Brief history of France
The ancestors of the modern French people were the Germanic tribes of the Franks, who lived on the banks of the Rhine in the III century. However, the history of the French territory began much earlier, in the prehistoric period. Studies have shown that Pithecanthropes inhabited the lands of Gaul about 1 million years ago. Over time they changed homo sapiens, that is, the ancestors of modern man. There is practically no information about this period.
The Celtic period in France began around the 10th century BC. and spread over several centuries. In the II century BC. the Roman era began. Since the Romans called the Celts Gauls, the country began to be called Gaul. Gaul occupied vast territories, from the Atlantic Ocean to the Mediterranean Sea. With the arrival of the Romans, the Latin language and the Roman way of life came into use, but the Celtic culture and art survived.
In the middle of the 5th century, the power of the Roman governors weakened, the Early Middle Ages began. During this period, France broke up into dozens of petty kingdoms. In the Rhine region, the Burgundians ruled, in the north - the Franks, in the east, the dominion of Rome still remained. Unity in the country was achieved only under Charles I. This ruler was called the Great during his lifetime. AT 800 year he was elected emperor of the Roman Empire. Unfortunately, after his death, his descendants began to fight for the inheritance, which greatly weakened Western Europe.
From the XII century, the Late Middle Ages began - a controversial era for the French people. On the one hand, it was the heyday of art, poetry, architecture, and on the other hand, serious crises were observed. So, in the XIV century, plague epidemics broke out everywhere, the Hundred Years War with England began. However, the strife in the country after this war did not end. During the reign of the Valois dynasty, clashes began between Catholics and Huguenots, ending with Bartholomew's Night August 24, 1572. That night, about 30 thousand people died in the massacre of the Huguenots.
After the Valois, the Bourbons came to power. The first king of this dynasty was Henry IV. (1589-1610). During his reign, a law on religious tolerance was passed. Cardinal Richelieu, who had actual power during the time of Louis XIII, did a lot for the good of the country. He managed to raise the prestige of France in Europe. The following rulers significantly weakened the country's economy with wars and thoughtless entertainment. As a result, a revolution began in the country, the result of which was a coup. 1799 of the year. From that moment began the period of Napoleon's reign. After several successful and then unsuccessful military campaigns, he was overthrown.
FROM 1814 year began the period of restoration of the monarchy. First, Louis XVIII came to power, then Charles X, and after him Louis-Philippe d'Orleans. In the middle of the 19th century, another revolution took place, after which power passed to the Provisional Government. Such a change of rulers took place until France received the status of a republic for the fifth time and appointed General de Gaulle as president. (1959-1969). It was he who was involved in the liberation of the country from the German invaders and the restoration of the economic balance.
Sealine - tours to France
History of France (key dates)
1st century BC – 3rd century ADActive Romanization of southern Gaul - cities are being built (many public buildings: baths, theaters, temples), aqueducts. Remains of Roman structures still remain today.
4th century
The city of Burdigala (modern Bordeaux) is famous for its higher education (the study of Greek and Latin literature, rhetoric)
5th century
There were more than 100 cities in Gaul. Under pressure from the Germanic tribes of the Suebi, Burgundians and Franks, the Roman troops withdrew from the border along the Rhine, leaving part of Gaul to the Germans. The Visigoths occupied Aquitaine from the Loire to the Garonne and founded the Kingdom of Toulouse.
Around 450
Under the onslaught of the Anglo-Saxons, part of the Briton tribes moved from the British Isles to the Armorica Peninsula (modern Brittany), the ethnic identity of this province is still preserved.
451
Invasion of the Huns. Roman troops and Frankish squads defeated the Huns of Attila in the battle on the Catalaunian fields, near Troyes.
5th century, last quarter
The Visigoths captured Gascony, Provence and almost all of Spain, as well as the central regions (modern Bury, Limousine and Auvergne). In the valleys of the Saone and Rhone, the Burgundians founded the kingdom of Burgundy.
482 year
The northern regions from the Loire to the Somme and the Meuse were subjugated by the tribal union of the Franks. The ruler of the Franks, Holdwig, founded the Frankish state of the Merovingians. The Franks retained the Roman cities and administration.
496
The Franks converted to Christianity according to the Roman rite, which provided them with the support of the Pope of Rome against the rest of the Germanic tribes who professed Arianism.
6th century, beginning
The first edition of the Salic Truth was created - a code of laws, which included the norms of unwritten (customary) law and the norms of early feudal law. For the Gallo-Roman population, the norms of Roman law are preserved.
511 year
Holdwig died. The Frankish state crumbled into the inheritances of his sons.
6th century, middle
The Franks established their dominance by subjugating the Visigoths and Burgundians. The Frankish state of the Merovingians was formed. Under the influence of the Germans, feudal land ownership began to take shape in Gaul.
6th century, end - 7th century, beginning
During internecine wars, four parts of the Frankish state took shape: Neustria (in the northwest, with a center in Paris and a predominantly Halo-Roman population, Burgundy (in the east), Aquitaine (in the southwest) and Austrasia (northeastern part of Gaul, settled by the East Franks later became part of Germany).
687
Mayor Pepin II (administrator of the royal domain, appointed by the king) concentrated in his hands the real power in the Frankish state.
732 year
Battle of Poitiers. The Frankish Major Karl Martel (nickname means "hammer") defeated the Arabs, stopping their advance into the interior of the country.
737 year
Charles Martell seized power in the Frankish state.
751
Pepin III the Short exiled the last Merovingian king to a monastery and founded the new Carolingian dynasty.
768-789 years
Charlemagne (742-814) became King of France. Under him, global transformations were carried out within the state, for example, an administrative reform: a court, a palace court, and an office were created to manage the empire. An active foreign policy was carried out (the creation of border stamps, for example, Spanish, Breion). Charles became famous as a patron of the arts. The flowering of culture under him was called the "Carolingian Renaissance". Schools were opened at all the monasteries of the Frankish state.
800 year
The state of the Franks turned into a huge "Holy Roman Empire", covering the western part of Germany, all of France and the northern part of Italy, headed by Emperor Charlemagne. Under the influence of a higher Gallo-Romance culture, the Franks assimilated, lost their language, assimilating the Gallo-Romance speech and enriching it with Germanic words. The official language of the Frankish state is Romance.
842
Exchange of "Oaths" (the first document in French) between kings Charles the Bald and Louis the German.
843
Treaty of Verdun - the division of the Frankish Empire, the separation of the West Frankish state, which became known as France.
9th century, middle
Norman raids on France. Not only coastal cities were devastated, but also settlements inland, including Paris. The Normans captured part of France at the mouth of the Seine and founded the duchy of Normandy (911).
10th century
France was divided into counties and duchies.
X-XII centuries
Romanesque style in architecture.
910
Abbey of Cluny founded.
987
End of the Carolingian dynasty. Count Hugh Capet of Paris is elected King of France. The beginning of the reign of the Capetian dynasty (ruled until 1328). The royal domain included lands along the Seine and Loire with Paris and Orleans.
1060-1108 years
Philip I. The struggle of the cities of the communes with the lords became a means of strengthening the Royal power. As they joined the royal domain, duchies and counties became provinces.
1095
Pope Urban II called at the Council of Clermont to "liberate the Holy Sepulcher"
1096-1099 years
I Crusade. It consisted of two parts - the campaign of the poor (from central and northern France and western Germany) under the leadership of Pierre of Amiens (The Hermit) along the pilgrimage route - along the Rhine and Danube to Constantinople. At the same time, the first Jewish pogroms in the history of medieval Europe took place. At the end of 1096, detachments of feudal lords moved from Lorraine, Normandy, southern France and Italy. In the east, the crusaders created a number of states: the Jerusalem state and its vassal counties - Tripoli and Edessa, the principality of Antioch.
Around 1143
In the south of France, between Toulouse and Albi, the heresy of the Cathars (from the Greek "pure") spread. The Cathars rejected all Catholic dogmas, subordination to the state, demanded the confiscation of church lands, which attracted the nobility to them. They created their own church organization.
1147
The Muslims conquered Edessa, which was the reason for the II Crusade, led by Louis VII and the German Emperor Conrad III (ended in vain). Louis VII divorced Alleonora of Aquetaine, Henry II Plantagenet, Count of Anjou married her.
1154
Henry II Plantagenet became king of England and almost 2/3 of France. Normandy, Aquitaine, Anjou, Maine, Poitou fell under his rule and cut off access to the sea to the royal domain. There was an instant conflict between England and France.
1209-1228
The kings and knights of Northern France, taking advantage of the spread of the Albigensian (Cathars and Waldenses) heresy in the south, subjected the southern regions with a higher economic and cultural standard of living to a terrible defeat and annexed the County of Toulouse (Languedoc) to the royal domain.
Around 1226
The Inquisition was organized in Toulouse.
1226-1270 years
Louis IX Saint.
1248-1254 years
Saint Louis IX led the VII Crusade to Egypt, where he was captured and ransomed for a huge sum.
1270
Louis IX gathered the VIII Crusade, but having reached Tunis, he died of the plague, like most of the knights.
1285 - 1314
Philip IV Handsome.
1302
"Bruges Matins". In the city of Bruges, the French garrison was cut out, stationed here during the struggle for the County of Flanders. In response, Philip IV the Handsome led his knights to Flanders. A “Battle of the Spurs” took place, during which the Flanders weavers killed the knights, removed their golden spurs (the distinction of a knighthood and hung them in the church. The States General was convened - a class assembly to vote taxes. The first estate was the clergy, the second was the nobility, the third was the bourgeois (citizens, taxable estate).
1306
Philip IV the Beautiful confiscated the property of the Jews (mainly usurers) and expelled them from France, but then allowed them to return (this happened more than once during his reign).
1307
The order of the Templars, to whom the king owed huge sums, was defeated. Many members of the order were executed, some were expelled, and the colossal property of the order was confiscated. The master of the order, Jacques de Molay, cursed the king and his offspring at the stake. In 1312, the pope dissolved the order.
1328-1350
Philip VI the beginning of the reign of the Valois dynasty, a side branch of the Capetians (until 1589).
1337-1453 years
Hundred Years War with England.
1380-1422 years
Large feudal lords ruled on behalf of Charles VI, who suffered from bouts of insanity.
1413
Confrontation under King Charles VI of two parties - Armagnacs and Burgundians. Revolts in Paris, convocation of the Estates General, resumption of the Hundred Years' War.
1420
The Duke of Burgundy went over to the side of the English king. Occupation of Paris.
1422-1461
Reign of Charles VII.
1429
Joan of Arc persuaded the indecisive and weak Charles VII to entrust her with an army to lift the siege of Orleans, and when this succeeded, she went with Charles VII to Reims for his coronation in Reims Cathedral, the traditional place for the coronation of French kings.
1430
In the battle with the British at Compiègne, Jeanne with a detachment had to retreat to the city gates, but they remained locked. The Burgundians captured her and sold her to the British. The court sentenced Jeanne to death, and in 1431 she was burned at the stake in Rouen. In 1456, all charges were dropped from Jeanne, and she became a national heroine. In the twentieth century, the Catholic Church canonized her.
1439
Charles VII declared the independence of the French Church from the Pope.
1453
Charles VII conquered Bordeaux, ending the Hundred Years' War. The British lost all continental possessions, except for the city of Calais.
1461-1483 years
Louis XI. A skilled diplomat, he did not like war and bequeathed to his son to remember: "He who does not know how to pretend, he does not know how to manage." Crafts and trade revived. There were germs of the economic policy of mercantilism, which is based on a positive trade balance. Louis XI encouraged the development of industry (in particular, he forced Lyon to produce silk fabrics and organize fairs, which quickly overshadowed those in Geneva).
1477
Accession of Burgundy to the royal possessions after the death of Charles the Bold, the last Duke of Burgundy.
1483-1498
Reign of Charles VIII.
1515-1547
Reign of Francis I.
1534
The Jesuit order "Society of Jesus" was founded to fight the Reformation.
1559
King Henry II died during the tournament. His wife Catherine de Medici became regent under the minor under the minor Francis II, then under Charles IX.
1562-1592
Religious Wars. A war began (1562) between Catholics and Huguenots (Protestants, followers of Calvin. Most often they were townspeople and nobles of the south of France). Internal migration has led to the blurring of regional differences.
1589
A Dominican monk killed Henry III, the last king of the Valois dynasty.
1589-1610
Henry IV of Bourbon. The beginning of the reign of the Bourbon dynasty (until 1792 and in 1814-1830). The integrity of the country was restored according to the principle of uniting "all lands where French is spoken."
1598
Edict of Nantes. The Catholic religion is recognized as dominant in France. Established freedom of Protestant worship. Catholics and Protestants are equal in rights.
1610
The Catholic fanatic Ravaillac killed Henry IV, under which religious peace was established, the state of finance and government improved. Louis XIII (1601-1643), son of Henry IV and Marie de Medici, ascended the throne. During the years of the regency of M. Medici, the country was actually ruled by her favorite, the Italian adventurer Concino Concini (involved in the assassination of the king), whom she made Marquis d'Ancor and Marshal of France.
1617
The favorite of Louis XIII, the Duke of Luynes, persuaded the king to remove Concini. Killed, and his wife was accused of witchcraft and burned at the stake, Luin appropriated their huge fortune and achieved the expulsion of Marie Medici.
1618-1648
Thirty Years' War. France helped the Protestants in Germany in the fight against the Habsburgs.
1624-1642
Reign of Richelieu under Louis XIII. Richelieu contributed to the strengthening of the absolute monarchy and actually created a centralized state of France.
1631
The first French newspaper "GAZETTE DE FRANCE" is founded.
1635
Richelieu founded the French Academy.
1648
As a result of the Thirty Years' War, France occupied a dominant position in central Europe.
1659
The marriage of the future Louis XIV with the Spanish Infanta Maria Theresa put an end to the long feud between the two royal houses.
1664
Colbert founded the West Indies and New East Indies Campaigns.
1665
Jean-Baptiste Colbert is appointed Comptroller General of France's finances. Pursuing a policy of mercantilism, he stabilized the financial system and ensured economic growth.
1669
The construction of the Palace of Versailles began.
1685
Cancellation of the Edict of Nantes on the freedom of Protestant worship, the flight of the Huguenots.
1701-1714
War of the Spanish Succession: Austria, Holland, the Habsburg Empire against France and Bavaria. Philip V (grandson of Louis XIV) became King of Spain. France lost part of the American possessions.
XVIII century of enlightenment
1715
After the death of Louis XIV, his great-grandson Louis XV became king (until 1774). The country is heavily devastated: "1/10 of the inhabitants are begging, and 1/2 do not have the opportunity to give alms."
1733
War with Austria and Russia for the Polish inheritance.
1774-1793 years
Reign of Louis XVI.
1781
Report of the Minister of Finance on the appalling state of the country's budget.
1788
The Treasury has declared bankruptcy.
1789-1794
The French Revolution.
1789
After a 175-year break, the States General convened. A month and a half later, the third estate proclaimed itself the National Assembly - this became the prologue of the Great French Revolution. The bourgeois demanded equality before the law, the abolition of tax privileges.
1789
Summer. Peasant uprisings, the abolition of feudal duties. Political clubs arose in Paris, from which political parties were formed. Nationalization of church property to reduce the budget deficit. On August 26, the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen was adopted.
1790
Church reform, abolition of hereditary nobility, adoption of the first constitution.
1791
The failed flight of Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette from Paris. Aggravation of relations between radical and moderate deputies of the National Assembly. The Jacobins, led by Robespierre, demanded that the king be punished and that a republic be proclaimed.
1791 end
In Europe, interventions were being prepared against revolutionary France.
1792 August 10
The storming of the royal palace of the Tuileries, the overthrow of the monarchy (the king and his family are imprisoned).
1793 April 6-June 2
1793, April 6-June 2, the Committee of Public Safety came to power. The main government body of the Jacobins, headed by Danton.
1794
The Jacobin bloc split into right and left: the Dantonists (Danton) and the Héberists (Hébert).
1794 mara
The Héberists opposed the government and were executed (Hébert and Chaumet).
1794 April
Danton, Desmoulins and other Dantonists (supporters of radical measures who opposed terror) were executed.
1794 July 26
Thermidorian revolution. The Jacobin club is closed, Robespierre and Saint-Just are arrested and executed without trial. New constitution.
1794 October
Ecole Normal, an educational institution for the training of teachers, was established.
1795
The Institute of France, the highest scientific center of the country, was created.
1796
Napoleon's campaign in Italy, the defeat of the Austrian troops.
1798
The Egyptian campaign of Napoleon, the capture of Malta, the victory of Admiral Nelson at Abikur. Napoleon returned to France.
1799
Napoleon carried out a military coup. Under the new constitution, power passes to three consuls. Napoleon is the first consul.
1802
Napoleon appointed consul for life. Amnesty for emigrants, economic reforms started.
1804
Napoleon was proclaimed emperor, the nobility was restored, state power was strengthened, and the Civil Code (Napoleon Code) was put into effect.
1805
The defeat of the Austro-Russian troops at Austerlitz ended the war with the third anti-French coalition.
1807
Peace of Tilsit - Russian-French rapprochement. French hegemony in Europe. The first meeting between Napoleon and Alexander I.
1812 Napoleon's campaign in Russia, the capture of Moscow, the death of the French army in Russia.
1813
French troops expelled from Spain. Strengthened anti-French coalition. Battle of Leipzig - "Battle of the Nations", the defeat of Napoleon.
April 1814
Allied troops (England, Austria, Prussia and Russia) occupied Paris. The provisional government announced the deposition of Napoleon, he was left the title of emperor and exiled to the island of Elba in the Mediterranean. After the abdication of Napoleon, Louis XVIII (brother of the executed king) received power. Civil liberties and the Napoleonic Code were preserved in the country. The Treaty of Paris is relatively soft conditions for France, which lost the war.
1815
"Napoleon's Hundred Days": Napoleon's landing on the southern coast of France, march on Paris. Louis XVIII fled. Empire restored. The battle of Waterloo ended in the defeat of Napoleon, a link to the island of St. Helena. Restoration of the monarchy. The second Treaty of Paris is more stringent than the first (1814).
1821
Death of Napoleon.
1824
Under the Constitutional Charter granted by the King, France became a constitutional monarchy. The national flag is the white banner of the Bourbons.
1830 July - August
July Revolution, abdication of Charles X of Bourbon. The Chamber of Deputies and the Chamber of Pens elected Louis-Philippe, Duke of Orleans, as king. The flag of France became tricolor. The revolution was not as bloody as the Great Revolution, but swept Belgium, Poland, Germany, Italy, Switzerland.
1840
The ashes of Napoleon were transported to Paris.
February 1848
A new revolution has begun. Fighting in Paris, the Tuileries Palace captured, Prime Minister Guizot resigned, Louis-Philippe abdicated. Republic proclaimed. Decree on the right to work, Decree on the organization of national workshops.
1848
The victory of the Republicans in the elections to the National (Constituent) Assembly.
1848 February 10
The constitution of the second republic was adopted. Louis Napoleon (Napoleon I's nephew) became President of France.
1849
Elections to the Legislative Assembly. The victory of the monarchists over the republicans.
1850
Law on the transfer of public education to the clergy.
1851
Disbanded the National Assembly. Louis Napoloen is endowed with dictatorial powers, censorship has been introduced.
1852
Louis Napoleon declared himself Emperor Napoleon III. Second Empire (until 1870).
1870
France declared war on Prussia. Battle of Sedan, Napoleon III surrendered, abdicated. Paris is surrounded by Prussian troops.
1871
The capitulation of Paris, the signing of peace on very unfavorable terms for France.
1871, March 18-May 16
Parisian Commune. Power passed to the Central Committee of the National Guard. The Cabinet of Ministers and the army fled to Versailles.
1871
The commune was defeated by German and French troops. 25 thousand people died.
1871 August
The National Assembly elected Thiers President of the French Republic.
1875
Constitution of the Third Republic.
1894
President assassinated (since 1887). The rise of revolutionary anarchism.
1895
The Lumière brothers invented the cinematograph
The founder of France is considered to be King Clovis, who ruled it from 481. He belonged to the Merovingian dynasty, named after the mythical king Merovei, to whom, according to legend, Clovis was the grandson. King Clovis went down in history as a wise ruler and a brave warrior, and also as the first ruler of France to convert to Christianity. He converted to Christianity in 496 at Reims, and since then all French monarchs have been crowned in this city. He and his wife Clotilde were devotees of Saint Genevieve, the patroness of Paris. It is in his honor that seventeen rulers of France are named after Louis (Louis).
After the death of Clovis, his country was divided by his four sons, but they and their descendants were incapable rulers, and the Merovingian dynasty began to fade away. Because they spent all their time in the palace, tired of entertainment, they were called lazy kings. The last ruler of the Merovingian dynasty was King Childeric III. He was replaced on the throne by the first monarch from the Carolingian dynasty, Pepin, nicknamed the Short, given to him because of his short, to put it mildly, growth. About him, Dumas wrote a short story of the same name (Le chronique du roi Pepin).
Pepin the Short (714-748) ruled France between the years 751-768. He was a majordom - one of the king's advisers from 741, and, like other majordorms, he had great power at court. Pepin showed himself to be a skilled warrior and an intelligent, talented politician. He strongly supported the Catholic Church, and in the end received the full support of the Pope, who, under pain of excommunication, forbade the election of a king from any other kind. 
The name of the dynasty itself came from Pepin's son, Charles (Charles), known by the nickname "The Great". Dumas also wrote a short story about him called Charlemagne (Les Hommes de fer Charlemagne). Thanks to numerous campaigns of conquest, he greatly expanded the boundaries of his kingdom, which included almost the entire territory of modern Western Europe. In 800, Charlemagne was crowned imperial in Rome by Pope Leo III. His eldest son, Louis I, nicknamed "The Pious", became his heir. Thus, the tradition according to which the kingdom is divided equally among all heirs was abolished, and from now on only the eldest son inherited the father.
A succession war broke out between the grandchildren of Charlemagne, this war greatly weakened the empire, and ultimately led to its collapse. The last king from this dynasty was Louis V. After his death in 987, a new king was elected by the nobility - Hugo, nicknamed "Capet", and this nickname gave the name to the entire Capetian dynasty.
After the death of Louis V, Abbe Hugo became king, nicknamed "Capet" due to the fact that he wore the mantle of a secular priest, which was called "kapa". Under the Capetians, feudal relations began to take shape in France - the feudal lords, or seigneurs, were obliged to protect their vassals, and the vassals swore allegiance to the feudal lords and sponsored their idle lifestyle.
Under the Capetians, for the first time in history, religious wars took on an unprecedented scale. The First Crusade began in 1095. The bravest and strongest nobles from all over Europe went to Jerusalem to liberate the Holy Sepulcher from Muslims after ordinary citizens were defeated by the Turks. Jerusalem was taken on July 15, 1099 at three o'clock in the afternoon.
Until 1328, France is ruled by the direct heirs of Hugh Capet, after which the last monarch, a direct descendant of King Hugh - Charles (Charles) IV, nicknamed "Beautiful", is succeeded by Philip VI, belonging to the Valois branch, which also belonged to the Capetian dynasty. The Valois dynasty would rule France until 1589, when Henry (Henri) IV of the Capet dynasty of the Bourbon branch ascended the throne. The Capetian dynasty ended the rule of France forever in 1848, when the last monarch from the Orleans branch of the Bourbons, King Louis-Philippe, nicknamed Louis-Philippois, was expelled.
In the three decades between the death of Louis XI (1483) and the ascension to the throne of Francis I (1515), France broke away from the Middle Ages. It was the 13-year-old prince, who ascended the throne in 1483 under the name of Charles VIII, who was destined to become the initiator of the transformations that changed the face of the French monarchy under Francis I. From his father Louis XI, the most hated of the rulers of France, Charles inherited the country, in which was put in order, and the royal treasury was significantly replenished. The reign of Charles VIII was marked by two important events. By marrying Duchess Anne of Brittany, he incorporated the previously independent province of Brittany into France. In addition, he led a triumphal campaign in Italy and reached Naples, declaring it his possession. 
Charles died in 1498, leaving the throne to the Duke of Orleans. Having ascended the throne under the name of Louis XII (1498-1515), the new king gained fame thanks to two acts. First, he also led the French nobles on an Italian campaign, this time laying claim to Milan and Naples. Secondly, it was Louis who introduced the royal loan, which played such a fatal role 300 years later. The introduction of the royal loan allowed the monarchy to withdraw money without resorting to excessive taxation or recourse to the Estates General. Since the cities became the largest source of taxes, of which Paris was undoubtedly the largest and richest, this new banking system proved to be a profitable source of royal income.
Louis' heir was his brisk cousin and son-in-law, the Count of Angouleme. He got a rich and peaceful country, as well as a new banking system that could provide large amounts of money that seemed inexhaustible. Nothing could better match the passions and abilities of Francis I.
Francis I (1515–1547) was the embodiment of the new spirit of the Renaissance. His reign began with a lightning-fast invasion of Northern Italy. His second trip to Italy, undertaken ten years later, ended in failure. Nevertheless, Francis remained one of the main political figures in Europe for more than a quarter of a century. His biggest rivals were the English King Henry VIII and the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V.
During these years, Italian humanism had a transformative influence on French art, architecture, literature, science, social customs and even Christian doctrine. The influence of the new culture could be seen in the appearance of royal castles, especially in the Loire Valley. Now they were not so much fortresses as palaces. With the advent of printing, there were incentives for the development of the French literary language.
Henry II, who succeeded his father on the throne in 1547, must have seemed a strange anachronism in Renaissance France. His life was cut short unexpectedly: in 1559, fighting in a tournament with one of the nobles, he fell pierced by a spear. In several lightning-fast, well-planned operations, Henry II recaptured Calais from the British and established control over dioceses such as Metz, Toul, and Verdun, which had previously belonged to the Holy Roman Empire. Heinrich's wife was Catherine de Medici, a representative of a family of famous Italian bankers. After the untimely death of the king, Catherine played a decisive role in French politics for a quarter of a century, although her three sons, Francis II, Charles IX and Henry III, officially ruled. The first of these, the sickly Francis II, was under the influence of the powerful Duke of Guise and his brother, the Cardinal of Lorraine. They were uncles to Queen Mary Stuart (of Scotland), to whom Francis II was engaged as a child. A year after accession to the throne, Francis died, and the throne was taken by his ten-year-old brother Charles IX, who was entirely under the influence of his mother.
While Catherine succeeded in leading the child king, the power of the French monarchy was suddenly tottering. The policy of persecution of Protestants, begun by Francis I and tightened under Charles, ceased to justify itself. Calvinism spread widely throughout France. The Huguenots (as the French Calvinists were called) were predominantly townspeople and nobles, often wealthy and influential.
The fall in the authority of the king and the disruption of public order were only a partial consequence of the religious schism. Deprived of the possibility of waging wars abroad and not constrained by the prohibitions of a strong monarch, the nobles sought to get out of obedience to the weakening monarchy and encroached on the rights of the king. With the ensuing riots, it was already difficult to resolve religious disputes, and the country split into two opposing camps. The Guise family took the position of defenders of the Catholic faith. Their rivals were both moderate Catholics like Montmorency and Huguenots like Condé and Coligny. In 1562, an open confrontation between the parties began, punctuated by periods of truces and agreements, according to which the Huguenots were granted a limited right to be in certain areas and create their own fortifications.
During the official preparation of the third agreement, which included the marriage of the king's sister Margaret to Henry of Bourbon, the young king of Navarre and the chief leader of the Huguenots, Charles IX organized a terrible massacre of his opponents on the eve of St. Bartholomew on the night of August 23-24, 1572. Henry of Navarre managed to escape, but thousands of his associates were killed. Charles IX died two years later and was succeeded by his brother Henry III. Henry of Navarre had the greatest chances for the throne, however, being the leader of the Huguenots, he did not suit the majority of the country's population. The leaders of the Catholics formed a "league" against him, meaning to enthrone their leader, Henry of Giese. Unable to withstand the confrontation, Henry III treacherously killed both Guise and his brother, the Cardinal of Lorraine. Even in those troubled times, this act caused general indignation. Henry III quickly moved to the camp of his other rival, Henry of Navarre, where he was soon killed by a fanatical Catholic monk.
Left out of work at the end of the wars abroad in 1559 and seeing the helplessness of the sons of Francis I, the nobles emotionally accepted religious strife. Catherine de' Medici opposed general anarchy, sometimes supporting different sides, but more often trying to restore the authority of royalty through negotiations and maintaining religious neutrality. However, all her attempts were unsuccessful. When she died in 1589 (her third son also died in the same year), the country was on the verge of destruction.
Although Henry of Navarre now had military superiority and received the support of a group of moderate Catholics, he returned to Paris only after renouncing the Protestant faith and was crowned at Chartres in 1594. The Edict of Nantes ended the wars of religion in 1598. The Huguenots were officially recognized as a minority entitled to labor and self-defense in some areas and cities.
During the reign of Henry IV and his famous minister, the Duke of Sully, order was restored to the country and prosperity was achieved. In 1610, the country plunged into deep mourning when it learned that its king had been killed by some madman while preparing for a military campaign in the Rhineland. Although his death kept the country from premature involvement in the Thirty Years' War, it set France back into a state of near regency anarchy, as the young Louis XIII was only nine years old. The central political figure at this time was his mother, Queen Marie de Medici, who then enlisted the support of the Bishop of Luson, Armand Jean du Plessis (aka Duke, Cardinal Richelieu), who in 1624 became the king's mentor and representative and actually ruled France until the end of his life in 1642 . 
Richelieu's reputation as one of France's greatest statesmen rests on his consistent far-sighted and skillful foreign policy and on his ruthless suppression of recalcitrant nobles. Richelieu took away from the Huguenots their fortresses, such as La Rochelle, which withstood a siege for 14 months. He was also a patron of the arts and sciences and founded the Académie française.
Richelieu succeeded in compelling respect for the royal power through the services of royal agents, or commissaries, but he was able to significantly undermine the independence of the nobles. And yet, even after his death in 1642, the change of the king who died a year later passed surprisingly calmly, although the heir to the throne, Louis XIV, was then only five years old. The Queen Mother Anne of Austria assumed guardianship. Richelieu's henchman, the Italian Cardinal Mazarin, was an active conductor of the king's policy until his death in 1661. Mazarin continued Richelieu's foreign policy until the successful conclusion of the Westphalian (1648) and Pyrenean (1659) peace treaties, but could not do anything more significant for France than the preservation of the monarchy , especially during the uprisings of the nobility known as the Fronde (1648–1653). The primary goal of the nobles during the Fronde was to extract benefits from the royal treasury, and not to overthrow the monarchy.
After the death of Mazarin, Louis XIV, who by that time had reached the age of 23, took direct control over public affairs. In the struggle for power, Louis was helped by outstanding personalities: Jean Baptiste Colbert, Minister of Finance (1665-1683), Marquis de Louvois, Minister of War (1666-1691), Sebastian de Vauban, Minister of Defense Fortifications, and such brilliant generals as the Viscount de Turenne and the Prince of Condé.
When Colbert managed to raise enough funds, Louis formed a large and well-trained army, which, thanks to Vauban, had the best fortresses. With the help of this army, led by Turenne, Condé and other able generals, Louis pursued his strategic line during four wars.
At the end of his life, Louis was accused of being "too fond of war." His last desperate struggle with all of Europe (the War of the Spanish Succession, 1701-1714) ended with the invasion of enemy troops on French soil, the impoverishment of the people and the depletion of the treasury. The country has lost all previous conquests. Only a split among the enemy forces and a few very recent victories saved France from complete defeat.
In 1715 the decrepit old king died. The child, the five-year-old great-grandson of Louis XV, became the heir to the French throne, and during this period the country was ruled by a self-appointed regent, the ambitious Duke of Orleans. The most notorious scandal of the Regency era erupted over the failure of John Low's Mississippi Project (1720), an unprecedented speculative scam supported by the Regent in an attempt to replenish the treasury.
The reign of Louis XV was in many respects a pathetic parody of that of his predecessor. The royal administration continued to sell the rights to collect taxes, but this mechanism lost its effectiveness, as the entire tax collection system became corrupt. The army fostered by Louvois and Vauban was demoralized under the leadership of aristocratic officers who sought appointment to military posts only for the sake of a court career. Nevertheless, Louis XV paid great attention to the army. French troops first fought in Spain and then participated in two major campaigns against Prussia: the War of the Austrian Succession (1740–1748) and the Seven Years' War (1756–1763).
The events of the Seven Years' War led to the loss of almost all colonies, the loss of international prestige and an acute social crisis that gave rise to the Great French Revolution in 1789. The country was freed from all feudal vestiges, but by the beginning of the 19th century, Napoleon seized power in the state.
Since 1804, France has become an empire, it has strengthened the bourgeois system and reached the highest greatness in the history of France. The Patriotic War of the Russian people of 1812 predetermined the collapse of the Napoleonic empire and returned the country to a secondary position in world politics. A series of bourgeois revolutions (1830, 1848) contributed to the revival of the empire in 1852. France again turned out to be a world leader, and only the strengthening of Germany once again pushed this state to a secondary role. In 1870, a bourgeois-democratic form of government was approved in the country. The desire to resurrect lost greatness dragged France into the First World War against Germany. Success in it helped to strengthen the authority of the country and was further consolidated during the victory over Nazi Germany. 
Today, this amazing country is considered to be one of the most advanced and respected on the planet.
French history was at the center of world attention during August 1997 when Princess Diana tragically ended her life in a car crash in Paris. And in July 1998, the French football team won a world victory in a match with the Brazilian national team (3:0).
In October 2001, flights were resumed on Concorde aircraft, which had been temporarily suspended since July 2000, after a major accident in which 113 people died.
In early 2003, France re-emerged on the world stage, this time insisting on vetoing any decision by the UN Security Council over a war with Iraq. The US government took this rather coolly and so far relations between France and the United States remain tense.
The steels will be settled by tribes of Celts (Gauls). It was the Gauls who formed the basis of the French people, and the country in ancient times was called Gaul.
In the 7th-6th centuries BC, the Phoenicians and Greeks founded colonies here, from which the cities of Marseille, Nice, etc. originate. In 58-52 BC, Gaul was conquered by the Romans. The invasion of the Germanic tribes in the 5th-7th centuries put an end to Roman domination in Gaul. The most stable power was created in Gaul by the Franks; at the beginning of the 6th century they conquered Gaul, giving their name to the country and people. The territory of modern France became the core of the Frankish state.
By the time France was formed as a state (9th-10th centuries), the country was divided into many feudal principalities, which had stable borders and their own linguistic features.
The largest feudal association in northern France was the Duchy of Normandy. In the extreme northeast, the county of Flanders was strong. In the west, the duchy of Brittany had complete independence. Royal possessions occupied lands along the middle reaches of the Seine and Loire.
In the south of the country, the duchies of Toulouse, Gascony, Aquitaine, the counties of March, Auvergne, Bourbonne were almost completely beyond the control of the king.
Starting from the 30s of the 19th century, France pursued an active aggressive policy in France, and by the beginning of World War I became the second colonial empire after Great Britain.
World War 1 brought about great changes in the French economy. Alsace and Lorraine were returned, the Saar was transferred to the hands of France for 15 years. By the end of the 20s of the 20th century, France turned into an industrial-agrarian country.
During World War II, Paris and 2/3 of the country's territory were occupied. An important role in the fight against fascism was played by the "Free France" movement, which was led from London by General Charles de Gaulle.
The war had rather severe consequences for France. The population has decreased by 1.1 million people. The country's dependence on the United States has increased. National liberation wars in the colonies led to the collapse of the French colonial empire.
In 1946, a new constitution (the Fourth Republic) was adopted. In 1949, France entered the bloc.
In 1958, General de Gaulle was elected president of France, the parliamentary constitution of 1946 was abolished and a new one was approved, that is, the Fifth Republic appeared. France left the military organization of NATO (but remained in the political one). France has been a member of the European Economic Community (now the EU) since 1958.
The 18th century is considered to be the century of the French Revolution. The overthrow of the monarchy, the revolutionary movement and vivid examples of terror eclipsed in their cruelty even the bloody events of the October Revolution of 1917. The French prefer to bashfully remain silent and romanticize this period in their own history in every possible way. The French Revolution is hard to overestimate. A vivid example of how the most bloodthirsty and terrible beast, dressed in the robes of Freedom, Equality and Brotherhood, is ready to sink its fangs into anyone, and its name is Revolution.
Prerequisites for the beginning of the revolution: socio-economic and political crisis
Assuming the throne in 1774, he appoints Robert Turgot as comptroller general of finances, but a wide range of reforms proposed by this politician were rejected. The aristocracy strenuously clung to its privileges, and all requisitions with duties fell heavily on the shoulders of the third estate, whose representatives in France were 90%.
In 1778 Turgot succeeded Necker. He abolishes serfdom in royal domains, torture during interrogations, limits the court's expenses, but these measures were only a drop in the ocean. Absolutism prevented the development of capitalist relations that were maturing in society. Therefore, the change of economic formations was only a matter of time. There was a deepening economic crisis, expressed in rising prices in the absence of production growth. Inflation, which hurt the poorest sections of the population, was one of the catalysts that spurred the growth of revolutionary sentiment in society.
The US War of Independence, which inspired hope in the revolutionary-minded French, also showed an excellent example. If we talk briefly about the Great French Revolution (and about the prerequisites that are ripe), then we should also note the political crisis in France. The aristocracy considered itself located between the rock and the anvil - the king and the people. Therefore, she fiercely blocked all innovations, which, in her opinion, threatened liberties and preferences. The king understood that at least something had to be done: France could no longer live in the old way.
Convocation of the Estates General May 5, 1789
All three estates pursued their goals and objectives. The king hoped to avoid the collapse of the economy by reforming the tax system. The aristocracy - to maintain its position, it clearly did not need reforms. The common people, or the third estate, hoped that they would become the platform where their demands would finally be heard. Swan, crayfish and pike...
Fierce disputes and discussions, thanks to the huge support of the people, were successfully resolved in favor of the third estate. Of the 1,200 deputy seats, 610, or the majority, went to representatives of the broad masses of the people. And soon they had a chance to show their political strength. On June 17, in the arena for playing ball, the representatives of the people, taking advantage of the confusion and vacillation among the clergy and aristocracy, announced the creation of the National Assembly, vowing not to disperse until the Constitution was drafted. The clergy and part of the nobles supported them. The Third Estate has shown that it must be reckoned with.
Storming of the Bastille
The beginning of the French Revolution was marked by a landmark event - the storming of the Bastille. The French celebrate this day as a national holiday. As for historians, their opinions are divided: there are skeptics who believe that there was no capture: the garrison surrendered voluntarily, and everything happened because of the frivolity of the crowd. We need to clarify some points right away. There was a capture, and there were victims. Several people tried to lower the bridge, and he crushed these unfortunates. The garrison could resist, they had guns and experience. There were not enough provisions, but history knows examples of heroic defenses of fortresses.
Based on the documents, we have the following: from the Minister of Finance Necker to the deputy commandant of the fortress Pujo, everyone spoke out about the abolition of the Bastille, while expressing the general opinion. The fate of the famous fortress-prison was a foregone conclusion - it would have been demolished anyway. But history does not know the subjunctive mood: on July 14, 1789, the Bastille was taken, and this marked the beginning of the French Revolution.
A constitutional monarchy
The determination of the people of France forced the government to make concessions. The municipalities of the cities were transformed into a commune - an independent revolutionary government. A new state flag was adopted - the famous French tricolor. The National Guard was led by de Lafayette, who became famous in the US War of Independence. The National Assembly began the formation of a new government and the drafting of the Constitution. On August 26, 1789, the "Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen" was adopted - the most important document in the history of the French Revolution. It declared the fundamental rights and freedoms of the new France. Now everyone had the right to freedom of conscience and resistance to oppression. He could openly express his opinion and be protected from attacks on private property. Now everyone was equal before the law and had an equal obligation to taxation. French Revolution was expressed in every line of this progressive document. While most European countries continued to suffer from social inequality generated by the remnants of the Middle Ages.
And although the reforms of 1789-1791. much has changed dramatically, the adoption of a law on the suppression of any uprising was directed against the poor. It was also forbidden to unite in unions and hold strikes. The workers have been deceived again.
On September 3, 1891, a new constitution was adopted. It gave the right to vote only to a limited number of representatives of the middle strata. A new Legislative Assembly was convened, whose members could not be re-elected. All this contributed to the radicalization of the population and the possibility of terror and despotism.
The threat of external invasion and the fall of the monarchy
England was afraid that with the adoption of advanced economic reforms, the influence of France would increase, so all forces were thrown to prepare for the invasion of Austria and Prussia. The patriotic French supported the call to defend the Motherland. The French National Guard advocated the removal of the king's power, the creation of a republic and the choice of a new national convention. The Duke of Brunswick issued a manifesto outlining his intentions: to invade France and destroy the revolution. After they learned about him in Paris, the events of the French Revolution began to develop rapidly. On August 10, the rebels went to the Tuileries and, having defeated the Swiss guards, arrested the king's family. The illustrious persons were placed in the Temple fortress.
War and its impact on the revolution
If we briefly characterize the Great French Revolution, it should be noted that the mood in French society was an explosive mixture of suspicion, fear, distrust and bitterness. Lafayette fled, the border fortress of Longwy surrendered without a fight. Purges, arrests and mass executions began at the initiative of the Jacobins. The majority in the Convention were the Girondins - it was they who organized the defense and even won victories at first. Their plans were extensive: from the liquidation of the Paris Commune to the capture of Holland. By that time, France was at war with almost all of Europe.
Personal disputes and squabbles, a drop in living standards and an economic blockade - under the influence of these factors, the influence of the Girondins began to fade, which the Jacobins took advantage of. The betrayal of General Dumouriez served as an excellent occasion to accuse the government of complicity with the enemies and remove him from power. Danton headed the Committee of Public Safety - the executive power was concentrated in the hands of the Jacobins. The significance of the Great French Revolution and the ideals it stood for lost all meaning. Terror and violence swept France.
Apogee of terror
France was going through one of the most difficult periods in its history. Her army retreated, the southwest, under the influence of the Girondins, revolted. In addition, supporters of the monarchy became more active. The death of Marat shocked Robespierre so much that he craved only blood.
The functions of the government were transferred to the Committee of Public Safety - a wave of terror swept over France. After the adoption of the decree of June 10, 1794, the accused were deprived of the right to defense. The results of the Great French Revolution during the dictatorship of the Jacobins - about 35 thousand dead and over 120 thousand who fled into exile.
The policy of terror so absorbed its creators that the republic, having become hated, perished.
Napoleon Bonaparte
France was bled dry by civil war, and the revolution loosened its grip and strength. Everything has changed: now the Jacobins themselves were persecuted and persecuted. Their club was closed, and the Committee of Public Safety gradually lost power. The Convention, defending the interests of those who enriched themselves during the years of the revolution, on the contrary, strengthened its position, but its position remained precarious. Taking advantage of this, the Jacobins staged a rebellion in May 1795, which, although it was brutally suppressed, accelerated the dissolution of the Convention.
Moderate republicans and Girondins created the Directory. France is mired in corruption, debauchery and a complete decline in morals. One of the most prominent figures in the Directory was Count Barras. He noticed Napoleon Bonaparte and promoted him through the ranks, sending him on military campaigns.
The people finally lost faith in the Directory and its political leaders, which Napoleon took advantage of. On November 9, 1799, the consular regime was proclaimed. All executive power was concentrated in the hands of the first consul, Napoleon Bonaparte. The functions of the other two consuls were only advisory. The revolution is over.
The fruits of the revolution
The results of the Great French Revolution were expressed in a change in economic formations and a change in socio-economic relations. The church and the aristocracy finally lost their former power and influence. France embarked on the economic rails of capitalism and progress. Her people, hardened in battles and hardships, possessed the most powerful combat-ready army of that time. The significance of the French Revolution is great: the ideals of equality and dreams of freedom were formed in the minds of many European peoples. But at the same time there was also a fear of new revolutionary upheavals.
