In the foreign policy of Russia in the XVII century. It was three main directions: northwestern, western and southern. For the northwestern direction, Russian-Swedish relations were decisive, the goal of Russia in which was to return the Russian lands, outlets to the Baltic Sea, which Sweden had torn away first during the Livonian War, and then according to the Peace of Stolbov in 1617.
In the 17th century. Russia's foreign policy in this direction was, perhaps, least active. Only once the government of Alexei Mikhailovich tried to take revenge in the north-west during the Russian-Swedish war of 1656-1661.
During the Russian war with With the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, Sweden decided to seize part of the Polish lands in the Baltic and realize the long-standing dream of turning the Baltic Sea into a "Swedish lake". Such a strengthening of the positions of an old enemy did not suit Russia, and, without ending the war with Poland, in May 1656 she declared war on Sweden.
Military operations at first developed successfully for Russia. Russian troops captured a number of important fortresses in the Baltic and laid siege to Riga. But then the Swedes seized the initiative, and the siege of Riga had to be lifted.
Parallel to military operations Russian diplomacy also intensified. Three months after the start of the war with Sweden, Russia began negotiations on a truce with the Commonwealth. This action could become a major foreign policy success, since the talks also included the conclusion of an anti-Swedish military alliance. In the event of a successful outcome of the negotiations, Russia would not only avoid a war on two fronts, would not only acquire an ally in the war with Sweden and, therefore, would get real chances to press the Swedes in the Baltic states, but would also secure the Ukrainian lands of the Commonwealth. Unfortunately, this was not achieved. The government of Alexei Mikhailovich and Russian diplomats made a number of miscalculations, did not take into account the specific situation, and as a result achieved only a truce, which did not last very long.
At the same time Russian diplomats tried to find more allies from among the countries that were not satisfied with the strengthening of Sweden. Such a country, apart from the Commonwealth, was Denmark. As a result of lengthy negotiations, a Russian-Danish military alliance, and Denmark also declared war on Sweden. (Because of this alliance, some historians call the Russian-Swedish war of 1656-1661 the first Northern War, meaning that in 1700-1721 there was a second Northern War, in which the same Denmark fought on the side of Russia with the Swedes, True, together with two other states.)
While Russia was at war with Sweden, The Commonwealth, taking advantage of the truce, accumulated strength and again began hostilities. Facing the threat of a war on two fronts, Russia hastened to end the war with Sweden and in December 1658 concluded a truce for three years. Its conditions were quite favorable: the entire territory captured by Russian troops retreated to Russia. But during the truce, the balance of power changed dramatically. There was a rapprochement between yesterday's opponents - Sweden and the Commonwealth, and in the face of the emerging anti-Russian alliance of these countries, Russia was forced to sign the Peace of Cardis in 1661. Under the terms of this agreement, all the territorial acquisitions of Russia again departed to Sweden.
Western pivot Russian foreign policy was relations with the Commonwealth. These relations remained unsettled after the Time of Troubles: the war ended not in peace, but in a truce, under the terms of which the Polish-Lithuanian state left the western Russian lands, and Prince Vladislav did not renounce his claims to the Russian throne. Therefore, the main task of Russia in this direction was first the return of the torn territories and the recognition of Mikhail Fedorovich as the Russian Tsar, and then a new task arose - the consolidation of the part of Ukraine annexed to Russia.
AT 1632 King of the Commonwealth Sigismund III died. In the Polish-Lithuanian state there was no hereditary royalty: the king was elected by the nobility. Therefore, after the death of almost every king, the period of the so-called " queenlessness"when the country was often torn apart by clashes of various political groups, each of which supported its own candidate for the throne. It was this period that the Russian government decided to take advantage of, with the support of a specially convened Zemsky Sobor (the actual head of which at that time was Patriarch Filaret). Russia announced Commonwealth war, which went down in history as Smolensk War (1632-1634).
Near Smolensk, captured by the Poles during the Time of Troubles, a 30,000-strong army was sent with a huge, 150 guns, artillery. It was commanded by the hero of the defense of Smolensk in the Time of Troubles, the famous Russian commander of the 17th century. Mikhail Borisovich Shein. At first, military success accompanied him. More than two dozen cities were captured by Russian troops, and, finally, Shein's army laid siege to the main goal of the campaign - the strongest Smolensk fortress.
The siege lasted eight months., but it was not possible to take Smolensk. Firstly, in the summer of 1633, the Crimean Tatars made a large-scale raid, reaching the center of the country - the Moscow district. The need to organize a rebuff to the khan, on the one hand, did not allow the government to send reinforcements to Shein, and on the other hand, mass desertion began in the regiments near Smolensk among those service people whose estates and estates were located in the south of the country and, therefore, were subjected to a Tatar raid. Secondly, among the so-called " data people" recruited into the army from serfs, peasants and townspeople, rebellions and mass escapes from the regiments began.
Meanwhile, the situation in the Commonwealth also changed.. Prince Vladislav was elected to the throne, who immediately began to prepare to repulse the Russian troops. Vladislav managed to encircle Shein's army near Smolensk and block the supply of food and fodder: the besiegers themselves turned into besieged.
holding out until February 1634., Shein capitulated. The terms of surrender were difficult and humiliating: the Poles got all the artillery, banners and convoy. In Moscow, they could not forgive Shein for such humiliation, and according to the boyar verdict he was beheaded.
AT June 1634. The Polyanovsky peace was concluded, which ended the Smolensk war. Everything that managed to capture Sheina at the beginning of the campaign was returned to the Commonwealth, Russia paid a large indemnity, and the only achievement was that Vladislav finally renounced his long-standing claims to the throne of Moscow.
Russia's Next Increase in Activity in the western direction occurred two decades later. Since the end of the 40s. 17th century on the Ukrainian lands of the Commonwealth, the liberation anti-Polish movement of Bogdan Khmelnitsky began. It was a convenient moment for revenge for the numerous failures in the western direction of Russian foreign policy. Moreover, it was possible to include in Russia the territory that was once the cradle of Russian statehood. Bohdan Khmelnytsky, elected hetman of Ukraine, realizing the impossibility of standing alone against the Commonwealth, repeatedly turned to Moscow with a request to accept Ukraine "under the high hand" of the Russian tsar. In 1653, the Zemsky Sobor decided to include Ukraine into the Russian state. This decision was not as simple as it might seem at first glance, since it meant a big war with the Commonwealth.
In May 1654. a huge 100,000-strong Russian army moved west. The main hostilities were to unfold on the Belarusian lands of the Commonwealth. Auxiliary detachments were sent to Ukraine to Khmelnitsky and to the south-west of Russia to protect the left flank of the army from a possible attack by the Crimean Tatars. It was an account of the sad experience of the Smolensk war. In addition, unlike the 1930s In the 17th century, the southern Russian districts were now protected from the raids of the Khan by powerful defensive lines with dozens of new fortress cities. The Don Cossacks were also ordered to defend the southern borders of the country from the Crimeans.
Russian-Polish war 1654-1667. began (as, indeed, many previous wars in the western direction) very successfully. More than 30 cities, including such large fortresses as Smolensk, Polotsk, Vitebsk, were captured by Russian troops on the Belarusian territory of the Commonwealth. But in 1655. Sweden also started a war with Poland. Swedish troops captured a huge part of the territory of the Polish-Lithuanian state, and this prompted the Russian government to go to war with Sweden. Moscow was convinced that Poland was already drained of blood and, in the face of the threat of a war on two fronts (with Russia and Sweden), would agree to conclude peace on favorable terms for Russia.
Peace talks have begun in August 1656, and the main requirement of the Russian side was to secure all the conquered territories for Russia. However, the Poles did not agree to this, and the Russians, who had already started a war with Sweden, had to hurry, and in October 1656. peace was not made but only a truce. Probably, we will not be mistaken in calling the beginning of hostilities against Sweden during the still ongoing Russian-Polish war, as well as the conclusion of a truce that did not secure the occupied lands for Russia, serious mistakes of the Moscow government and Russian diplomacy. And soon they had to pay for these mistakes.
The war with Sweden ended in nothing. And the Commonwealth, having accumulated strength during the truce, again began hostilities. At this second stage, the Russian-Polish war went on for a long time with varying success, but military happiness in battles more and more often leaned on the side of the Poles and Lithuanians.
The protracted war was exhausting and the Commonwealth, so it is not surprising that already from 1661. peace negotiations began. But they also took on a protracted character: they resumed, then they stopped, and none of the parties made concessions. Finally, a compromise was found, and in January 1667. war is over, but again not the world, and the Andrusov truce. It was concluded for thirteen and a half years, the Smolensk and Chernigov lands were returned to Russia, Russia received the Left-Bank Ukraine; Kyiv, located on the right bank of the Dnieper, was also transferred to Russia, but only for two years, and then it had to be returned to the Commonwealth (this last condition was never fulfilled - from 1667 Kyiv became a Russian city).
Russian-Polish war 1654-1667. was the last in a long chain of military clashes between the two states. In the 70-80s. XVII century. the onslaught of the Ottoman Empire intensified in the direction of its northern neighbors - Russia, the Commonwealth and Austria. Moreover, if the Crimean Tatars usually attacked the Russian borders, then the Poles and Austrians had to deal with them and with the powerful Turkish army. Under such conditions, Russian-Polish contradictions receded into the background: the situation, a common formidable enemy, pushed these countries towards rapprochement.
In May 1686. an "eternal peace" was concluded between Russia and the Commonwealth, securing for Russia everything that it received under the Andrusovo truce (and Kyiv too), and Russia took upon itself the obligation to start a war with Turkey. In this way, in 1686. there was, in fact, a Russian-Polish military alliance. (In the future, the Commonwealth from an equal ally will first turn into a junior partner, then Russia will begin to actively interfere in the internal affairs of Poland, and, finally, during the divisions of the Commonwealth at the end of the 18th century, which occurred with the participation of Russia, this state will not disappear from the political maps of Europe.)
In the southern direction, Russia dealt with the Crimean Khanate and the Ottoman Empire (Turkey).
Crimean Khanate- one of the fragments of the disintegrated Golden Horde - in the second half XV - early XVI century. was an ally first of the Moscow principality, and then of the Russian state. But at the turn of the first and second decades XVI century. the interests of the two states collide in the question of who should control the territory of the so-called " fields"- a vast area north of the Black Sea steppes (modern Central Black Earth Region). Since that time, the Crimean Tatars have become the main and constant enemy of Russia in the south. Almost every year, the Russian counties were subjected to large and small raids by the Crimean hordes, and the main frontier on which the Russian army met enemy was the Oka.By the 17th century the Crimean Khanate became a vassal of the Ottoman Empire, Turkey controlled the lower reaches of the Don and the Dnieper, and the advance of Russia to the south meant now a clash with this enemy.
Beginning from the 20s XVII century. Tatar raids inflicted more and more uro n. Along three main routes - Muravskaya, Izyumskaya and Kalmiusskaya roads - the Crimean Tatars invaded Russia. The main goal of these raids, often carried out by order of the Turkish Sultan, was the capture of a full (prisoners) and cattle. According to historians, for the first half of the XVII century. at least 150-200 thousand Russian people were taken away in full. And how many people died under the Tatar sabers, how many times Russian villages, villages and cities burned - this has not yet been calculated even approximately.
However, some especially large raids had not only predatory, but also political goals (or, at least, political consequences). As we already know, the massive invasions of 1632 and 1633 at first they made it difficult to gather the Russian army and march to Smolensk, and then, when the Tatars broke through especially far into the depths of Russian territory, they led to mass desertion and unrest in the regiments. The defeat of Russia in the Smolensk War was largely due to the fact that military operations in the western direction began with unprotected southern borders, and, consequently, the right flank and rear of the army in action were vulnerable. Thus, without putting up a powerful barrier in the southern direction, it was impossible to count on successful actions in the western direction. This, perhaps, the main lesson of the defeat in the Smolensk war was realized by the Russian government, which immediately began practical actions.
In the 30-50s. XVII century. on the southern and southeastern borders of the European part of Russia, a gigantic system of defensive lines was created - "devils", consisting of earthen ramparts with palisades and ditches, forest fences, small wooden fortresses with replaceable garrisons of several dozen people and fortress cities with a permanent population and garrisons.
To the south such a fortified line was the Belgorod line, erected in 1635-1653. This powerful system of fortifications, which protected 600 kilometers of the southern border of Russia, began in the west in the Dnieper region, and in the east it went beyond modern Michurinsk (Tambov region). Thereby all main roads were blocked Crimean Tatar invasions.
Belgorod line was the most powerful and a long defensive line. Its length with all bends was about 800 kilometers and more than two dozen fortress cities became strongholds of defense, most of which were erected during the construction of the line. (In particular, such cities as Olshansk, Ostrogozhsk, Korotoyak, Uryv, Kostensk and Orlov-gorodok were built on the territory of the modern Voronezh region. Voronezh, which arose even in 1585., also became a fortress of the Belgorod line.) In addition to this defensive line, the Tambov, Simbirsk and Zakamsk "lines" were also erected.
While the Belgorod line was being built, Tatar raids continued. However, in 1637 an unprecedented event occurred that led to a temporary lull in the Tatar attacks - the Don Cossacks took the Turkish fortress of Azov located at the mouth of the Don. The Cossacks turned to the Russian government to attach Azov to Russia and send an army to help. However, this would mean a war with the Ottoman Empire, for which Russia did not have the strength. For about five years, the "Azov seat" of the Cossacks continued. They courageously held out, repelling all attempts to knock them out of the fortress. But they could not keep the city on their own, and, having received a refusal from Moscow for help, in 1642 the Cossacks, having destroyed the fortifications, left Azov.
After that, the Tatars again increase pressure to the southern borders of Russia, and in 1644 and 1645. raids reach proportions reminiscent of the years of the Smolensk war. The Tatars used the fact that the fortifications of the Belgorod line were built in separate sections, between which there were unprotected passages. But as the construction was completed, the line turned into a continuous chain of defensive structures, and with the completion of work in 1653, the possibility of the appearance of Tatars in the southern Russian districts became minimal. The south of the country was now well protected, and therefore the Russian government entered the war for Ukraine with the Commonwealth without fear of a repetition of the tragedy of the Smolensk war.
During the Russian-Polish war of 1654-1667. For the first time in the history of Russian-Crimean relations, Russia managed to strike at the territory of the Khanate. In the spring of 1660, an army of 8,000 on four hundred sailing and rowing ships built near Kozlov (modern Michurinsk) and Lebedyan moved down the Don. In 1662, this flotilla, under the command of voivode Ya. T. Khitrovo, broke past the Turkish fortresses at the mouth of the Don, entered the Sea of Azov and struck at the Crimean Khanate. This sabotage was intended to keep part of the Tatars from raiding Ukraine, where Russian troops were operating at that time.
Then heading south 10 year lull , during which, under the protection of the Belgorod line, the settlement and development of the border southern Russian counties with their fertile black earth lands was actively going on. But in 1673 the situation has changed dramatically: the Russian-Turkish war of 1673-1681 began.
In the spring of 1673. on the orders of the Turkish sultan, the Crimean Khan threw tens of thousands of Tatars onto the Russian lands ("the whole Crimea", according to the documents of that time). The Tatars managed to "break the line" in one of the sections and break into the nearby counties. Soon, fearing encirclement, the khan led the horde away, but in the next three years the Tatars continuously and persistently harassed the Russian garrisons on the Belgorod line.
While the Tatars probed the defenses in southern Russia, Russian troops in 1673-1676. acted in the lower reaches of the Don and the Sea of \u200b\u200bAzov against the Turkish garrisons and Tatar detachments, but did not achieve success.
Military operations in 1673-1676. took place without a formal declaration of war. Only in 1677 The Ottoman Empire declared war on Russia. In the summer of this year, a huge Turkish army, reinforced by detachments of the Tatars, moved to Ukraine and laid siege to the Chigirin fortress, which was defended by a garrison of Russians and Ukrainians. To help the besieged, the Russian army headed by a major military leader of that time, Prince Grigory Grigoryevich Romodanovsky, moved. In the battle near Chigirin, Russian troops utterly defeated and drove the enemy back.
next summer The Turks again laid siege to the fortress and this time took it. However, the Ottomans failed to inflict a decisive defeat on the Russian troops. This ended the active clashes between the armies of Russia and the Ottoman Empire. But in 1679-1681. the raids of the Crimean Tatars resumed again.
In January 1681. The Bakhchisarai truce was concluded for 20 years, the main result of which was the recognition of Russia's rights to the Left-Bank Ukraine and Kyiv. However, not even a quarter of the armistice period has passed, as now Russia declared war on Turkey.
During these years, the Ottoman Empire led (and quite successfully) wars with their northern neighbors - Austria and the Commonwealth, as well as their ancient enemy - Venice. In order to successfully resist Turkish aggression, in 1684 these countries united in a military anti-Turkish alliance, the so-called "Holy League". Having signed "perpetual peace" with Poland in 1686, Russia, under the terms of the treaty, joined this coalition and in the same year declared war on the Ottoman Empire.
Russia's specific contribution two Crimean campaigns, undertaken under the command of the favorite of Princess Sophia, Prince Vasily Vasilyevich Golitsyn in 1687 and 1689, began to fight against Turkey. The purpose of these military actions was to strike at the Crimean Khanate. However, this goal was not achieved: both times the Russian troops, suffering huge losses, were forced to retreat before reaching the territory of the peninsula. Almost a century remained before the liquidation of the age-old enemy of the Russians - the Crimean Khanate.
Over the years, Russian foreign policy in the 17th century was subordinated to several key goals. The first Romanovs sought to return as much of the East Slavic lands taken by Poland as possible and get access to the Baltic (which was controlled by Sweden). It was also during this period that the first wars against Turkey began. This confrontation was at an early stage and reached its climax in the next century. Other regions where Russia sought to maintain its interests were the Caucasus and the Far East.
Troubles and war with Poland
The 17th century began tragically for Russia. The Rurik dynasty that ruled the country was cut short. The brother-in-law of Tsar Fyodor Ioannovich Boris Godunov was in power. His rights to the throne remained controversial and numerous opponents of the monarch took advantage of this. In 1604, an army under the command of the impostor False Dmitry invaded Russia from Poland. The pretender to the throne found all kinds of support in the Commonwealth. From this episode, the Russian-Polish war began, which ended only by 1618.
The conflict between the two old neighbors had deep historical roots. Therefore, the entire foreign policy of Russia in the 17th century was based on confrontation with Poland. The rivalry escalated into a series of wars. The first of them in the 17th century turned out to be unsuccessful for Russia. Although False Dmitry was overthrown and killed, later the Poles occupied Moscow on their own and controlled the Kremlin from 1610 to 1612.
Only the people's militia, assembled by national heroes Kuzma Minin and Dmitry Pozharsky, succeeded in expelling the interventionists. Then a Zemsky Sobor took place, at which Mikhail Romanov was elected the legitimate tsar. The new dynasty stabilized the situation in the country. Nevertheless, many border lands remained in the hands of the Poles, including Smolensk. Therefore, all further foreign policy of Russia in the 17th century was aimed at the return of primordially Russian cities.
Loss of the Baltic coast
Even Vasily Shuisky, fighting against the Poles, made an alliance with Sweden. In the Battle of Klushino in 1610, this coalition was defeated. Russia was paralyzed. The Swedes took advantage of the situation and themselves began to capture its cities near their border. They took control of Ivangorod, Korela, Yam, Gdov, Koporye and, finally, Novgorod.
Swedish expansion stopped under the walls of Pskov and Tikhvin. The sieges of these fortresses ended in fiasco for the Scandinavians. Then the Russian army drove them out of their lands, although some of the fortresses remained in the hands of foreigners. The war with Sweden ended in 1617 with the signing of the Stolbovsky Peace. According to it, Russia lost access to the Baltic Sea and paid its neighbor a large indemnity of 20 thousand rubles. At the same time, the Swedes retook Novgorod. The consequence of the Stolbovsky peace was that the foreign policy of Russia in the 17th century acquired another important goal. Having recovered from the horrors of the Time of Troubles, the country began the struggle to return to the shores of the Baltic.
Smolensk war
During the reign of Mikhail Fedorovich (1613 - 1645) there was only one major armed clash with another country. It turned out to be the Smolensk War (1632 - 1634) against Poland. This campaign was led by commanders Mikhail Shein, Semyon Prozorovsky and Artemy Izmailov.
Before the war, Moscow diplomats tried to win over Sweden and the Ottoman Empire. The anti-Polish coalition never took shape. As a result, I had to fight alone. Nevertheless, the goals of Russia in the foreign policy of the 17th century remained the same. The key task (the return of Smolensk) was not completed. The months-long siege of the city ended with the capitulation of Shein. The parties ended the war with the Polyanovsky peace. The Polish king Vladislav IV returned Trubchevsk and Serpeysk to Russia, and also renounced claims to the Russian throne (which had been preserved since the Time of Troubles). For the Romanovs, this was an intermediate success. Further struggle was postponed to the future.
Conflict with Persia
The heir of Mikhail Fedorovich Alexei was more active than his father in the international arena. And although his main interests were in the west, he had to face challenges in other regions. So, in 1651, a conflict broke out with Persia.
The foreign policy of Russia in the 17th century, in short, began to come into contact with many states with which the Ruriks had not yet dealt. In the Caucasus, Persia turned out to be such a new country. The troops of her dynasty, the Safavids, attacked the lands controlled by the Russian kingdom. The main struggle was for Dagestan and the Caspian. The trip ended in nothing. Alexei Mikhailovich did not want the conflict to escalate. He sent an embassy to Shah Abbas II and in 1653 the war was stopped, and the status quo was restored on the border. Nevertheless, the Caspian issue remained. In the future, Peter I led the offensive here in the 18th century.
Accession of Smolensk, Left-bank Ukraine and Kyiv
The main success of Alexei Mikhailovich in foreign policy was another war with Poland (1654 - 1667). The first stage of the campaign turned into an unconditional defeat of the Commonwealth. Zaporozhye and Moscow troops entered Ukraine and thus actually reunited the lands of the Eastern Slavs.
In 1656, a temporary Vilna truce was concluded between the parties. It was caused by the Swedish invasion of Poland and the simultaneous outbreak of war between the Swedes and Russians. In 1660, the Poles tried to launch a counteroffensive, but it ended in failure. The war finally ended in 1667 after the signing of the Andrusovo truce. According to that agreement, the Smolensk region, Kyiv and the entire Left-Bank Ukraine were annexed to Moscow. So Alexei Mikhailovich successfully completed the task to which the foreign policy of Russia was subordinated in the 17th century. A short truce could still be interrupted by war again, so the conflict required further negotiations, which ended already under Princess Sophia.
Fight with Sweden
As mentioned above, having achieved success in Ukraine, Alexei Mikhailovich decided to try his luck in the Baltic. The long overdue war of revenge with Sweden began in 1656. She was two years old. The fighting engulfed Livonia, Finland, Ingria and Karelia.
The foreign policy of Russia in the 17th - 18th centuries, in short, set as its goal access to the western seas, since this would make it possible to establish better ties with Europe. This is exactly what Alexei Mikhailovich wanted to achieve. In 1658, the Valiesar truce was concluded, according to which Russia retained part of the land in Livonia. However, three years later, Moscow diplomats had to agree to the restoration of the former borders in order to avoid a war on two fronts against Sweden and Poland at the same time. This order was consolidated by the Treaty of Cardis. The Baltic ports were never received.
War with Turkey
At the end of the Russian-Polish confrontation, the Ottoman Empire intervened in it, which sought to conquer the Right-Bank Ukraine. In the spring of 1672, a 300,000-strong army invaded there. She defeated the Poles. In the future, the Turks and Crimean Tatars also fought against Russia. In particular, the Belgorod defensive line was attacked.
The main directions of Russia's foreign policy of the 17th century in many ways turned out to be a logical prologue to the foreign policy of the 18th century. This pattern is especially traced in the example of the struggle for hegemony in the Black Sea. In the era of Alexei Mikhailovich and his son Fyodor, the Turks tried for the last time to expand their possessions in Ukraine. That war ended in 1681. Turkey and Russia drew borders along the Dnieper. The Zaporozhian Sich was also declared independent of Moscow.
Eternal peace with the Commonwealth
All domestic and foreign policy of Russia in the 17th century depended heavily on relations with Poland. Periods of war and peace influenced the economy, the social situation and the mood of the population. Relations between the two powers were finally settled in 1682. That spring, the countries concluded the Eternal Peace.
The articles of the treaty stipulated the division of the Hetmanate. The Commonwealth abandoned the protectorate that had long existed over the Zaporozhian Sich. The provisions of the Andrusovo truce were confirmed. Kyiv was recognized as an "eternal" part of Russia - for this Moscow paid compensation in the amount of 146 thousand rubles. In the future, the agreement allowed the formation of an anti-Swedish coalition during the Great Northern War. Also thanks to the Eternal Peace, Russia and Poland joined forces with the rest of Europe in the fight against the Ottoman Empire.
Nerchinsk Treaty
Even during the time of Ivan the Terrible, Russia began the colonization of Siberia. Gradually, brave peasants, Cossacks, hunters and industrialists moved further and further east. In the 17th century they reached the Pacific Ocean. Here, the tasks of Russian foreign policy in the 17th century were to establish friendly relations with China.
For a long time, the border between the two states was not marked, which led to various incidents and conflicts. To put an end to misunderstandings, a delegation of diplomats headed by Fyodor Golovin went to the Far East. Russian and Chinese representatives met in Nerchinsk. In 1689, they signed an agreement, according to which the border between the powers was established along the banks of the Argun River. Russia lost the Amur region and Albazin. The treaty turned out to be a diplomatic defeat for the government of Sofya Alekseevna.
Crimean campaigns
After reconciliation with Poland, Russia's foreign policy at the end of the 17th century was directed towards the Black Sea and Turkey. For a long time, the country was haunted by the raids of the Crimean Khanate - a state that was in vassal relations with the Ottoman Empire. The campaign against the dangerous neighbor was led by Prince Vasily Golitsyn, the favorite of Princess Sofya Alekseevna.
In total, two Crimean campaigns took place (in 1687 and 1689). They weren't particularly successful. Golitsyn did not capture foreign fortresses. Nevertheless, Russia diverted significant forces of the Crimeans and Turks, which helped its European allies in the general anti-Ottoman war. Thanks to this, the Romanovs significantly increased their international prestige.
Azov campaigns
Sofya Alekseevna was deprived of power by her younger brother Peter, who grew up and did not want to share powers with the regent. The young tsar continued Golitsyn's work. His first military experience was connected precisely with the confrontation with Turkey.
In 1695 and 1696 Peter led two campaigns against Azov. On the second attempt, the Turkish fortress was captured. Nearby, the monarch ordered the founding of Taganrog. For the success near Azov, voivode Alexei Shein received the title of generalissimo. So, two directions of Russia's foreign policy in the 17th century (southern and "Polish") were marked by success. Now Peter turned his attention to the Baltic. In 1700 he started the Northern War against Sweden, which immortalized his name. But that was the history of the eighteenth century.
Results
The 17th century for Russia was rich in foreign policy events (both successes and failures). The result of the Time of Troubles at the beginning of the century was the loss of many territories, including the Baltic coast and the Smolensk region. The reigning dynasty of the Romanovs set about correcting the mistakes of their predecessors.
The peculiarities of Russia's foreign policy in the 17th century turned out to be such that the greatest success awaited it in the Polish direction. Not only was Smolensk returned, but also Kyiv and the Left-Bank Ukraine. So Moscow for the first time began to control all the key lands of the Old Russian state.
More controversial were the results in two other areas: the Baltic and the Black Sea. In the north, an attempt at revenge with Sweden failed, and this task fell on the shoulders of Peter I, who, together with his country, entered the new 18th century. The same situation has developed with the southern seas. And if at the end of the 17th century Peter occupied Azov, then later he lost it, and the task of expansion in this region was completed only under Catherine II. Finally, under the first Romanovs, the colonization of Siberia continued, and the first contacts with China were established in the Far East.
In the history of Russia, the 17th century is an important moment in its development. Being surrounded by numerous enemies, important processes took place inside the country that influenced the further development of the state.
The main tasks of Russian foreign policy in the 17th century
At the beginning of the 17th century, the Time of Troubles began in Russia. The Rurik dynasty was interrupted and the Polish-Swedish intervention began. It was only in 1612 that the country was able to defend its sovereignty and reassert itself on the world stage by launching a broad foreign policy activity.
The main task of the new Russian dynasty was the return of Russian territories lost during the Time of Troubles. This also included the local task of gaining access to the Baltic Sea, because during the Russian Time of Troubles these lands were occupied by Sweden.
Rice. 1. Map of Russia at the beginning of the 17th century.
The task of uniting the territories of the former Kievan Rus around Moscow remained historical. Moreover, it was not only about the unification of the people, but also an increase in arable land and the number of taxpayers.
In other words, Russia's foreign policy in the 17th century met the objectives of uniting and restoring the integrity of the country.
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And, of course, with the destruction of the Siberian Khanate, Russia's road to Siberia was opened. The development of wild, but rich regions remained a priority for a weakened state.
Rice. 2. Siege of Chigirin.
Table "Foreign policy of Russia in the 17th century"
|
A task |
Event |
the date |
Outcome |
|
Eliminate the raids of the Crimean Tatars |
Russo-Turkish War |
Defeat in the war |
|
|
Crimean campaigns |
Failed to stop raids |
||
|
Return of Smolensk |
Smolensk war |
Mikhail Romanov is recognized as legitimate by the Poles. Serpeysk and Trubchevsk went to Russia |
|
|
Getting access to the Baltic Sea |
War with Sweden |
Failed to return access to the sea |
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Support for the Orthodox population in the Commonwealth |
Russian-Polish war |
Smolensk land returned to Russia, as well as Kyiv and adjacent lands |
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Russo-Turkish War |
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Development of Siberia and the Far East |
Annexation of Eastern Siberia |
Throughout the 17th century |
Huge Siberian territories mastered |
Many modern European historians consider the development of Siberia to be colonization and the relationship of Moscow with the local population as a colony with the metropolis.
It should be noted the emergence of the "Caspian issue" for Russia. The Rurikovichs were not in contact with all the countries located in Eurasia. One of these was Persia.
In 1651, the Persian army entered Dagestan and the Caspian lands, wanting to claim their rights to them. As a result, military campaigns ended in nothing. Alexei Mikhailovich in 1653 managed to achieve the preservation of the position of the borders until the start of the Persian campaign. However, the struggle for the coast of the Caspian Lake from that moment was just beginning for Russia.
Rice. 3. Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich.
One of the reasons for the unresolved majority of tasks was the technological backwardness of Russia from European countries. After the Thirty Years' War in Europe, military science took a step forward, but it bypassed the Russian military art.
What have we learned?
Speaking briefly about the foreign policy of Russia in the 17th century, it should be noted that Russia was engaged in the restoration of its historical borders and the return of territories lost during the Time of Troubles. Most of the tasks facing it in the 17th century could not be solved.
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Main directions:
1. Northwestern (Return of access to the Baltic Sea)
2. Southwestern (Accession of Ukraine to Russia)
3. South (Fighting the Crimea and Turkey)
4. Eastern (Development of Siberia)
Smolensk war. (1632-1634)
Purpose: to return the Russian lands captured by Poland during the Time of Troubles
The course of the war:
In 1632 Russian troops under the command of the boyar Shein began an 8-month siege of Smolensk, but failed to take the city.
In 1633 The main forces of the Polish army, led by the new king Vladislav, approached Smolensk, and the Russian troops were surrounded
In 1634 Russian troops, without waiting for help from Moscow, capitulated, leaving the Poles all the artillery and banners. Later, the commander of the Russian army, Shein, was accused of treason and executed.
Having eliminated the main Russian forces near Smolensk, Vladislav set off on a campaign against Moscow. On his way stood a small fortress Belaya, the stubborn defense of which in February-March 1634. Stopped the Polish advance.
In 1634 The Polyanovsky peace treaty was signed, according to which Poland retained the Smolensk lands, but renounced its claims to the Russian throne.
Accession of Ukraine to Russia:
The liberation war of the Ukrainian people with the Commonwealth for the creation of Ukrainian statehood.
The peoples living in the territories that were previously part of the Old Russian state experienced social, national and religious oppression in the Commonwealth. In 1648, the Cossacks, led by Khmelnitsky, began a liberation struggle with Poland, in which Ukrainian and Belarusian peasants took part. Cossacks in 1648 achieved a number of victories and occupied Kyiv. In 1649 They concluded the Zborovsky peace, according to which the Cossacks received independent state administration headed by the hetman Khmelnitsky in the Kiev, Chernigov and Wroclaw voivodeships.
The peace turned out to be fragile, and hostilities resumed, but were unsuccessful for the Khmelnitsky Cossacks. They suffered in 1651. A heavy defeat near Berestechko and were forced to conclude in December 1651. A new peace treaty in Bila Tserkva, according to which the power of the hetman was preserved only in Kyiv.
Khmelnytsky appealed to the Russian government with a request to accept Ukraine into its composition. 1653 - The Zemsky Sobor decided to include Ukraine in Russia and declare war on Poland. In 1654, in the city of Pereyaslavl, the Rada, which gathered elected representatives from all classes of the Ukrainian population, unanimously spoke in favor of joining Ukraine.
Russian-Polish war (1654-1667)
1654 - the capture of Smolensk, Polotsk and Vitebsk by Russian troops
1655 - capture of the cities of Minsk and Vilna
1656 - The conclusion of a truce between Russia and Poland in view of the military threat to both countries from Sweden.
1657 - the resumption of the Russian-Polish war.
1660-1662 - a number of significant defeats of the Russian troops.
1665 - The victory of Russian troops near Korsun and Belaya Tserkov
1667 The signing of the Andrusovsky Permistice, according to which Russia received the Smolensk and Chernigov-Seversk lands, as well as the Left-Bank Ukraine with Kyiv.
Russian - Swedish war (1656-1661)
Russia's desire to take possession of the Baltic lands and gain access to the Baltic Sea.
Opposition to Swedish expansion in Poland, Lithuania and Ukraine.
The course of the war:
1656 Successful military operations of Russian troops in the Baltic States - the capture of the fortresses of Noteburg, Nienschanz, Dinaburg, Derpt.
August-October 1656 Swedes oust Russian troops from Karelia and Livonia.
1658 The capture of Yamburg by the Russian army and the failure of the siege of Narva. Conclusion of a truce in Valslesar for 3 years.
1661 Cardis world. Russia abandoned the lands conquered in the Baltics earlier in this war.
Fighting Crimea and Turkey
Tensions between Russia and the Crimean Khanate.
The construction by Russia of the notch line on the southern borders for defense against the raids of the Crimean Tatars.
Russian-Turkish war (1677-1681)
Military action for control of southern Ukraine
In 1677 Russian troops captured the Chigirin fortress
August 1677 The steadfast defense of the Chegirin fortress by the Russian-Ukrainian garrison and the defeat of the Russian-Ukrainian army under the command of Romadanovsky and Hetman Samoylovich.
July-August 1678 New Russian-Ukrainian-Turkish battle for Chigirin. The ruin of the city by the Turks and the withdrawal of Russian troops.
January 1681 - the conclusion of the Bakhchisaray peace treaty, according to which Turkey and Crimea recognized the entry of the Left-Bank Ukraine with Kyiv into Russia, and the Right-Bank Ukraine remained with the Ottoman Empire.
Development of Siberia
During the 17th century, Russian explorers advanced from Western Siberia to the Pacific Ocean. As we advanced, strongholds were created: Krasnoyarsk, Bratsk, Yakut prisons, Irkutsk winter quarters, etc. From the local population they collected yasak - a fur tax.
At the same time, peasant colonization of the arable lands of southern Siberia began. By the end of the 17th century, the Russian population of the region was 150 thousand people.
In the history of our country, the 17th century is a very significant milestone, since at that time there were many events that influenced the entire subsequent development of the state. Foreign policy was especially important, since at that time it was very difficult to fight off numerous enemies, while at the same time preserving strength for domestic work.
What determined the political mood?
In general, the needs of a cultural, economic and military nature determined all the subsequent development of our country in those centuries. Accordingly, the foreign policy of Russia in the 17th century was completely dependent on the tasks that confronted statesmen in those difficult times.
Main goals
First, it was necessary to urgently return all the lands that were lost as a result of the Troubles. Secondly, the rulers of the country were faced with the task of annexing back all those territories that were once part of Kievan Rus. Of course, in many respects they were guided not only by the ideas of reunification of once divided peoples, but also by the desire to increase the share of arable land and the number of taxpayers. Simply put, the foreign policy of Russia in the 17th century was aimed at restoring the integrity of the country.
The turmoil had an extremely hard impact on the country: the treasury was empty, many peasants became so impoverished that it was simply impossible to take taxes from them. The acquisition of new lands, not plundered by the Poles, would not only restore the political prestige of Russia, but also replenish its treasury. In general, this was the main foreign policy of Russia in the 17th century. The table (the 10th grade of the school should know it perfectly), given later in the article, reflects its most global goals.
Access to the sea
For their implementation, it was extremely important to have access to the Black and Baltic Seas. Firstly, the existence of these routes would make it possible to easily strengthen economic ties with Europe, establishing the supply of not only rare goods, but also technologies, literature, and other things that could help eliminate the country's lag in the industrial sphere.
Finally, it was time to decide something with the Crimean Khan: it was undignified for a large country at that time to suffer from the raids of some "petty" allies of the Turkish Sultan. However, do not forget about the old army adage about papers and ravines ... There were a lot of difficulties along the way.
Advance to the East
We should also not forget that Russia's foreign policy in the 17th century largely pursued the goal of expanding the country to the East in order to further develop and exploit those lands.
In particular, for export, a huge amount of sable furs was required, which were in incredible demand in the world. The only problem was that in the European part of the country these valuable animals were knocked out a long time ago. Finally, it was urgently required to reach the Pacific Ocean and establish a natural border along it. And further. There were enough “violent heads” in the country, which it was a pity to cut. It was decided to deport the most active, but restless people to Siberia.
So two tasks were solved at once: the center of the state got rid of "undesirable elements", and the border was under reliable protection. This is what Russia's foreign policy was like in the 17th century. The table will show you the main tasks that had to be solved then.
Main goals | Consequences, solution methods |
The return of the Smolensk land, which was lost during the Time of Troubles | In 1632-1634, the Smolensk War was fought, as a result of which he was recognized by the Commonwealth as the legitimate ruler of Russia |
Patronage of the Orthodox population of the Commonwealth loyal to Russia | This led to the Russo-Polish War of 1654-1667 and also contributed to the Russo-Turkish War of 1676-1681. As a result, Smolensk land was finally recaptured, Kyiv and the surrounding territories became part of Russia. |
Solving the problem with the Crimean Khan | Two wars at once: the aforementioned Russian-Turkish war of 1676-1681, as well as the first 1687 and 1689. Alas, the raids continued |
Development of the lands of the Far East | Eastern Siberia was annexed. Treaty of Nerchinsk signed with China |
Gaining passage to the Baltic | The war with Sweden in 1656-1658, as a result of which it was not possible to return access to the sea |
Russia's foreign policy in the 17th century was complex. The table clearly demonstrates that not a single decade has been without wars, while success has not always accompanied our state.
What hindered the solution of the most important tasks?
The main one was not even the activities of "eternal friends" in the person of Great Britain and France, but their own technological backwardness. Europe during the next, Thirty Years' War, managed to completely rethink the theory of weapons and organization of troops on the battlefield, as well as the tactics of their use. So, the main striking force again became the infantry, which from the end of the Roman Empire was in the lead roles. Regimental artillery, which was intensively developing at that time, became a means of strengthening it.
Backwardness in military affairs
And this is where Russian foreign policy stalled in the 17th century. The table (grade 7 should know its basic provisions) is not able to show this, but the army was extremely weak. The fact is that in our country the backbone of the armed forces was still the noble cavalry. She could successfully fight the remnants of the once powerful Horde, but if she met the army of the same France, she would certainly have faced serious losses.
Thus, Russia's foreign policy in the 17th century (briefly) was aimed mainly at creating a normal military, commercial, administrative and diplomatic apparatus.
About weapons issues
The vast country was heavily dependent on arms imports. The backwardness in tactics and weapons was planned to be eliminated by intensive import of weapons from European manufactories, as well as by recruiting officers. All this resulted not only in dependence on the leading powers of that period, but also cost the country very dearly.
Thus, the foreign policy of Russia in the 17th century (the main directions of which we have described) was based on paradoxes: on the one hand, no one doubted the need for war with the Europeans. On the other hand, it was from them that expensive weapons and ammunition were bought, which increased the military and economic power of the powers of the Old World, but greatly weakened Russia, already bled dry by the Time of Troubles.
So, on the eve of the Russo-Polish war mentioned in the table, a lot of gold had to be spent. At least 40,000 muskets and 20,000 pounds of selected gunpowder were purchased from Holland and Sweden. This amount was at least 2/3 of the total number of infantry weapons. At the same time, tension continues to grow on the part of Sweden, which not only blocks access to the Baltic, but also continues to lay claim to a large part of Russian lands.
Attitude towards the country in the international arena
The fact that in the West Russia was perceived only as an extremely backward, “barbaric” country, the territory of which was subject to mandatory expansion, and the population was planned to be partially assimilated, had a very bad effect. Otherwise, everyone was destined for the sad fate of the Indians of North America.
Thus, a strong Russian foreign policy in the 17th century was more important than ever. Its main tasks were aimed at "cutting through the window", which Peter later did. Economic and military backwardness was largely due to banal territorial isolation, since a powerful Turkish-Polish-Swedish barrier stood in the way of establishing normal relations.
We do not forget about the constant intrigues of the English merchants, who did not at all smile at getting a powerful competitor in trade affairs. All these contradictions could be resolved only by creating a powerful army and breaking through the trade and economic blockade.
Here is the main foreign policy of Russia in the 17th century. In short, the most important tasks lay in the West, from where the military threat was increasingly felt.
Wars in the West
All this led to the fact that in 1632, immediately after his death, a war began to revise the Deulin agreements. Our country was the instigator. Unfortunately, the forces were clearly unequal. In general, Russia's foreign policy in the 17th century (a summary of which we have already discussed) largely failed due to the extreme imperfection of the administrative, military and
Let us give the most obvious and annoying example of this. Due to extremely poor diplomacy, the Polish king Vladislav managed to establish contact with the Crimean Tatars. The slow Russian army, which was led by M. Shein, consisted of service people. When they found out that the Tatars began regular sorties inland, they simply left the army, leaving to protect their own estates. All this ended with the signing of the Polyanovsky Peace.
Poland had to return all the lands conquered at the beginning of the war, but King Vladislav completely renounces any claims to Russian lands and the throne. The governor M. Shein and A. Izmailov were declared guilty of the defeat, and their heads were subsequently cut off. Thus, the foreign policy of Russia in the 17th century is not developing in a particularly successful way for us.
The territory of present-day Ukraine
At the same time, it broke out on the territory of present-day Ukraine. In 1648, another uprising broke out in those parts, which was caused by intolerable conditions for the Orthodox population who lived in the territory of the Commonwealth.
The culprits were Zaporozhian Cossacks. In general, they led a quite good life: protecting the borders of Poland from the raids of the same Crimean Tatars, they received a decent reward (not counting military booty). But the Poles were not very happy with the fact that the Cossacks accepted any runaway serf into their ranks and never gave him back. A methodical "crackdown" began, the reduction of the Cossack freemen. Bohdan Khmelnytsky led the immediately flared uprising.
Successes and failures of the rebels
Already in December 1648, his troops occupied Kyiv. In August of the following year, settlement agreements were signed. They provided for an increase in the number of "official" Cossacks, to whom the authorities had no complaints, but the list of achievements ended there.
Khmelnitsky understood that he would not be able to correct the injustice without outside help. Russia was the only candidate for allied relations, but its authorities were no longer too eager to fight, as time was needed to completely reform the army. Meanwhile, the Poles did not tolerate a shameful peace; already in 1653, the rebels were under the threat of complete extermination.
Russia could not allow this. In December 1653, an agreement was concluded on the reunification of Ukrainian lands with Russia. Of course, immediately after this, the country was drawn into a new war, but its results were much better than before.
This is what characterized the foreign policy of Russia in the 17th century. You will find the main directions, tasks, results of it in this article.
