriman (Angra Mainu), the personification of the evil beginning, although the very concept of Angra Mainu could appear later. The inscriptions of Darius mention Aguramazda, and the relief on his grave depicts the worship of this deity at the sacrificial fire. Chronicles give reason to believe that Darius and Xerxes believed in immortality. Worship of the sacred fire took place both inside the temples and in open places. Magi, originally members of one of the Median clans, became hereditary priests. They oversaw the temples, took care of strengthening the faith by performing certain rituals. Ethical doctrine based on good thoughts, good words and good deeds was revered. Throughout the Achaemenid period, the rulers were very tolerant of local deities, and starting from the reign of Artaxerxes II, the ancient Iranian sun god Mithra and the fertility goddess Anahita received official recognition. The Parthians, in search of their own official religion, turned to the Iranian past and settled on Mazdaism. Traditions were codified, and magicians regained their former power. The cult of Anahita continued to enjoy official recognition, as well as popularity among the people, and the cult of Mithras crossed the western borders of the kingdom and spread to most of the Roman Empire. In the west of the Parthian kingdom, they tolerated Christianity, which became widespread here. At the same time, in the eastern regions of the empire, Greek, Indian and Iranian deities united in a single Greco-Bactrian pantheon. Under the Sassanids, the continuity was preserved, but there were also some important changes in religious traditions. Mazdaism survived most of the early reforms of Zoroaster and became associated with the cult of Anahita. To compete on equal terms with Christianity and Judaism, the sacred book of the Zoroastrians Avesta, a collection of ancient poems and hymns, was created. The Magi still stood at the head of the priests and were the keepers of the three great national fires, as well as the holy fires in all important settlements. By that time, Christians had long been persecuted, they were considered enemies of the state, since they were identified with Rome and Byzantium, but by the end of the Sassanid reign, the attitude towards them became more tolerant and Nestorian communities flourished in the country. During the Sasanian period, other religions also arose. In the middle of the 3rd c. preached by the prophet Mani, who developed the idea of ​​combining Mazdaism, Buddhism and Christianity, and especially emphasized the need to liberate the spirit from the body. Manichaeism demanded celibacy from priests, and virtue from believers. The followers of Manichaeism were required to fast and offer prayers, but not to worship images or perform sacrifices. Shapur I favored Manichaeism and, perhaps, intended to make it the state religion, but this was sharply opposed by the still powerful priests of Mazdaism and in 276 Mani was executed. Nevertheless, Manichaeism persisted for several centuries in Central Asia, Syria and Egypt. At the end of the 5th c. preached another religious reformer - a native of Iran Mazdak. His ethical doctrine combined both elements of Mazdaism and practical ideas about non-violence, vegetarianism and communal life. Kavadh I initially supported the Mazdakian sect, but this time the official priesthood turned out to be stronger and in 528 the prophet and his followers were executed. The advent of Islam put an end to the national religious traditions of Persia, but a group of Zoroastrians fled to India. Their descendants, the Parsis, still practice the religion of Zarathushtra.
Architecture and art. Early metalwork. In addition to the enormous number of ceramic objects, items made of such durable materials as bronze, silver and gold are of exceptional importance for the study of ancient Iran. A huge number of so-called. Luristan bronzes were discovered in Luristan, in the Zagros mountains, during illegal excavations of the graves of semi-nomadic tribes. These unparalleled examples included weapons, horse harness, jewelry, and objects depicting scenes from religious life or ceremonial purposes. Until now, scientists have not come to a consensus on who and when they were made. In particular, it was suggested that they were created from the 15th century. BC. by 7th c. BC, most likely - Kassites or Scythian-Cimmerian tribes. Bronze items continue to be found in the province of Azerbaijan in northwestern Iran. In style, they differ significantly from the Luristan bronzes, although, apparently, both belong to the same period. Bronze items from northwestern Iran are similar to the latest finds made in the same region; for example, the finds of the accidentally discovered treasure in Ziviya and the wonderful golden goblet found during excavations in Hasanlu-Tepe are similar to each other. These items belong to the 9th-7th centuries. BC, in their stylized ornament and the image of deities, Assyrian and Scythian influence is visible.
Achaemenid period. No architectural monuments of the pre-Achaemenid period have been preserved, although the reliefs in the palaces of Assyria depict cities on the Iranian Highlands. It is very likely that even under the Achaemenids, the population of the highlands led a semi-nomadic lifestyle for a long time, and wooden buildings were typical for the region. Indeed, the monumental structures of Cyrus at Pasargadae, including his own tomb, which resembles a wooden house with a gabled roof, as well as Darius and his successors at Persepolis and their tombs at nearby Nakshi Rustem, are stone copies of wooden prototypes. In Pasargadae, royal palaces with pillared halls and porticos were scattered over a shady park. In Persepolis under Darius, Xerxes and Artaxerxes III, reception halls and royal palaces were built on terraces raised above the surrounding area. At the same time, it was not arches that were characteristic, but columns typical of this period, covered with horizontal beams. Labor, building and finishing materials, as well as decorations were delivered from all over the country, while the style of architectural details and carved reliefs was a mixture of artistic styles then prevailing in Egypt, Assyria and Asia Minor. During excavations in Susa, parts of the palace complex were found, the construction of which was begun under Darius. The plan of the building and its decoration reveal a much greater Assyro-Babylonian influence than the palaces in Persepolis. Achaemenid art was also characterized by a mixture of styles and eclecticism. It is represented by stone carvings, bronze figurines, figurines made of precious metals and jewelry. The best jewelry was discovered in a random find made many years ago, known as the Amu Darya treasure. The bas-reliefs of Persepolis are world famous. Some of them depict kings during ceremonial receptions or defeating mythical beasts, and along the stairs in the large reception hall of Darius and Xerxes, royal guards lined up and a long procession of peoples is visible, bringing tribute to the ruler.
Parthian period. Most of the architectural monuments of the Parthian period are found to the west of the Iranian Highlands and have few Iranian features. True, during this period an element appears that will be widely used in all subsequent Iranian architecture. This is the so-called. iwan, a rectangular vaulted hall, open from the side of the entrance. Parthian art was even more eclectic than that of the Achaemenid period. In different parts of the state, products of different styles were made: in some - Hellenistic, in others - Buddhist, in others - Greco-Bactrian. Plaster friezes, stone carvings and wall paintings were used for decoration. Glazed earthenware, the forerunner of pottery, was popular during this period.
Sasanian period. Many buildings of the Sasanian period are in relatively good condition. Most of them were built of stone, although burnt bricks were also used. Among the surviving buildings are royal palaces, temples of fire, dams and bridges, as well as entire city blocks. The place of columns with horizontal ceilings was occupied by arches and vaults; square rooms were crowned with domes, arched openings were widely used, many buildings had aivans. The domes were supported by four trompas, cone-shaped vaulted structures that spanned the corners of the square chambers. The ruins of palaces have been preserved in Firuzabad and Servestan, in the southwest of Iran, and in Kasre-Shirin, on the western outskirts of the highlands. The largest was considered the palace in Ctesiphon, on the river. The tiger known as Taki-Kisra. In its center was a giant iwan with a 27-meter-high vault and a distance between supports of 23 m. More than 20 fire temples have survived, the main elements of which were square rooms topped with domes and sometimes surrounded by vaulted corridors. As a rule, such temples were erected on high rocks so that the open sacred fire could be seen at a great distance. The walls of the buildings were covered with plaster, on which a pattern made by the notching technique was applied. Numerous reliefs carved into the rocks are found along the banks of reservoirs fed by spring waters. They depict kings before Aguramazda or defeating their enemies. The pinnacle of Sassanid art are textiles, silver dishes and goblets, most of which were made for the royal court. Scenes of royal hunting, figures of kings in solemn attire, geometric and floral ornaments are woven on thin brocade. On silver bowls there are images of kings on the throne, battle scenes, dancers, fighting animals and sacred birds made by the technique of extrusion or appliqué. Fabrics, unlike silver dishes, are made in styles that came from the west. In addition, elegant bronze incense burners and wide-mouthed jugs were found, as well as clay items with bas-reliefs covered with brilliant glaze. The mixture of styles still does not allow us to accurately date the found objects and determine the place of manufacture of most of them.
Writing and science. The oldest script in Iran is represented by as yet undeciphered inscriptions in the proto-Elamite language, which was spoken in Susa c. 3000 BC The much more advanced written languages ​​of Mesopotamia quickly spread to Iran, and Akkadian was used by the population in Susa and the Iranian plateau for many centuries. The Aryans who came to the Iranian Highlands brought with them Indo-European languages, different from the Semitic languages ​​of Mesopotamia. In the Achaemenid period, royal inscriptions carved on rocks were parallel columns in Old Persian, Elamite, and Babylonian. Throughout the Achaemenid period, royal documents and private correspondence were either written in cuneiform on clay tablets or written on parchment. At the same time, at least three languages ​​\u200b\u200bare in use - Old Persian, Aramaic and Elamite. Alexander the Great introduced the Greek language, and his teachers taught about 30,000 young Persians from noble families the Greek language and military science. In the great campaigns, Alexander was accompanied by a large retinue of geographers, historians and scribes who recorded everything that happened day after day and got acquainted with the culture of all the peoples they met along the way. Particular attention was paid to navigation and the establishment of maritime communications. The Greek language continued to be used under the Seleucids, while at the same time, the ancient Persian language was preserved in the Persepolis region. Greek served as the language of trade throughout the entire Parthian period, but the main language of the Iranian Highlands became Middle Persian, which represented a qualitatively new stage in the development of Old Persian. Over the centuries, the Aramaic script used for writing in the ancient Persian language was transformed into the Pahlavi script with an undeveloped and inconvenient alphabet. During the Sasanian period, Middle Persian became the official and main language of the inhabitants of the highlands. Its writing was based on a variant of the Pahlavi script known as the Pahlavi-Sasanian script. The sacred books of the Avesta were recorded in a special way - first in Zend, and then in the Avestan language. In ancient Iran, science did not rise to the heights that it reached in neighboring Mesopotamia. The spirit of scientific and philosophical research awakened only in the Sasanian period. The most important works were translated from Greek, Latin and other languages. It was then that the Book of Great Feats, the Book of Ranks, the Countries of Iran and the Book of Kings were born. Other works from this period have survived only in a later Arabic translation.

Collier Encyclopedia. - Open Society. 2000 .

The history of Ancient Persia (although it is more correct to call it Iran (that is how it is called in the sources of that time; the name ‘Persia’ was coined by the Greeks) begins with the conquests of Cyrus II. But you can’t immediately go to his accomplishments, first you need to find out who this Cyrus was?

The first mention of Persia

The first mention of Persia is found in Assyrian sources of the 9th century BC. It is known that it was a tribal union in the southwest of modern Iran, led by the noble family of the Achaemenids. A century later, they began to expand their possessions, but after establishing Assyria on these lands, they recognized the power of their king. Later, the Persians came under the rule of King Astyages, the ruler of the Median state. He also gave his daughter in marriage to Cambyses I, the ruler of the Persians. From this union, the son Cyrus I the Great was born.

Legend of Kira

Nothing exact can be said about Kira's childhood. However, there is a legend. Once King Astyages had a dream that a tree grows from the womb of his daughter and covers all the Median lands with its crowns. The priests interpreted this dream in such a way that the son born to his daughter would seize power from his grandfather. Astyages was frightened and ordered his courtier Harpagus to throw the baby Cyrus I in the forests of Media. He, in turn, ordered the shepherd Mithridad to take the child to the forest. But Mithridar and his wife had a dead child, they could not leave Cyrus in the forests. They decided to put their stillborn son in the cradle of Cyrus, and raise the prince as their own.

The truth was revealed when Cyrus was ten years old. He played with the sons of the courtiers and was chosen king among them. One of the boys refused to obey him, so he beat him. The boy's father complained to Astyages that the shepherd's son dared to beat his master. Kira was taken to the palace. Seeing him, Astyages realized that his grandson was alive. He turned to the priests again. But they assured him that the dream had already come true - the boy was elected king among his peers. Having calmed down, the king of Media sent him to his parents in Persia.

Rebellion of Cyrus and capture of the provinces

Cyrus revolted against Media in 553 BC. most of the Medes voluntarily went over to the side of Cyrus. By 550 B.C. Media was conquered. Then Cyrus began to conquer its provinces: Susa (Elam), Parthia, Hyrcania and Armenia. In 547 B.C. Cyrus launched an offensive against the Lydian kingdom. The first battle near the Galis River ended in nothing, the second time Cyrus showed cunning and put camels in front of his army. Lydian horses, sensing an unfamiliar smell, fled from the battlefield.

Then Cyrus subjugated the entire Asia Minor coast. And he turned his gaze towards the East Iranian and Central Asian territories: Afghanistan, the northwestern part of India, Pakistan, Drangiana, Margiana, Bactria, Arachosia, Gandhara, Hydrosia, Khorezm and Sogdiana. Miletus and the rest of the countries up to Egypt voluntarily submitted to Cyrus. Moreover, Phoenician, Babylonian and Asia Minor merchants advocated the creation of a strong centralized state. Egypt was now the target of Cyrus. But the nomads-Massageta on the northeastern outskirts of the empire brought a lot of anxiety. On a campaign against them in 530 BC. Cyrus was wounded and died.

Rise of the Persian Empire

The case of Cyrus the Great was continued by his son Cambyses II. He led a campaign against Egypt. At this time, Egypt experienced not the best of times: a weak army, inept Pharaoh Psammetich III, high taxes. Population dissatisfaction. Before embarking on a campaign, Cambyses enlisted the help of nomads from the waterless Sinai desert, who helped his army reach the city of Pelusium. The Egyptian commander-in-chief Phanes and the head of the fleet Ujagorresent went over to the side of the Persians.

In 525 BC. There was a battle near the city of Pelusium. Both sides suffered heavy losses, but the Persians won. The capital of Memphis was plundered, the population was taken into slavery, the son of Pharaoh Psammetikh was executed, but the pharaoh was spared. In the same year, Cambyses became the pharaoh of Egypt. Nubia became the next point of conquest, but a sandstorm claimed the lives of most of the Persian wax and they were forced to return to Egypt, where the former pharaoh Psammetich rebelled against Cambyses. The Shah brutally suppressed the uprising: Psammetich was now executed.

In connection with the above events, the shah was in Egypt for three years. In Iran itself, uprisings began against the oppression of the Persians. Rumors reached the shah that one of the leaders of the rebels was his brother Bardiya. Cambyses rushed back, but died on the way home under mysterious circumstances.

Rebellion of Bardiya Gaumata

There is a lot of information about the uprising of Bardia. Firstly, Bardia was not the Shah's brother at all, but the Median priest and impostor Gaumata. He began his rebellion in Babylonia, where he received universal support, and moved to Pasagard (the capital of Persia). Having won and subjugated Persia, Gaumata abolished tax and military service for three years in order to keep the provinces of the empire. All domestic policy was aimed at the displacement of the Persian elite and its replacement with the Median, as well as depriving them of all privileges.

Gaumata ruled for a short time - only seven months - and was killed as a result of a palace conspiracy of the seven most noble Persian families. It was they who elected the new shah. They became the 28-year-old Darius, who restored the privileges of the Persians and began the restoration of the empire in its former borders. The task was not easy. The state disintegrated: Babylonia, Armenia, Margiana, Elam, Parthia, Saks and others. In each province, an impostor appeared who proclaimed himself either Cambyses, who miraculously survived on the way to his homeland, or the king, overthrown by the Persians.

Campaign of Darius

Many did not believe in the success of Darius's campaign. However, he won victory after victory. The rebellions were suppressed with particular cruelty. In honor of all the victories, Darius erected the Behistun inscription, carved on a rock in the Pasagard region. It shows the enslaved kings of the provinces of the Achaemenid state, bringing tribute to their shahanshah Darius the Great. The kings look smaller than Darius, which indicates their subordinate position. Above the Shahanshah of Persia rises the sign of divine grace - farr.

In Zoroastrian mythology (Zoroastrianism, although it was not the official religion of the empire, had a dominant position in the Persian court), far or Khvaren was considered a sign of the gods who blessed the shah for kingship. However, if the shah failed to fulfill his obligations or used his power for evil, the gods would deprive him of farr and transfer him to another worthy candidate for the title of shahanshah.

Persian reforms of Darius

The uprisings of the Achaemenid state pointed Darius to the ‘holes’ in its administrative and military systems. I take into account the mistakes of the past, the shah carried out a number of reforms that did not change until the end of the empire:

1) The empire was divided into satrapies. Most often, the borders of the satrapies were equivalent to the borders of the states located in these territories (Assyria, Babylonia, Egypt). At the head were the satraps, who were appointed by the Shah and came from Persian families. In the hands of the satraps, only administrative power was concentrated: they monitored the collection of taxes, the observance of order in the satrapy, and exercised judicial power. There were also military leaders in the satrapies, but they were subordinate only to the shah. The satrapies also included autonomous regions such as the Phoenician cities, Cyprus and Cilicia. They were ruled with the help of local kings or tribal leaders.

2) The new capital of Susa was established central office headed by the shah's office. In large cities - Babylon, Ecbatana, Memphis and others - royal offices also appeared. The offices included scribes and officials. Accounting for taxes, taxes and even gifts was introduced, royal correspondence was conducted. The official language of the Achaemenid state was Aramaic, but the local language was also used in the satrap offices. The entire administrative system was under the control of the Shah: a secret police was created (the ears and an eye of the king), as well as a new position of a thousand chief - the commander of the Shah's personal guard, who supervised the officials.

3) Conducted work on the codification of the laws of the conquered countries and the study of ancient laws in order to combine them into one single code for all peoples. True, it is worth noting that the Persians occupied a privileged place in them.

4) Darius introduced new system of taxes: each satrapy paid a fixed amount of taxes, which was based on the fertility of the soil, the number of male population, etc. the Persians did not pay monetary taxes, but supplied food. The gift system was no longer voluntary - their size was also strictly fixed.

5) They began to mint a single coin - a gold darik.

6) The power of the empire directly depended on the army. Its core was made up of Persians and Medes. The army consisted of infantry (recruited from farmers) and cavalry (it included the Persian nobility). The Saka nomads played an important role in the Persian army as mounted archers. The horsemen's armament was usually a bronze shield, an iron shell and spears. The backbone was 10 thousand ‘immortals’. The first thousand were the personal guards of the king and were recruited from the sons of noble Persian families. The rest were recruited from the Elamites and Iranian tribes. This detachment was considered the most privileged in the entire Achaemenid army. Each satrapy had an army to prevent rebellions. Their composition was rather motley, but did not contain representatives of this province. On the border of the country, the soldiers were allocated a small piece of land. Every month each warrior received grain and meat. And being retired - land plots on which crops were grown, or sold or donated.

7) Darius started construction of roads and post offices. The satrapies were interconnected by post offices so that in case of war it would be possible to reach their destination as quickly as possible.

After carrying out such successful reforms, the shah turned his gaze against the Scythians, who disturbed the borders of the empire, and the Greeks, who rebelled against the power of the Persians. From the campaign of Darius to Athens, it is considered to be the beginning of the Greco-Persian wars.

Provincial uprisings

The reason for the uprisings was the ever-increasing tax burden and the removal of artisans from the cities (at that time, the construction of the palace of Persepolis (Takhte Jamshid) - the new residence of the Achaemenids) was being completed. Egypt was the first to express dissatisfaction (in 486 BC). The uprising was crushed, but took away too many forces of Darius - he died in the same year. Now his son Xerxes became Shah, who spent his whole life in constant suppression of uprisings. It turned Egypt back on. In 484 BC. Babylon rose, and with it another half of the provinces of the state. The uprising was finally suppressed only in 481 BC. its population was taken into slavery, and all the defensive fortifications of the city were destroyed.

In 480 B.C. Xerxes launched a second military campaign against the Greeks. Troops were gathered from all the satrapies from India to Egypt. According to Geradot, the Persian army numbered 1,700,000 infantry, 80,000 horsemen, 20,000 camels. But such calculations are hardly correct: if we take into account all the facts, such as the number of male population in the satrapies, their mortality from diseases and simply hard physical labor, then the total number of soldiers will not exceed 100,000 people. But even this figure was terrifying at the time. But this campaign also turned out to be a failure. Such famous battles at Salamis, Thermopylae and Plataea did not bring victory to the Persians. Greece gained independence. Moreover, she began her campaign in Asia Minor and the Aegean Sea against the Achaemenids.

Fall of the Persian Empire

After the death of Xerxes, the shahs mainly tried to keep the empire within its borders, and also waged internecine wars with each other for the throne. In 413 BC. the Lydian state revolted; in 404 BC Egypt separated, where the XXIX dynasty was proclaimed; in 360 BC Cyprus, Cilicia, Lydia, Khorezm, northwestern India, Karia, the Phoenician city of Sidon gained independence.

However, the main danger came from Asia Minor from the Greek province of the shepherds of Macedonia. While Greece was occupied with the struggle of Athens and Sparta, and Persia was frantically trying to hold its borders, the young Macedonian prince Alexander in 334 BC. went on a campaign against the Achaemenids. The ruling shah, Darius III, suffered defeat after defeat. The satraps voluntarily went over to the side of Alexander. In 331 BC. there was a decisive battle at Gaugamela, after which Great Persia ceased to exist. Darius III fled and took refuge in a mill, the owner of which, seduced by the rich clothes of a stranger, stabbed him to death at night. Thus ended his life the last shah of the Achaemenid dynasty. All previously subject lands of the Achaemenids came under the rule of Alexander the Great.

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Ancient Persia (Iran) is a state in Western and Central Asia (the territory of modern Iran and Pakistan). In its heyday, this was a vast territory, starting from the coast of Asia Minor and reaching the Indus River in the east. This great empire, which united dozens of ancient Iranian tribes who called themselves "Aryans", became a mediator in the cultural dialogue between the West and the East.

The first mention of Persia

The life of the Persians in ancient times is known from Assyrian sources, which described conflicts with various mountain tribes. It is known that at the end of the VIII century BC. e. near Lake Urmia, a tribal union was formed under the leadership of the leaders of the noble Persian family of the Achaemenids. This land was first conquered by Assyria, and in the 7th century. BC e. Subdued Midia. King Astyages of Media married one of his daughters to the Persian king Cambyses I, great-grandson of the legendary founder of the Persian Achaemenid dynasty. In this marriage, Cyrus II was born, who later became the Great, the king of all Persian peoples. A legend is connected with his birth, which Herodotus brought to us in his History.

Legend of Kira

Once, the ruler of Media, Astyages, had a dream that from the womb of his daughter a vine grew, which first filled all of Media, and then Asia. He summoned the magicians to interpret the dream for him. According to them, this meant that the son of his daughter would capture Media and Asia during the life of Astyages. When the daughter gave birth to a son, Astyages panicked that the prophecy would come true and ordered his grandson Harpag to be killed. Harpagus did not want to dirty his hands himself and gave the boy to the shepherd, ordering him to be killed in the mountains, and then bring and show the body of the baby. At this time, the shepherd's wife gave birth to a stillborn child, the shepherd left the boy for himself, and Harpagu brought the body of his child. The boy was named Cyrus. So the prince grew up, not knowing about his origin.

Until one day the son of a nobleman appeared in the pasture and saw the game of the sons of the shepherds, who played the "king". Cyrus was chosen as king, because he was a tall young man with a proud posture, others carried out his orders, guarded the palace. The official's son was also taken into this game. But he began to argue with the "king", for which he was punished and flogged with whips. Returning home, he complained to his father that he had been beaten by order of the Persian, the indignant father told Astyages everything. The king ordered that a shepherd and his son be brought to the palace. Then he interrogated Harpag, having learned the truth, the king, in a rage, ordered the execution of his son. Harpagus decided to take revenge on the cruel king at the first chance that came up.

The magicians dissuaded Astyages from killing his grandson, saying that the prophecy had come true, the boy was already the king in a child's game. Nevertheless, Astyages played it safe, ordering to guard all the ways so that not a single person could divulge the story of his origin to Cyrus. But Harpagus outwitted Astyages by writing a letter to Cyrus, he hid it in the belly of a hare. Having given the hare to his servant, he ordered to deliver it to the boy. Disguised as a hunter, the servant carried out the command of the master. On the way, the royal guards searched the servant, but did not find the letter. Thus, the letter fell into the hands of Cyrus, who learned from it who he really was.

Soon, Cyrus rebelled against Astyages (in 550 BC), gathering an army from the Persians. Having moved an army to Ecbatana, the capital of Media, Cyrus unexpectedly received help from the Medes themselves. Astyages sent his army, led by Harpagus, to meet the Persian army, confident that he remained loyal to him. However, Harpagus did not forgive the king for the death of his son and persuaded the Medes from noble families to treason. In addition, it was easy to do, many did not like the king for his cruelty. As a result, many Medes went over to the side of the enemy. The Persians managed to disperse the victorious Median army. The prophetic dream came true, Astyages executed the magicians. Gathering another army, he led him to the Persians. The Median warriors were known as excellent horsemen. Cyrus ordered his army to move on foot. The warriors covered themselves with shields from swords and arrows, managing to pull riders off their horses. Cyrus defeated the enemy army on his head, Astyages was captured, until the end of his life he spent in custody.

In 559 B.C. e. Cyrus II was proclaimed king. He founded the first capital of the Persian kingdom, Pasargada. Subsequently, the Persian army, led by Cyrus, continued the victorious conquest of other states: Lydia Croesus, the largest city of that time - Babylon, occupied East Iranian lands, regions of Central Asia, Afghan, Pakistani, Indian territories. Miletus and other states as far as Egypt submitted to Cyrus of their own free will. Many merchants advocated the formation of a powerful centralized state.

Cyrus set Egypt as his next target, but his plans failed to come true. During one of the campaigns against the Massagets (Massagets are nomadic tribes of Central Asia, related to the Sarmatians, Sakas and Scythians) led by Queen Tomiris, the army of the Persian king was defeated, and Cyrus himself died. For 25 years, Cyrus created a huge empire.

Rise of the Persian Empire

After the death of Cyrus II the Great, Cambyses II ascended the throne. It was he who conquered Egypt, making his father's dream a reality. The successful conquest of Egypt was predetermined, since the Egyptian kingdom was going through the worst times: a weak army, people's dissatisfaction with high taxes, the inept policy of Pharaoh Psammetichus III.

Before going to Egypt, Cambyses enlisted the support of the nomads of the Sinai desert, who helped him in the transition of troops to the city of Pelusium. Cambyses captured Memphis in 527 BC. e., where he showed cruelty to the Egyptians and their gods. He executed many noble people, destroyed temples, scourged their priests, executed the son of Psammetik III. The pharaoh himself was spared. Cambyses was proclaimed the Egyptian pharaoh.

Leaving Egypt, Cambyses launched two disastrous campaigns into Nubia and Libya. In the campaign to capture Libya, the army, crossing the desert, fell into a strong sandstorm, most of the army died in the sands, and Kamizu had to turn back. Returning to Egypt, where in his absence a rebellion broke out under the leadership of Psammetichus III, he crushed the rebellion and executed the former pharaoh.

Here news reached him that rebellions had begun in Persia against Persian hegemony. Leaving for Egypt, Cambyses, fearing a coup, got rid of his brother. The magician Gaumata, taking advantage of the absence of the king, seized power and led on behalf of the deceased brother Bardiya. Cambyses had been absent from his kingdom for three years, having received bad news, he went home. But he never made it home, he died on the way under unclear circumstances.

The magician Gaumata, who pretended to be the brother of Cambyses, began his ascent in Babylon, where he enlisted universal support, then captured the capital of Persia, Pasargada. While in power, he abolished duties and military service for three years, pursuing the goal of replacing the Persian top of the nobility with the Median. Gaumata was in power for 7 months. After some time, a conspiracy of representatives of seven eminent Persian families arose, who killed the impostor and proclaimed Darius king. He immediately returned the preemptive rights to the Persians and began to reunite the empire, which crumbled like a house of cards. In Babylon, Parthia, Armenia, Margiana, Elam and other areas, impostors appeared, posing as Cambyses.

The rebellions that broke out throughout the empire, Darius brutally suppressed. After he gathered all the lands together, Darius erected the Behistun inscription, which is carved on a high rock. The image shows how the enslaved kings of the provinces of the Iranian Empire bring tribute to their Shahinshah Darius the Great. Darius is depicted much larger than the rest of the kings, which clearly indicates their subordinate position.

Reforms of Darius I

Darius was well aware that it was impossible to manage such an empire in the old ways, so at the beginning of his reign he engaged in reforms, which resulted in the creation of a reliable management system.

The results of the reformation of Darius I:

• Divided the empire into administrative districts - satrapies. Officials from the tribal nobility of Persia were appointed as the head of the province. The satraps had administrative, civil and judicial powers. They collected taxes, kept order in the economy. To maintain order and protect the borders, military formations were stationed in the districts, the command was appointed by the king himself. Remote territories (Cyprus, Cilicia) were under the self-government of local kings.
• A royal chancellery was created, which led the staff of officials. The main office was in the Persian capital, the city of Susa. Additional royal offices were located in large cities - Babylon, Memphis, Ecbatana. The head of the treasury (responsible for the treasury and taxes collected), judicial investigators, scribes, heralds worked here. Also, secret agents worked for the Shah - "the ears and the eye of the king." The official language was Aramaic, but other languages ​​were also used. Important documents were written in several languages ​​at once.
• A new post of "chief-chief" appeared, which supervised the officials and the personal guard of the king, also monitored the state administration.
• Legislation was harmonized. One set of laws was created for the entire population, while taking into account the ancient laws of the conquered countries. But still the Persians had privileges.
• He carried out a tax reform, now monetary taxes depended on the size of the territory, the fertility of the land and the population.
• A single monetary system was introduced for all satrapies - a golden darik, which was in circulation throughout the country.
• The main pillar of the country was the army, the highest staff was recruited from the Medes and Persians. The army was supported by 10 thousand "immortals", recruited from various Indo-Iranian peoples. The first thousand of the 10 thousand "immortals" were the Shahinshah's personal guard. Mercenary soldiers were often accepted into the ranks, mostly Greeks. The composition of the army - cavalry, chariots and infantry. Warriors from the nobility were recruited into the cavalry, they had to have equipment - an iron shell, a bronze shield and helmets, and weapons - two spears, a sword, a bow with arrows. The main weapon of the infantry was the bow. On the borders of the entire empire, military units were stationed in fortresses. These warriors were allotted land. Later, a military fleet was created, which included Greek ships, ships of the Phoenicians and Cypriots.
• The empire had a well-developed road network. Regular messengers and mail, road guards raised the message system to a high level.

Provincial uprisings

Having completed the reforms, restoring order in the empire, Darius decided to conquer Scythia, which he did not succeed. Then he decided to take over Greece. It was with the campaign of Darius that a series of military conflicts began, which were called the Greco-Persian wars. For wars, a full state treasury was needed, so taxes began to increase over time.

At the same time, the palace city of Persepolis was being built, which reached splendor under the heirs of Darius. Many artisans were sent to build it. All this worsened the situation in the country, the first to express dissatisfaction was Egypt, which rebelled against the Persians. Darius at this time was preparing for a second campaign against Greece. But Darius died without realizing his plans.

The Persian throne was occupied by the son of Darius Xerxes I. All his reign he had to suppress uprisings, it was he who suppressed the rebellion in Egypt, then the uprising in Babylon. At the same time, he acted harshly, he turned Babylonia into a simple satrapy, took the inhabitants into slavery and destroyed the city. Xerxes swore an oath to take revenge on Greece for the triumph over the Persians at Marathon, he dreamed of burning Athens. He did this in 480 BC. e., on the second trip.

The king of Persia took revenge - he burned Athens, but while Xerxes set fires, the Athenians and Spartans dealt a crushing blow to the Persian army, defeating it at sea near the island of Salamis and on land - at Plataea. All the army of Xerxes died in the campaign against Greece and on the way home. Returning back to Persia with a small remnant of the army, Xerxes was mired in intrigues and ingloriously died at the hands of his chief of the palace guards.

Fall of an empire

After the death of Xerxes, the rest of the kings tried to preserve the territory of the empire and engaged in internecine squabbles for the throne. Thus, states gradually began to emerge from the Persian Empire: Lydia (413 BC), Egypt (404 BC), Cyprus, Cilicia, Khorezm, Sidon, Kariya, part of India (360 AD). BC.). But the main danger came from Macedonia, where the young commander subjugated states, territories, peoples. In 334 BC. e. Prince Alexander with his army turned to the East, all his attention was directed to the huge Persian Empire. During this period, Shahinshah Darius III was in power. The Persian troops in two main battles lost the army of Alexander the Great, after the defeat at Issus (333 BC), the royal family was captured by the enemy. After the second defeat (331 BC), Darius III fled with part of the troops to Bactria. The commander pursued the fugitives. In flight, Darius was killed by his own satrap. When Alexander caught up with the convoy, he found Darius dead. Thus, the last king of the Achaemenid dynasty perished. The Persian Empire - ended its existence, all the satrapies became part of the power of Alexander the Great.