I have questions, why are there only 4 races on Earth? Why are they so different from each other? How do different races have skin colors that match their area of ​​residence?

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First of all, we will examine the map of the settlement of the "Modern races of the world." In this analysis, we will not deliberately accept the position of either monogenism or polygenism. The purpose of our analysis and the entire study as a whole is precisely to understand exactly how humanity appeared and its development proceeded, including the development of writing. Therefore, we cannot and will not rely in advance on any dogma, be it scientific or religious.

Why are there four different races on Earth? Naturally, four types of different races could not come from Adam and Eve....

So, under the letter "A" on the map, races are indicated that, according to modern research, are ancient. These races include four:
Equatorial Negroid races (hereinafter "Negroid race" or "Negroids");
Equatorial Australoid races (hereinafter "Australoid race" or "Australoids");
Caucasoid races (hereinafter referred to as "Caucasoids");
Mongoloid races (hereinafter "Mongoloids").

2. Analysis of the modern mutual settlement of races.

Extremely interesting is the modern mutual settlement of the four main races.

Negroid races are settled exclusively in a limited area, located from the center of Africa to its southern part. There is no negroid race anywhere outside of Africa. In addition, it is precisely the areas of settlement of the Negroid race that are currently the "suppliers" of the culture of the Stone Age - in South Africa there are still such areas within which the population still exists in a primitive communal way of life.

We are talking about the archaeological culture of Wilton (Wilton, Wilton) of the late Stone Age, common in South and East Africa. In some areas, it was replaced by the Neolithic with polished axes, but in most areas it existed until modern times: arrowheads made of stone and bone, earthenware, beads from the shell of ostrich eggs; people of the Wilton culture lived in grottoes and in the open air, hunted; agriculture and domestic animals were absent.

It is also interesting that on other continents there are no centers of settlement of the Negroid race. This, of course, indicates the fact that the origin of the Negroid race was originally in that part of Africa, which is located south of the center of the continent. It is worth noting that here we do not consider the later “migrations” of Negroids to the American continent and their modern entry through the regions of France into the territory of Eurasia, since this is an effect that is completely insignificant in the long historical process.

The Australoid races are settled exclusively in a limited area, which is located integrally in the north of Australia, as well as in extremely small fluctuations in the territory of India and on some isolated islands. The islands are so insignificantly populated by the Australoid race that they can be neglected when estimating the entire center of distribution of the Australoid race. This center, quite reasonably, can be considered the northern part of Australia. It should be noted here that the Australoids, as well as the Negroids, for reasons unknown to today's science, are located exclusively within the same common range. Stone Age cultures are also found among the Australoid race. More precisely, those Australoid cultures that have not experienced the impact of Caucasoids are mainly in the Stone Age.

Caucasoid races are settled in the territory located in the European part of Eurasia, including the Kola Peninsula, as well as in Siberia, in the Urals, along the Yenisei, along the Amur, in the upper reaches of the Lena, in Asia, around the Caspian, Black, Red and Mediterranean Seas, in northern Africa , on the Arabian Peninsula, in India, on the two American continents, in southern Australia.

In this part of the analysis, one should dwell on the consideration of the area of ​​​​settlement of Caucasians in more detail.

First, for obvious reasons, we will exclude from historical estimates the territory of distribution of Caucasians in both Americas, since these territories were occupied by them in a not so distant historical time. The last “experience” of Caucasians does not affect the very history of the original settlement of peoples. The history of the settlement of mankind in general took place long before the American conquests of the Caucasians and without taking them into account.

Secondly, like the two previous races, the territory of distribution of Caucasoids (from this point onwards, under the "territory of distribution of Caucasoids" we will understand only its Eurasian part and northern Africa) is also clearly marked by the area of ​​their settlement. However, unlike the Negroid and Australoid races, the Caucasoid race has reached the highest flowering of culture, science, art, etc. among the existing races. The Stone Age within the habitat of the Caucasoid race was passed in the vast majority of areas 30 - 40 thousand years BC. All modern scientific achievements of the most advanced nature are made precisely by the Caucasoid race. You can, of course, mention and argue with this statement, referring to the achievements of China, Japan and Korea, but let's be honest, all their achievements are purely secondary and they use, we must pay tribute - with success, but still use the primary achievements of Caucasians.

The Mongoloid races are settled exclusively in a limited area, located integrally in the northeast and east of Eurasia and on both American continents. Among the Mongoloid race, as well as among the Negroid and Australoid races, to this day there are cultures of the Stone Age.
3. On the application of the laws of Organisms

The first thing that catches the eye of an inquisitive researcher looking at a map of the settlement of races is that the areas of settlement of races do not mutually intersect in such a way that this concerns any noticeable territories. And, although on mutual borders the adjoining races give the product of their intersection, called "transitional races", the formation of such mixtures is classified according to time and is purely secondary and much later than the formation of the ancient races themselves.

To a large extent, this process of interpenetration of ancient races resembles diffusion in the physics of materials. We apply to the description of races and peoples the laws of Organisms, which are more unified and give us the right and opportunity to operate with equal ease and accuracy, both with materials and with peoples and races. Therefore, the mutual penetration of peoples - the diffusion of peoples and races - is completely subject to the law 3.8. (numbering of laws, as is customary in) Organisms, which says: "Everything moves."

Namely, not a single race (now we will not discuss the originality of one or the other) under any circumstances will remain without movement in any “frozen” state. We will not be able, following this law, to find at least one race or people that would arise in a certain territory at the moment of “minus infinity” and would remain within this territory until “plus infinity”.

And from this it follows that it is possible to work out the laws of motion of populations of organisms (nations).
4. Laws of motion of a population of organisms
Any people, any race, as, indeed, not only real, but also mythical (disappeared civilizations), always has a point of its origin, different from the one considered and as earlier;
Any nation, any race is represented not by the absolute values ​​of its population and its certain range, but by a system (matrix) of n-dimensional vectors that describe:
directions of settlement on the Earth's surface (two dimensions);
time intervals of such resettlement (one dimension);
…n. the values ​​of the mass transfer of information about the people (one complex dimension; this includes both the numerical composition and national, cultural, educational, religious, and other parameters).
5. Interesting observations

From the first law of population movement and taking into account a careful examination of the map of the current distribution of races, we can deduce the following observations.

First, even at the present historical time, all four ancient races are extremely isolated in terms of their distribution areas. Recall that we do not consider hereinafter the colonization by Negroids, Caucasians and Mongoloids of both Americas. These four races have the so-called cores of their ranges, which in no case coincide, that is, none of the races in the center of their range coincides with similar parameters of any other race.

Secondly, the central "points" (regions) of the ancient racial regions remain quite "pure" in composition at the present time. Moreover, the mixing of races occurs exclusively only on the borders of neighboring races. Never - by mixing races that were not historically located in the neighborhood. That is, we do not observe any mixing of the Mongoloid and Negroid races, since between them is the Caucasoid race, which, in turn, has mixtures with both Negroids and Mongoloids just at the points of contact with them.

Thirdly, if the central points of the settlement of races are determined by a simple geometric calculation, then it turns out that these points are located at the same distance from each other, equal to 6000 (plus or minus 500) kilometers:

Negroid point - 5 ° S, 20 ° E;

Caucasoid point - with. Batumi, the easternmost point of the Black Sea (41°N, 42°E);

Mongoloid point - ss. Aldan and Tomkot in the upper reaches of the Aldan River, a tributary of the Lena (58°N, 126°E);

Australoid point - 5° S, 122° E

Moreover, the points of the central regions of the settlement of the Mongoloid race on both American continents are also equidistant (and approximately at the same distance).

An interesting fact is that if all four central points of the settlement of races, as well as three points located in South, Central and North America, are connected, then a line will be obtained that resembles the bucket of the constellation Ursa Major, but inverted relative to its current position.
6. Conclusions

An assessment of the areas of settlement of races allows us to draw a number of conclusions and assumptions.
6.1. Conclusion 1:

It does not seem legitimate and substantiated a possible theory that suggests the birth and resettlement of modern races from one common point.

We are currently observing precisely the process that leads to the mutual averaging of the races. As, for example, the experiment with water, when a certain amount of hot water is poured into cold water. We understand that after some finite and quite estimated time, hot water will mix with cold water, and the temperature will be averaged. After that, the water will generally become somewhat warmer than cold before mixing, and somewhat colder than hot before mixing.

The situation is the same with the four old races - we are currently observing precisely the process of their mixing, when the races mutually penetrate each other, like cold and hot water, form mestizo races in the places of their contact.

If four races were formed from one center, then we would not observe mixing now. Since in order for four entities to form from one entity, a process of separation and mutual dispersal, isolation, and accumulation of differences must occur. And the mutual miscegenation that is now taking place serves as clear evidence of the reverse process - the mutual diffusion of the four races. An inflection point that would separate the earlier process of separation of races from the later process of their mixing has not yet been found. Convincing evidence of the objective existence of some point in history from which the process of separation of races would be replaced by their unification has not been found. Therefore, it is precisely the process of historical mixing of races that should be considered as a completely objective and normal process.

And this means that initially the four ancient races had to be inevitably divided and isolated from each other. The question of the force that could be engaged in such a process, we will leave open for the time being.

This assumption of ours is convincingly confirmed by the very map of the distribution of races. As we have previously revealed, there are four conditional points of the initial settlement of the four ancient races. These points, by a strange chance, are located in a sequence that has a clearly defined series of patterns:

in the first place, each frontier of mutual contact of races serves only as a division between two races, and nowhere as a division between three or four;

secondly, the distances between such points, by a strange coincidence, are almost the same and equal to about 6000 kilometers.

The processes of development of territorial spaces by races can be compared with the formation of a pattern on frosty glass - from one point the pattern spreads in different directions.

Obviously, the races, each in its own way, but the general view of the settlement of the races was quite the same - from the so-called distribution point of each race, it spread in different directions, gradually mastering new territories. After quite an estimated time, the races sown 6000 kilometers from each other met at the borders of their ranges. Thus began the process of their mixing and the emergence of various mestizo races.

The process of building and expanding the ranges of races fully falls under the definition of the concept of "organismic center of organization", when there are patterns that describe such a spread of races.

The natural and most objective conclusion suggests itself about the existence of four separate centers of origin of four different - ancient - races, located at an equal distance from each other. Moreover, the distances and points of "seeding" races are chosen in such a way that if we tried to repeat such a "seeding", we would come to the same variant. Therefore, the Earth was inhabited by someone or something from 4 different regions of our Galaxy or our Universe....
6.2. Conclusion 2:

Perhaps the original placement of the races was artificial.

A series of random coincidences in the distances and equidistance of the races leads us to believe that this was not accidental. Law 3.10. Organismics says: ordered chaos acquires intelligence. It is interesting to trace the work of this law in the reverse causal direction. The expression 1+1=2 and the expression 2=1+1 are equally true. And, therefore, the causal relationship in their members works in both directions equally.

By analogy with this, law 3.10. we can reformulate as follows: (3.10.-1) intelligence is an acquisition due to the ordering of chaos. The circumstance when out of three segments connecting four seemingly random points, all three segments are equal to the same value, can only be called a manifestation of intellect. In order for the distances to match, it is necessary to measure them accordingly.

In addition, and this circumstance is no less interesting and mysterious, the “wonderful” distance between the points of origin of races, revealed by us, for some strange and inexplicable reason, is equal to the radius of the planet Earth. Why?

By connecting the four seeding points of the races and the center of the Earth (and they are all located at the same distance), we will get a quadrangular equilateral pyramid, with its apex directed towards the center of the Earth.

Why? Why in a seemingly chaotic world, clear geometric shapes?
6.3. Conclusion 3:

On the initial maximum isolation of races.

Let's start the consideration of mutually pairwise settlement of races with a pair of Negroids-Caucasoids. Firstly, Negroids do not come into contact with any other race. Secondly, between the Negroids and the Caucasians lies the region of central Africa, which is characterized by the abundant distribution of lifeless deserts. That is, initially, the location of the Negroids relative to the Caucasians provided that these two races would have the least contact with each other. There is some intent here. And also an additional argument against the theory of monogenism - at least in part of the Negroid-Caucasian couple.

In a pair of Caucasians-Mongoloids, there are also similar features. The same distance between the conditional centers of the formation of races is 6000 kilometers. The same natural barrier to the mutual penetration of races is the extremely frosty northern regions and the Mongolian deserts.

The pair of Mongoloids-Australoids also provides for the maximum use of terrain conditions, preventing the mutual penetration of these races, which are approximately the same 6000 kilometers apart from each other.

Only in recent decades, with the development of means of transport and communications, did the interpenetration of races become not only possible, but also assumed a mass character.

Naturally, in the course of our research, these conclusions may be subject to revision.
Final conclusion:

Everything shows that there were four points of sowing races. They are equidistant both between themselves and from the center of the planet Earth. Races have only mutual-pair contacts. The process of mixing races is a process of the last two centuries, before that the races were isolated. If there was an intention in the initial settlement of the races, then it was this: to settle the races so that they would not come into contact with each other for as long as possible.

This was probably an experiment to solve the problem - which race will better adapt to earthly conditions. And also, which race will be more progressive in its development....

Source - razrusitelmifov.ucoz.ru

Formation of races on earth, is a question that remains open, even for modern science. Where, how, why did races arise? Is there a division into races of the first and second grade, (more:)? What unites people into a single humanity? What traits separate people by nationality?

Skin color in humans

Humanity as a biological species stood out a long time ago. Color of the skin the former of people it was unlikely to be very dark or very white, most likely some skin turned out to be somewhat whiter, others darker. The formation of races on Earth by skin color was influenced by the natural conditions in which certain groups found themselves. Formation of races on Earth.

White and black people

For example, some people found themselves in the conditions of the tropical zone of the Earth. Here, the merciless rays of the sun can easily burn the bare skin of a person. We know from physics that black absorbs the rays of the sun more completely. And so black skin seems to be harmful. But it turns out that only ultraviolet rays burn, and can burn the skin. Pigment coloration becomes like a shield that protects the human skin. Everyone knows that white man gets sunburn faster than a black man. In the equatorial steppes of Africa, people with dark skin color turned out to be more adapted to life, and Negroid tribes originated from them. This is evidenced by the fact that not only in Africa, but also in all tropical regions of the planet, live black people. The original inhabitants of India are very dark-skinned people. In the tropical steppe regions of America, the people living here turned out to have darker skin than their neighbors, who lived in and hid from the direct rays of the sun in the shade of trees. And in Africa, the indigenous inhabitants of the rainforests - the pygmies - have lighter skin than their neighbors, who are engaged in agriculture and are almost always under the sun.
Indigenous people of Africa. The Negroid race, in addition to skin color, has many other features that have been formed in the process of development, and due to the need to adapt to tropical living conditions. For example, curly black hair protects the head well from overheating in the direct rays of the sun. Narrow elongated skulls are also one of the adaptations from overheating. The same skull shape is found among the Papuans from New Guinea, (more details:) as well as among the Malanesians, (more details:). Features such as the shape of the skull and skin color helped all these peoples in the struggle for existence. But why did the skin of the white race turn out to be whiter than that of primitive people? The reason is the same ultraviolet rays, under the influence of which vitamin B is synthesized in the human body. People from temperate and northern latitudes should have white skin that is transparent to sunlight in order to get as much ultraviolet light as possible.
Inhabitants of northern latitudes. Dark-skinned people constantly experienced vitamin starvation and turned out to be less hardy than white-skinned people.

Mongoloids

Third race - Mongoloids. Under the influence of what conditions its distinctive features were formed? Skin color, apparently, has been preserved from their most distant ancestors, it is well adapted to the harsh conditions of the North and the hot sun. And here are the eyes. Special mention must be made of them. It is believed that the Mongoloids first appeared in areas of Asia, located far from all oceans; the continental climate here is characterized by a sharp temperature difference between winter and summer, day and night, and the steppes in these parts are covered with deserts. Strong winds blow almost continuously and carry a huge amount of dust. In winter, there are sparkling tablecloths of endless snow. And today, travelers in the northern regions of our country put on glasses that protect against this brilliance. And if they are not found, they are paid with an eye disease. An important distinguishing feature of the Mongoloids is the narrow slits of the eyes. And the second is a small skin fold that covers the inner corner of the eye. It also keeps dust out of the eyes.
Mongoloid race. This skin fold is commonly referred to as the Mongolian fold. From here, from Asia, people with prominent cheekbones and narrow slits of the eyes dispersed throughout Asia, Indonesia, Australia, and Africa. But is there another place on Earth with a similar climate? Yes there is. These are some areas of South Africa. They are inhabited by Bushmen and Hottentots - peoples belonging to the Negroid race. However, the Bushmen here usually have dark yellow skin, narrow eyes and a Mongolian fold in place. At one time, they even thought that Mongoloids who migrated here from Asia live in these parts of Africa. It was only later that this mistake was sorted out.

Division into large human races

Thus, under the influence of purely natural conditions, the main races of the Earth were formed - white, black, yellow. When did it happen? It is not easy to answer such a question. Anthropologists believe that division into large human races occurred not earlier than 200 thousand years ago and not later than 20 thousand. And probably it was a long process that took 180-200 thousand years. How this happened is a new mystery. Some scientists believe that at first humanity was divided into two races - the European, which then divided into white and yellow, and the equatorial, Negroid. Others, on the contrary, believe that at first the Mongoloid race separated from the common tree of mankind, and then the Euro-African race divided into whites and blacks. Well, anthropologists divide large human races into small ones. This division is unstable, the total number of small races fluctuates in the classifications given by different scientists. But there are certainly dozens of small races. Of course, races differ from each other not only in skin color and eye shape. Modern anthropologists have found a large number of such differences.

Criteria for division into races

But for what criteria compare race? Head shape, brain size, blood type? Scientists have not found any fundamental signs that would characterize any race for better or worse.

brain weight

Proved that brain weight different races are different. But it is also different for different people belonging to the same nationality. So, for example, the brain of the brilliant writer Anatole France weighed only 1077 grams, and the brain of no less brilliant Ivan Turgenev reached a huge weight - 2012 grams. It can be confidently said: between these two extremes are placed all the races of the Earth.
Human brain. The fact that the weight of the brain does not characterize the mental superiority of the race is also indicated by the figures: the average weight of the brain of an Englishman is 1456 grams, and the Indians - 1514, the Bantu Negroes - 1422 grams, the French - 1473 grams. It is known that Neanderthals had a larger brain than modern humans. It is unlikely that they, however, were smarter than you and me. And yet racists have remained on the globe. They are in the US and South Africa. True, they have no scientific data to confirm their theories. Anthropologists - scientists who study humanity precisely from the standpoint of the characteristics of individuals and their groups - unanimously assert:

All people on Earth, regardless of their nationality and race, are equal. This does not mean that there are no racial and national characteristics, they are. But they do not determine either mental abilities or any other qualities that could be considered decisive for the division of mankind into higher and lower races.

We can say that this conclusion is the most important of the conclusions of anthropology. But this is not the only achievement of science, otherwise it would not make sense to develop it further. And anthropology is evolving. With its help, it was possible to look into the remotest past of mankind, to understand many previously mysterious moments. It is anthropological research that allows one to penetrate into the depths of millennia, to the very first days of the appearance of man. Yes, and that long period of history, when people did not yet have writing at their disposal, is becoming clearer thanks to anthropological research. And, of course, the methods of anthropological research have expanded incomparably. If just a hundred years ago, having met a new unknown people, the traveler limited himself to describing them, then at present this is far from enough. The anthropologist must now make numerous measurements, leaving nothing unattended - neither the palms of the hands, nor the soles of the feet, nor, of course, the shape of the skull. He takes blood and saliva, prints of feet and hands for analysis, and takes x-rays.

Blood type

All the data obtained are summed up, and special indices are derived from them that characterize a particular group of people. It turns out, and blood types- exactly those blood groups that are used in transfusions - can also characterize the race of people.
Blood type determines race. It has been established that there are most people with the second blood group in Europe and not at all in South Africa, China and Japan, there are almost no third group in America and Australia, less than 10 percent of Russians have the fourth blood group. By the way, the study of blood groups made it possible to make many important and interesting discoveries. Well, for example, the settlement of America. It is known that archaeologists, who have been looking for the remains of ancient human cultures in America for many decades, had to state that people appeared here relatively late - only a few tens of thousands of years ago. Relatively recently, these conclusions were confirmed by the analysis of the ashes of ancient fires, bones, and the remains of wooden structures. It turned out that the figure of 20-30 thousand years quite accurately determines the period that has passed since the days of the first discovery of America by its natives - the Indians. And this happened in the area of ​​the Bering Strait, from where they moved relatively slowly south to Tierra del Fuego. The fact that among the indigenous population of America there are no people with the third and fourth blood groups indicates that the first settlers of the giant continent accidentally did not have people with these groups. The question arises: were there many of these discoverers in this case? Apparently, in order for this randomness to manifest itself, there were few of them. It was they who gave rise to all Indian tribes with an endless variety of their languages, customs, and beliefs. And further. After this group set foot on the soil of Alaska, no one could follow them there. Otherwise, new groups of people would bring with them one of the important blood factors, the absence of which determines the absence of the third and fourth blood groups among the Indians. But the descendants of the first Columbus reached the Isthmus of Panama. And although in those days there was no canal separating the continents, this isthmus was difficult to overcome for people: tropical swamps, diseases, wild animals, poisonous reptiles and insects made it possible for another, equally small group of people to overcome it. Proof? Absence of the second blood type among native South Americans. This means that the accident repeated itself: among the pioneers of South America there were also no people with the second blood group, as among the pioneers of the North - with the third and fourth groups ... Probably everyone read the famous book by Thor Heyerdahl "Journey to Kon-Tiki". This trip was conceived to prove that the ancestors of the inhabitants of Polynesia could come here not from Asia, but from South America. This hypothesis was prompted by some commonality of cultures between Polynesians and South Americans. Heyerdahl understood that even with his magnificent journey he did not provide decisive evidence, but most readers of the book, intoxicated by the greatness of the scientific feat and the literary talent of the author, steadily believe in the rightness of the brave Norwegian. And yet, apparently, the Polynesians are the descendants of Asians, not South Americans. Again, the decisive factor was the composition of the blood. We remember that South Americans do not have a second blood type, and among Polynesians there are many people with such a blood type. You are inclined to believe that the Americans did not take part in the settlement of Polynesia ... And yet, almost everything that is told here is still a hypothesis. There are scientists who do not believe that racial characteristics have an adaptive value to environmental conditions: there are scientists who believe that the settlement of America could have been carried out sequentially, in numerous waves, and in the process of generational change, certain blood factors were forced out. There is not enough evidence to support either hypothesis. But the hypotheses are either replaced by others, or receive new and new confirmations and become harmonious theories that explain the formation of races on Earth.

The population of our planet is so diverse that one can only be surprised. What kind of nationalities, nationalities you will not meet! Everyone has their own faith, customs, traditions, orders. Its beautiful and unusual culture. However, all these differences are formed only by the people themselves in the process of social historical development. And what underlies the differences that appear externally? After all, we are all very different:

• blacks;
• yellow-skinned;
• white;
• with different eye colors
• various heights, etc.

It is obvious that the reasons are purely biological, not dependent on the people themselves and formed over thousands of years of evolution. This is how the modern races of man were formed, which theoretically explain the visual diversity of human morphology. Let us consider in more detail what this term is, what is its essence and meaning.

The concept of "race of people"

What is a race? It is not a nation, not a people, not a culture. These concepts should not be confused. After all, representatives of different nationalities and cultures can freely belong to the same race. Therefore, the definition can be given such as the science of biology gives.

Human races are a set of external morphological features, that is, those that are the phenotype of a representative. They were formed under the influence of external conditions, the impact of a complex of biotic and abiotic factors, and were fixed in the genotype during evolutionary processes. Thus, the signs that underlie the division of people into races should include:

• growth;
• skin and eye color;
• structure and shape of hair;
• hairiness of the skin;
• features of the structure of the face and its parts.

All those signs of Homo sapiens as a biological species that lead to the formation of the external appearance of a person, but do not affect his personal, spiritual and social qualities and manifestations, as well as the level of self-development and self-education.

People of different races have a completely identical biological springboard for the development of certain abilities. Their general karyotype is the same:

• women - 46 chromosomes, that is, 23 pairs of XX;
• men - 46 chromosomes, 22 pairs XX, 23 pairs - XY.

This means that all representatives of a reasonable person are one and the same, among them there are no more or less developed, superior to others, higher. From a scientific point of view, everyone is equal.

Types of human races, formed over about 80 thousand years, have an adaptive value. It is proved that each of them was formed in order to provide a person with the possibility of a normal existence in a given habitat, to facilitate adaptability to climatic, relief and other conditions. There is a classification showing which races of Homo sapiens existed before, and which are at the present time.

Race classification

She is not alone. The thing is that until the 20th century it was customary to distinguish 4 races of people. These were the following varieties:

• Caucasian;
• australoid;
• negroid;
• Mongoloid.

For each, detailed characteristic features were described by which any individual of the human species could be identified. However, later the classification became widespread, which includes only 3 human races. This became possible due to the unification of the Australoid and Negroid groups into one.

Therefore, the modern types of human races are as follows.

1. Large: Caucasoid (European), Mongoloid (Asian-American), Equatorial (Australian-Negroid).
2. Small: many different branches that were formed from one of the large races.

Each of them is characterized by its own characteristics, signs, external manifestations in the appearance of people. All of them are considered by anthropologists, and the science itself that studies this issue is biology. Human races have interested people since ancient times. Indeed, completely contrasting external features often became the cause of racial strife and conflict.

Genetic studies of recent years allow again to talk about the division of the equatorial group into two. Consider all 4 races of people who stood out earlier and have become relevant again recently. We note the signs and features.

australoid race

Typical representatives of this group include the indigenous people of Australia, Melanesia, Southeast Asia, and India. Also the name of this race is Australo-Veddoid or Australo-Melanesian. All synonyms make it clear which minor races are included in this group. They are the following:

• australoids;
• Veddoids;
• Melanesians.

In general, the characteristics of each group represented do not vary too much among themselves. There are several main features that characterize all small races of people of the Australoid group.

1. Dolichocephaly - an elongated shape of the skull in relation to the proportions of the rest of the body.
2. Deep-set eyes, wide slit. The color of the iris is predominantly dark, sometimes almost black.
3. The nose is wide, the bridge of the nose is pronounced flat.
4. The body hair is very well developed.
5. The hair on the head is dark in color (sometimes there are natural blonds among Australians, which was the result of a once-fixed natural genetic mutation of the species). Their structure is rigid, they can be curly or slightly curly.
6. The growth of people is average, often above average.
7. The physique is thin, elongated.

Within the Australoid group, people of different races differ from each other sometimes quite strongly. So, a native of Australia can be a tall blonde with a dense build, with straight hair, with light brown eyes. At the same time, the native of Melanesia will be a thin, short dark-skinned representative who has curly black hair and almost black eyes.

Therefore, the general features described above for the entire race are only an average version of their cumulative analysis. Naturally, miscegenation also takes place - a mixture of different groups as a result of natural crossing of species. That is why it is sometimes very difficult to identify a specific representative and attribute him to one or another small and large race.

Negroid race

The people who make up this group are the settlers of the following territories:

• Eastern, Central and Southern Africa;
• part of Brazil;
• some peoples of the USA;
• representatives of the West Indies.

In general, such races of people as Australoids and Negroids used to unite in the equatorial group. However, research in the 21st century has proved the failure of this order. After all, the differences in the signs shown between the designated races are too great. And some similarities are explained very simply. After all, the habitats of these individuals are very similar in terms of the conditions of existence, therefore, the adaptations in appearance are also close.

So, the representatives of the Negroid race are characterized by the following signs.

1. Very dark, sometimes blue-black, skin color, as it is especially rich in melanin content.
2. Wide eye slit. They are large, dark brown, almost black.
3. The hair is dark, curly, coarse.
4. Growth varies, often low.
5. The limbs are very long, especially the arms.
6. The nose is wide and flat, the lips are very thick, fleshy.
7. The jaw is devoid of a chin protrusion and protrudes forward.
8. Ears are large.
9. Facial hair is poorly developed, beard and mustache are absent.

Negroids are easy to distinguish from others by external data. Below are the different races of people. The photo reflects how clearly Negroids differ from Europeans and Mongoloids.

Mongoloid race

Representatives of this group are characterized by special features that allow them to adapt to rather difficult external conditions: desert sands and winds, blinding snow drifts, and so on.

Mongoloids are the indigenous people of Asia and much of America. Their characteristic features are as follows.

1. Narrow or slanting eyes.
2. The presence of epicanthus - a specialized skin fold aimed at covering the inner corner of the eye.
3. The color of the iris is light to dark brown.
4. characterized by brachycephaly (short head).
5. Superciliary ridges thickened, strongly protruding.
6. Sharp high cheekbones are well defined.
7. The hairline on the face is poorly developed.
8. The hair on the head is coarse, dark in color, of a straight structure.
9. The nose is not wide, the bridge of the nose is low.
10. Lips of different thickness, usually narrow.
11. Skin color varies in different representatives from yellow to swarthy, there are also light-skinned people.

It should be noted that another characteristic feature is short stature, both in men and women. It is the Mongoloid group that prevails in numbers, if we compare the main races of people. They inhabited almost all climatographic zones of the Earth. Close to them in terms of quantitative characteristics are Caucasians, which we will consider below.

Caucasian race

First of all, we will designate the predominant habitats of people from this group. It:

• Europe.
• North Africa.
• Western Asia.

Thus, representatives unite the two main parts of the world - Europe and Asia. Since the living conditions were also very different, then the general signs are again an average option after analyzing all the indicators. Thus, the following features of appearance can be distinguished.

1. Mesocephaly - medium head in the structure of the skull.
2. Horizontal section of the eyes, absence of strongly pronounced superciliary ridges.
3. Narrow protruding nose.
4. Lips of different thickness, usually of medium size.
5. Soft curly or straight hair. There are blondes, brunettes, brown-haired.
6. Eye color from light blue to brown.
7. Skin color also varies from pale, white to swarthy.
8. The hairline is very well developed, especially on the chest and face of men.
9. The jaws are orthognathic, that is, slightly pushed forward.

In general, a European is easy to distinguish from others. Appearance allows you to do this almost unmistakably, even without using additional genetic data.

If you look at all the races of people, the photo of whose representatives is located below, then the difference becomes obvious. However, sometimes the signs are mixed so deeply that the identification of the individual becomes almost impossible. He is able to belong to two races at once. This is further aggravated by intraspecific mutation, which leads to the appearance of new traits.

For example, Negroid albinos are a special case of the appearance of blonds in the Negroid race. A genetic mutation that disrupts the integrity of racial traits in a given group.

Origin of human races

Where did such a variety of signs of the appearance of people come from? There are two main hypotheses that explain the origin of human races. It:

• monocentrism;
• polycentrism.

However, none of them has yet become an officially accepted theory. According to the monocentric point of view, initially, about 80 thousand years ago, all people lived in the same territory, and therefore their appearance was approximately the same. However, over time, growing numbers have led to a wider settlement of people. As a result, some groups found themselves in difficult climatic conditions.

This led to the development and fixation at the genetic level of some morphological adaptations that help in survival. For example, dark skin and curly hair provide thermoregulation and a cooling effect on the head and body in Negroids. And the narrow cut of the eyes protects them from sand and dust, as well as from blinding by white snow among the Mongoloids. The developed hairline of Europeans is a kind of thermal insulation in severe winters.

Another hypothesis is called polycentrism. She says that different types of human races descended from several ancestral groups that were unevenly settled around the globe. That is, there were initially several foci, from which the development and consolidation of racial characteristics began. Again, under the influence of climatic conditions.

That is, the process of evolution proceeded linearly, simultaneously affecting aspects of life on different continents. This is how the formation of modern types of people from several phylogenetic lines took place. However, it is not necessary to state for sure about the validity of this or that hypothesis, since there is no evidence of a biological and genetic nature, at the molecular level.

Modern classification

The races of people according to the estimates of current scientists have the following classification. Two trunks stand out, and each of them has three large races and many small ones. It looks like this.

1. Western trunk. Includes three races:

• Caucasians;
• capoids;
• negroids.

The main groups of Caucasians: Nordic, Alpine, Dinaric, Mediterranean, Falian, East Baltic and others.

Minor races of capoids: Bushmen and Khoisans. They inhabit South Africa. In the fold above the eyelids, they are similar to the Mongoloids, but in other ways they differ sharply from them. The skin is not elastic, which is why the appearance of early wrinkles is characteristic of all representatives.

Groups of Negroids: Pygmies, Nilots, Negroes. All of them are settlers of different parts of Africa, therefore they have similar signs of appearance. Very dark eyes, the same skin and hair. Thick lips and no chin protrusion.

2. Eastern trunk. Includes the following major races:

• australoids;
• americanoids;
• Mongoloids.

Mongoloids - are divided into two groups - northern and southern. These are the indigenous inhabitants of the Gobi Desert, which left its mark on the appearance of these people.

Americanoids are the population of North and South America. They have a very high growth, the epicanthus is often developed, especially in children. However, the eyes are not as narrow as those of the Mongoloids. Combine the characteristics of several races.

Australoids consist of several groups:

• Melanesians;
• Veddoids;
• Ainu;
• Polynesians;
• Australians.

Their characteristic features have been discussed above.

Minor races

This concept is a rather highly specialized term that allows you to identify any person to any race. After all, each large one is subdivided into many small ones, and they are already compiled on the basis of not only small external distinguishing features, but also include data from genetic studies, clinical analyzes, and molecular biology facts.

Therefore, small races - this is what allows you to more accurately reflect the position of each individual in the system of the organic world, and specifically, in the composition of the species Homo sapiens sapiens. What specific groups exist was discussed above.

Racism

As we found out, there are different races of people. Their signs can be strongly polar. This is what led to the emergence of the theory of racism. She says that one race is superior to another, since it is made up of more highly organized and perfect beings. At one time, this led to the appearance of slaves and their white masters.

However, from the point of view of science, this theory is completely absurd and untenable. The genetic predisposition to the development of certain skills and abilities is the same for all peoples. The proof that all races are biologically equal is the possibility of free interbreeding between them with the preservation of the health and viability of the offspring.

Human races are the biological divisions of the Homo sapiens species, historically formed in the evolution of man. They differ in complexes of hereditarily transmitted and gradually changing morphological, biochemical and other features. The modern geographical areas of distribution, or areas, occupied by races, make it possible to outline the territories in which races were formed. Due to the social nature of man, races are qualitatively different from subspecies of wild and domestic animals.

If for wild animals the term "geographic races" can be applied, then in relation to man it has largely lost its meaning, since the connection of human races with the original areas is broken by numerous migrations of masses of people, as a result of which there was a mixing of the most diverse races and peoples and new human associations were formed.

Most anthropologists divide humanity into three large races: Negroid-Australoid ("black"), Caucasoid ("white") and Mongoloid ("yellow"). Using geographical terms, the first race is called the Equatorial, or African-Australian, the second, the European-Asian, the third, the Asian-American race. There are the following branches of large races: African and Oceanian; northern and southern; Asian and American (G. F. Debets). The population of the Earth is now over 3 billion 300 million people (data for 1965). Of these, the first race accounts for approximately 10% of the second - 50% and the third - 40%. This is, of course, a rough total count, as there are hundreds of millions of racially mixed individuals, numerous minor races, and mixed (intermediate) racial groups, including those of ancient origin (such as the Ethiopians). Large, or primary, races, occupying vast territories, are not completely homogeneous. They are divided according to physical (bodily) characteristics into branches, into 10-20 small races, and those into anthropological types.

Modern races, their origin and systematics are studied by ethnic anthropology (racial science). Population groups are subjected to research for survey and quantitative definition of so-called racial signs with the subsequent processing of mass data by methods of variation statistics (see). Anthropologists use for this scale the color of the skin and the iris of the eyes, the color and shape of the hair, the shape of the eyelid, nose and lips, as well as anthropometric instruments: compasses, goniometer, etc. (see Anthropometry). Hematological, biochemical and other examinations are also conducted.

Belonging to one or another racial division is determined on men aged 20-60 years according to a complex of genetically stable and fairly characteristic features of the physical structure.

Further descriptive features of the racial complex: the presence of a beard and mustache, the rigidity of the hair of the head, the degree of development of the upper eyelid and its fold - epicanthus, the slope of the forehead, the shape of the head, the development of the superciliary ridges, the shape of the face, the growth of hair on the body, the type of constitution (see Habitus) and body proportions (see Constitution).

Options for the shape of the skull: 1 - dolichocranial ellipsoid; 2 and 3 - brachycranial (2 - rounded, or spheroid, 3 - wedge-shaped, or sphenoid); 4 - mesocranial pentagonal, or pentagonoid.

A unified anthropometric examination on a living person, as well as on the skeleton, mostly on the skull (Fig.), allows you to clarify somatoscopic observations and make a more correct comparison of the racial composition of tribes, peoples, individual populations (see) and isolates. Racial characters vary and are subject to sexual, age, geographical and evolutionary variability.

The racial composition of mankind is very complex, which to a large extent depends on the mixing (miscegenation) of the population of many countries in connection with ancient migrations and modern mass migrations. Therefore, on the land area inhabited by mankind, contact and intermediate racial groups are found, formed from the interpenetration of two or three or more complexes of racial features during the miscegenation of anthropological types.

The process of racial miscegenation greatly increased in the era of capitalist expansion after the discovery of America. As a result, for example, Mexicans are half-mestizo between Indians and Europeans.

A noticeable increase in interracial mixing is observed in the USSR and other socialist countries. This is the result of the elimination of all kinds of racial barriers on the basis of correct scientifically based national and international policies.

The races are biologically equivalent and related by blood. The basis for this conclusion is the doctrine developed by Charles Darwin about monogenism, that is, about the origin of man from one species of ancient bipedal apes, and not from several (the concept of polygenism). Monogenism is confirmed by the anatomical similarity of all races, which, as Charles Darwin emphasized, could not have arisen through convergence, or convergence of characters, of different ancestral species. The species of monkeys that served as an ancestor for humans probably lived in South Asia, from where the most ancient people settled on the Earth. Ancient people, the so-called Neanderthals (Homo neanderthalensis), gave rise to "reasonable man." But modern races did not originate from Neanderthals, but were formed anew under the influence of a combination of natural (including biological) and social factors.

The formation of races (racial genesis) is closely connected with anthropogenesis; both processes are the result of historical development. Modern man arose over a vast territory, approximately from the Mediterranean to Hindustan or somewhat more. From here, Mongoloids could form in the northeast direction, Caucasoids in the northwest, and Negroids and Australoids in the south. However, the problem of the ancestral home of modern man is still far from being fully resolved.

In more ancient eras, when people settled on Earth, their groups inevitably fell into conditions of geographic and, consequently, social isolation, which contributed to their racial differentiation in the process of interaction of factors of variability (see), heredity (see) and selection. With an increase in the abundance of the isolate, a new resettlement occurred and contacts with neighboring groups arose, which caused miscegenation. In the formation of races, natural selection also played a certain role, the influence of which, as the social environment developed, noticeably weakened. In this regard, the signs of modern races are of secondary importance. Aesthetic or sexual selection also played a certain role in the formation of races; sometimes racial features could acquire the value of identifying features for representatives of one or another local racial group.

As the human population grew, both the specific significance and the direction of action of individual factors of racial genesis changed, but the role of social influences increased. If for the primary races miscegenation was a differentiating factor (when the miscegenated groups again fell into conditions of isolation), now mixing levels out racial differences. Currently, about half of humanity is the result of miscegenation. Racial differences that have naturally arisen over long millennia must be and will be, as K. Marx pointed out, eliminated by historical development. But racial traits will still manifest themselves for a long time in various combinations, mainly in individuals. Cross-breeding often causes the emergence of new positive features of the physical warehouse and intellectual development.

The race of the patient must be taken into account when evaluating some of the findings of the medical examination. This applies mainly to the features of the color of the covers. The color of the skin, characteristic of a representative of the "black" or "yellow" race, in the "white" will turn out to be a symptom of Addison's disease or icterus; the purple tint of the color of the lips, the bluish nails of the Caucasoid, the doctor will evaluate as cyanosis, in the Negro - as a racial feature. On the other hand, color changes in "bronze disease", jaundice, cardio-respiratory failure, distinct in Caucasians, can be difficult to determine in representatives of the Mongoloid or Negroid-Australoid race. Of much less practical importance are corrections for racial characteristics in assessing physique, height, shape of the skull, etc., and so on. As for the alleged predisposition of a given race to a particular disease, increased susceptibility to infection, etc., these features, as a rule, do not have a “racial” character, but are associated with social, cultural, domestic and other living conditions, the proximity of natural foci of infection, the degree of acclimatization during resettlement, etc.

Man represents one biological species, but why are we all so different? It's all the fault of various subspecies, that is, races. How many of them exist and what is mixed let's try to figure it out further.

Race concept

The human race is a group of people who have a number of similar traits that are inherited. The concept of race gave impetus to the movement of racism, which is based on confidence in the genetic difference between races, the mental and physical superiority of some races over others.

Research in the 20th century showed that it is impossible to distinguish them genetically. Most of the differences are external, and their diversity can be explained by the characteristics of the habitat. For example, white skin promotes better absorption of vitamin D, and it appeared as a result of a lack of daylight.

Recently, scientists more often support the opinion that this term is irrelevant. Man is a complex creature, his formation is influenced not only by climatic and geographical factors, which largely determine the concept of race, but also by cultural, social and political ones. The latter contributed to the emergence of mixed and transitional races, further blurring all boundaries.

big races

Despite the general fuzziness of the concept, scientists are still trying to figure out why we are all so different. There are many concepts of classification. All of them agree that man is a single biological species of Homo sapiens, which is represented by various subspecies or populations.

Variants of demarcation range from two independent races to fifteen, not to mention the many sub-races. Most often in the scientific literature they talk about the existence of three or four large races, which include small ones. So, according to external signs, the Caucasoid type, Mongoloid, Negroid, and also Australoid are distinguished.

Caucasoids are divided into northern ones - with blond hair and skin, gray or blue eyes, and southern ones - with swarthy skin, dark hair, brown eyes. It is characterized by a narrow slit of the eyes, protruding cheekbones, coarse straight hair, vegetation on the body is insignificant.

The Australoid race was long considered Negroid, but it turned out that they have differences. By signs, the Veddoid and Melanesian races are much closer to it. Australoids and Negroids have dark skin, dark eye color. Although some Australoids may have fair skin. They differ from Negroids in their abundant hairline, as well as less wavy hair.

Minor and mixed races

Large races are too strong a generalization, because the differences between people are more subtle. Therefore, each of them is divided into several anthropological types, or into small races. There are a huge number of them. For example, the Negro, Khoisai, Ethiopian, Pygmy types are included.

The term "mixed races" more often means populations of people that arose as a result of recent (since the 16th century) contacts of large races. These include mestizos, sambos, mulattoes.

Metis

In anthropology, mestizos are all descendants of marriages of people belonging to different races, regardless of which ones. The process itself is called metization. History knows many cases when representatives of mixed races were discriminated against, humiliated and even exterminated in the course of Nazi policy in Germany, apartheid in South Africa and other movements.

In many countries, the descendants of specific races are also called mestizos. In America, they are the children of Indians and Caucasians, in this sense the term has come to us. They are mainly distributed in South and North America.

The number of mestizos in Canada, in the narrow sense of the term, is 500-700 thousand people. Active mixing of blood took place here during colonization, mainly European men entered into contact with. Separated, the mestizos formed a separate ethnic group speaking the Mythic language (a complex mixture of French and Cree).

Mulattos

The descendants of Negroids and Caucasians are mulattoes. Their skin is light black, which is what the name of the term conveys. The name first appeared around the 16th century, coming into Spanish or Portuguese from Arabic. The word muwallad used to be used to refer to unpurebred Arabs.

In Africa, mulattoes live mainly in Namibia, South Africa. A fairly large number of them live in the Caribbean region and Latin America. In Brazil, they make up almost 40% of the total population, in Cuba - more than half. A significant number live in the Dominican Republic - more than 75% of the population.

Mixed races used to have other names, depending on the generation and the proportion of Negroid genetic material. If Caucasoid blood was related to Negroid as ¼ (mulatto in the second generation), then the person was called a quadroon. The ratio 1/8 was called octon, 7/8 - marabou, 3/4 - griff.

Sambo

The genetic mixture of Negroids and Indians is called sambo. In Spanish, the term sounds like "zambo". Like other mixed races, the term periodically changed its meaning. Previously, the name sambo meant marriages between representatives of the Negroid race and mulattoes.

Sambo first appeared in South America. The Indians represented the indigenous population of the mainland, and blacks were brought as slaves to work on sugar cane plantations. Slaves were brought from the beginning of the 16th century until the end of the 19th. During this period, approximately 3 million people were transported from Africa.