Zemstvo reform was carried out in 1864. As part of the reform, zemstvos were established in counties and provinces. The zemstvos had executive bodies represented by councils and legislative bodies represented by assemblies. At the head of the zemstvo was the governor, who held an elected office. Thanks to this reform, local self-government appeared in Russia, and the “local” level ceased to depend on the central government.

Judicial reform was also carried out in 1864 and established the modern image of the judiciary. According to the reform, the old courts were abolished, and instead of them there were now world and crown courts, where cases of any class were considered. The principle of publicity and transparency was introduced, the parties competed, and the judges became independent. Plus, there was a jury trial.

Military reform implemented the longest in the period from 1862 to 1874. As part of the reform, military districts appeared, rearmament was carried out, soldiers received military education. And also universal military service was introduced - after 20 years everyone had to serve in the army.

Peasant reform began in 1861 and continued until 1907. This reform implied the transfer of peasants from a dependent position to a temporary one with an obligation to redeem, and the allocation of "allotments". This began the struggle against serfdom.

Conclusion

The great reforms of the 60s and 70s of the 19th century marked an important step in the formation of a right-wing state and civil society in Russia. They created socio-political and legal conditions for modernization, it was on their basis that S.Yu. carried out his reforms at the turn of the 19th - 20th centuries. Witte. However, the reforms were internally contradictory. Thus, the peasant reform condemned the peasants to decades of economic dependence; The Russian judicial charters lacked one of the most important principles of the rule of law - the responsibility of officials before the court. The university reform included an increase in tuition fees, an increase in the rights of ministers and trustees at universities, and the obligation of theology.

In addition, in the course of the implementation of the reforms, they were subjected to adjustment “to the right” and turned out to be incomplete. There were no forces in society capable of putting pressure on the government and bringing the reforms to their logical conclusion - to create an all-Russian representation. Moreover, the process of transformation was interrupted as a result of the counter-reforms of the 1980s and 1990s. This made it difficult to further modernize the country and increased social tension in society.

Yet another option

Zemstvo establishment. After the abolition of serfdom, a number of other transformations were required. By the beginning of the 60s. the former local administration showed its complete failure. The activities of the officials appointed in the capital who led the provinces and districts, and the detachment of the population from making any decisions, brought economic life, health care, and education to extreme disorder. The abolition of serfdom made it possible to involve all segments of the population in solving local problems. At the same time, when establishing new governing bodies, the government could not ignore the moods of the nobles, many of whom were dissatisfied with the abolition of serfdom.

On January 1, 1864, an imperial decree introduced the "Regulations on provincial and district zemstvo institutions", which provided for the creation of elective zemstvos in the counties and provinces. Only men had the right to vote in the elections of these bodies. Voters were divided into three curia (categories): landowners, city voters and elected from peasant societies. Owners of at least 200 acres of land or other real estate in the amount of at least 15 thousand rubles, as well as owners of industrial and commercial enterprises that generate income of at least 6 thousand rubles a year, could be a voter in the landowning curia. The small landowners, uniting, put forward only representatives in the elections.

The voters of the city curia were merchants, owners of enterprises or trading establishments with an annual turnover of at least 6,000 rubles, as well as owners of real estate worth from 600 rubles (in small towns) to 3,600 rubles (in large cities).

Elections but the peasant curia were multi-stage: at first, rural assemblies elected representatives to volost assemblies. Electors were first elected at volost gatherings, who then nominated representatives to county self-government bodies. At district assemblies, representatives from the peasants were elected to the provincial self-government bodies.

Zemstvo institutions were divided into administrative and executive. Administrative bodies - zemstvo assemblies - consisted of vowels of all classes. Both in the counties and in the provinces, vowels were elected for a period of three years. Zemstvo assemblies elected executive bodies - zemstvo councils, which also worked for three years. The range of issues that were resolved by zemstvo institutions was limited to local affairs: the construction and maintenance of schools, hospitals, the development of local trade and industry, etc. The legitimacy of their activities was monitored by the governor. The material basis for the existence of zemstvos was a special tax, which was imposed on real estate: land, houses, factories and trade establishments.

The most energetic, democratically minded intelligentsia grouped around the zemstvos. The new self-government bodies raised the level of education and public health, improved the road network and expanded agronomic assistance to the peasants on a scale that the state power was incapable of. Despite the fact that representatives of the nobility prevailed in the zemstvos, their activities were aimed at improving the situation of the broad masses of the people.

Zemstvo reform was not carried out in the Arkhangelsk, Astrakhan and Orenburg provinces, in Siberia, in Central Asia - where there was no noble land ownership or was insignificant. Poland, Lithuania, Belarus, Right-Bank Ukraine, and the Caucasus did not receive local governments, since there were few Russians among the landowners.

self-government in cities. In 1870, following the example of the Zemstvo, a city reform was carried out. It introduced all-estate self-government bodies - city dumas, elected for four years. Vowels of the Dumas elected for the same term permanent executive bodies - city councils, as well as the mayor, who was the head of both the thought and the council.

The right to choose new governing bodies was enjoyed by men who had reached the age of 25 and paid city taxes. All voters, in accordance with the amount of fees paid in favor of the city, were divided into three curia. The first was a small group of the largest owners of real estate, industrial and commercial enterprises, who paid 1/3 of all taxes to the city treasury. The second curia included smaller taxpayers contributing another 1/3 of the city fees. The third curia consisted of all other taxpayers. At the same time, each of them elected an equal number of vowels to the city duma, which ensured the predominance of large owners in it.

The activity of city self-government was controlled by the state. The mayor was approved by the governor or the minister of the interior. The same officials could impose a ban on any decision of the city duma. To control the activities of city self-government in each province, a special body was created - the provincial presence for city affairs.

City self-government bodies appeared in 1870, first in 509 Russian cities. In 1874, the reform was introduced in the cities of Transcaucasia, in 1875 - in Lithuania, Belarus and Right-Bank Ukraine, in 1877 - in the Baltic states. It did not apply to the cities of Central Asia, Poland and Finland. For all the limitations, the urban reform of the emancipation of Russian society, like the Zemstvo one, contributed to the involvement of broad sections of the population in solving management issues. This served as a prerequisite for the formation of civil society and the rule of law in Russia.

Judicial reform. The most consistent transformation of Alexander II was the judicial reform carried out in November 1864. In accordance with it, the new court was built on the principles of bourgeois law: the equality of all classes before the law; publicity of the court"; the independence of judges; competitiveness of prosecution and defense; irremovability of judges and investigators; the election of certain judicial bodies.

According to the new judicial statutes, two systems of courts were created - world and general. The magistrates' courts heard petty criminal and civil cases. They were created in cities and counties. Justices of the peace administered justice alone. They were elected by zemstvo assemblies and city councils. High educational and property qualifications were established for judges. At the same time, they received quite high wages - from 2200 to 9 thousand rubles a year.

The system of general courts included district courts and judicial chambers. Members of the district court were appointed by the emperor on the proposal of the Minister of Justice and considered criminal and complex civil cases. Consideration of criminal cases took place with the participation of twelve jurors. The juror could be a citizen of Russia aged 25 to 70 years old with an impeccable reputation, living in the area for at least two years and owning real estate in the amount of 2 thousand rubles. Jury lists were approved by the governor. Appeals against the District Court's decision were made to the Trial Chamber. Moreover, an appeal against the verdict was allowed. The Judicial Chamber also considered cases of malfeasance of officials. Such cases were equated with state crimes and were heard with the participation of class representatives. The highest court was the Senate. The reform established the publicity of trials. They were held openly, in the presence of the public; newspapers printed reports on trials of public interest. The competitiveness of the parties was ensured by the presence at the trial of the prosecutor - the representative of the prosecution and the lawyer defending the interests of the accused. In Russian society, there was an extraordinary interest in advocacy. Outstanding lawyers F. N. Plevako, A. I. Urusov, V. D. Spasovich, K. K. Arseniev, who laid the foundations of the Russian school of lawyer-orators, became famous in this field. The new judicial system retained a number of vestiges of estates. These included volost courts for peasants, special courts for the clergy, military and senior officials. In some national areas, the implementation of judicial reform dragged on for decades. In the so-called Western Territory (Vilna, Vitebsk, Volyn, Grodno, Kyiv, Kovno, Minsk, Mogilev and Podolsk provinces), it began only in 1872 with the creation of magistrates' courts. Justices of the peace were not elected, but appointed for three years. District courts began to be created only in 1877. At the same time, Catholics were forbidden to hold judicial office. In the Baltics, the reform began to be implemented only in 1889.

Only at the end of the XIX century. judicial reform was carried out in the Arkhangelsk province and Siberia (in 1896), as well as in Central Asia and Kazakhstan (in 1898). Here, too, the appointment of magistrates took place, who simultaneously performed the functions of investigators, the jury trial was not introduced.

military reforms. Liberal transformations in society, the desire of the government to overcome backwardness in the military field, as well as to reduce military spending, necessitated fundamental reforms in the army. They were conducted under the leadership of Minister of War D. A. Milyutin. In 1863-1864. reform of military educational institutions began. General education was separated from special education: future officers received general education in military gymnasiums, and professional education in military schools. The children of the nobility studied mainly in these educational institutions. For those who did not have a secondary education, cadet schools were created, where representatives of all classes were admitted. In 1868, military progymnasiums were created to replenish the cadet schools.

In 1867 the Military Law Academy was opened, in 1877 the Naval Academy. Instead of recruitment sets, all-class military service was introduced. According to the charter approved on January 1, 1874, persons of all classes were subject to conscription from the age of 20 (later - from the age of 21). The total service life for the ground forces was set at 15 years, of which 6 years - active service, 9 years - in reserve. In the fleet - 10 years: 7 - valid, 3 - in reserve. For persons who received an education, the period of active service was reduced from 4 years (for those who graduated from elementary schools) to 6 months (for those who received higher education).

The only sons and the only breadwinners of the family were released from service, as well as those recruits whose older brother was serving or had already served a term of active service. Those exempted from conscription were enlisted in the militia, which was formed only during the war. Clerics of all faiths, representatives of some religious sects and organizations, the peoples of the North, Central Asia, part of the inhabitants of the Caucasus and Siberia were not subject to conscription. Corporal punishment was abolished in the army, punishment with rods was retained only for fines), food was improved, barracks were re-equipped, and literacy was introduced for soldiers. There was a rearmament of the army and navy: smooth-bore weapons were replaced by rifled ones, the replacement of cast-iron and bronze guns with steel ones began; The rapid-fire rifles of the American inventor Berdan were adopted for service. The system of combat training has changed. A number of new charters, manuals, manuals were issued, which set the task of teaching soldiers only what was needed in the war, significantly reducing the time for drill training.

As a result of the reforms, Russia received a massive army that met the requirements of the times. The combat readiness of the troops has significantly increased. The transition to universal military service was a serious blow to the class organization of society.

Reforms in the field of education. The education system has also undergone a significant restructuring. In June 1864, the “Regulations on Primary Public Schools” were approved, according to which such educational institutions could be opened by public institutions and private individuals. This led to the creation of various types of primary schools - state, zemstvo, parochial, Sunday, etc. The term of study in them did not exceed, as a rule, three years.

Since November 1864, gymnasiums have become the main type of educational institution. They were divided into classical and real. In the classical, a large place was given to the ancient languages ​​- Latin and Greek. The term of study in them was at first seven years, and from 1871 - eight years. Graduates of classical gymnasiums had the opportunity to enter universities. Six-year real gymnasiums were called upon to prepare "for occupations in various branches of industry and trade."

The main attention was paid to the study of mathematics, natural science, technical subjects. Access to universities for graduates of real gymnasiums was closed, they continued their studies at technical institutes. The foundation was laid for women's secondary education - women's gymnasiums appeared. But the amount of knowledge given in them was inferior to what was taught in the men's gymnasiums. The gymnasium accepted children "of all classes, without distinction of rank and religion", however, at the same time, high tuition fees were set. In June 1864, a new charter for the universities was approved, restoring the autonomy of these educational institutions. The direct management of the university was entrusted to the council of professors, who elected the rector and deans, approved curricula, and resolved financial and personnel issues. Women's higher education began to develop. Since gymnasium graduates did not have the right to enter universities, higher women's courses were opened for them in Moscow, St. Petersburg, Kazan, and Kyiv. Women began to be admitted to universities, but as volunteers.

Orthodox Church in the period of reforms. Liberal reforms also affected the Orthodox Church. First of all, the government tried to improve the financial situation of the clergy. In 1862, a Special Presence was created to find ways to improve the life of the clergy, which included members of the Synod and senior officials of the state. Public forces were also involved in solving this problem. In 1864, parish guardianships arose, consisting of parishioners, who not only focused on the study of mathematics, natural science, and technical subjects. Access to universities for graduates of real gymnasiums was closed, they continued their studies at technical institutes.

The foundation was laid for women's secondary education - women's gymnasiums appeared. But the amount of knowledge given in them was inferior to what was taught in the men's gymnasiums. The gymnasium accepted children "of all classes, without distinction of rank and religion", however, at the same time, high tuition fees were set.

In June 1864, a new charter for the universities was approved, restoring the autonomy of these educational institutions. The direct management of the university was entrusted to the council of professors, who elected the rector and deans, approved curricula, and resolved financial and personnel issues. Women's higher education began to develop. Since gymnasium graduates did not have the right to enter universities, higher women's courses were opened for them in Moscow, St. Petersburg, Kazan, and Kyiv. Women began to be admitted to universities, but as volunteers.

Orthodox Church in the period of reforms. Liberal reforms also affected the Orthodox Church. First of all, the government tried to improve the financial situation of the clergy. In 1862, a Special Presence was created to find ways to improve the life of the clergy, which included members of the Synod and senior officials of the state. Public forces were also involved in solving this problem. In 1864, parish guardianships arose, consisting of parishioners, who not only managed the affairs of the parish, but also had to help improve the financial situation of clergy. In 1869-79. incomes of parish priests increased significantly due to the abolition of small parishes and the establishment of an annual salary, which ranged from 240 to 400 rubles. Old-age pensions were introduced for the clergy.

The liberal spirit of the reforms carried out in the field of education also touched church educational institutions. In 1863, graduates of theological seminaries received the right to enter universities. In 1864 the children of the clergy were allowed to enroll in gymnasiums, and in 1866 in military schools. In 1867, the Synod passed resolutions on the abolition of the heredity of parishes and on the right to enter seminaries for all Orthodox without exception. These measures destroyed class partitions and contributed to the democratic renewal of the clergy. At the same time, they led to the departure from this environment of many young, gifted people who joined the ranks of the intelligentsia. Under Alexander II, the legal recognition of the Old Believers took place: they were allowed to register their marriages and baptisms in civil institutions; they could now hold certain public positions and freely travel abroad. At the same time, in all official documents, adherents of the Old Believers were still called schismatics, they were forbidden to hold public office.

Conclusion: During the reign of Alexander II in Russia, liberal reforms were carried out that affected all aspects of public life. Thanks to the reforms, significant segments of the population received the initial skills of management and public work. The reforms laid down traditions, albeit very timid ones, of civil society and the rule of law. At the same time, they retained the estate advantages of the nobles, and also had restrictions for the national regions of the country, where the free popular will determines not only the law, but also the personality of the rulers, in such a country political assassination as a means of struggle is a manifestation of the same spirit of despotism, the destruction of which in We set Russia as our task. The despotism of the individual and the despotism of the party are equally reprehensible, and violence is justified only when it is directed against violence.” Comment on this document.

The emancipation of the peasants in 1861 and the subsequent reforms of the 1960s and 1970s became a turning point in Russian history. This period was called the era of "great reforms" by liberal figures. Their consequence was the creation of the necessary conditions for the development of capitalism in Russia, which allowed it to follow the all-European path.

The pace of economic development has sharply increased in the country, and the transition to a market economy has begun. Under the influence of these processes, new sections of the population were formed - the industrial bourgeoisie and the proletariat. Peasant and landlord farms were increasingly involved in commodity-money relations.

The appearance of zemstvos, city self-government, democratic transformations in the judicial and educational systems testified to the steady, although not so fast, movement of Russia towards the foundations of civil society and the rule of law.

However, almost all reforms were inconsistent and incomplete. They retained the estate advantages of the nobility and state control over society. On the national outskirts of the reforms were implemented in an incomplete manner. The principle of the autocratic power of the monarch remained unchanged.

The foreign policy of the government of Alexander II was active in almost all main areas. Through diplomatic and military means, the Russian state succeeded in solving the foreign policy tasks facing it and restoring its position as a great power. At the expense of the Central Asian territories, the boundaries of the empire expanded.

The era of "great reforms" has become a time of transformation of social movements into a force capable of influencing power or resisting it. Fluctuations in the government's course and the inconsistency of the reforms led to an increase in radicalism in the country. The revolutionary organizations embarked on the path of terror, striving to raise the peasants to the revolution through the assassination of the tsar and high officials.

Liberal reforms 60-70 years. 19th century

Goals:

To acquaint students with the reforms of the 60-70s, to show their liberal nature, on the one hand, and limitations, on the other

Tasks:

Tutorials:

Continue work on the disclosure of historical terms and concepts, the formation of chronological knowledge.

Continue work on the formation of special and general educational skills, such as working with a historical document, notebook, didactic map.

Developing:

Develop skills to build, define concepts, analyze, analyze and solve problems

the development of schoolchildren's abilities to establish relationships between historical phenomena;

educators

Raising patriotism for their homeland,

education of work culture

Lesson plan:

Checking homework.

The great chain broke

Broke up and hit

One end on the master,

others - for a man

What event are we talking about? (peasant reform of 1861)

What are cuts?

What are redemption payments?

What is the historical significance of the peasant reform in your opinion?

Learning new material.

The abolition of serfdom was followed by other reforms in the field of local self-government, courts, education, censorship, and military affairs, which are commonly called liberal. In the lesson, we will consider three reforms: Zemstvo, judicial reform and military reform. Let us define their main content.

Work with documents by row (5 minutes)

1 row zemstvo reform

2 row - judicial

3rd row - military

In the course of work, students fill out the table “Reforms of the 60-70s. XIX century in Russia"

Judicial

Urban

Discussion: We listen to the answers of the students, then we discuss a number of questions:

Land reform.

In 1864, the zemstvo reform was carried out, which established local self-government bodies in the country. The main contribution to its development was made by N. A. Milyutin and P. A. Valuev

What "concerns" were assigned to the zemstvos? To what extent were self-government bodies independent in their activities?

In the zemstvo school, the emphasis was mainly on the content side of education, on the assimilation by students of a certain amount of knowledge. The parochial school put educational tasks at the forefront, teaching the basics of Orthodoxy and the Russian tradition.

What school do you think the peasant will send his son to and to which of them he will donate money? Why?

In 1865, in 29 provinces, the provincial zemstvo assemblies included 74.2% - nobles and officials, 10.6% - peasants, 10.9% - merchants, 4.3% - other estates. Among the district councilors, 41.7% were represented - nobles and officials, 388.4% - peasants, 10.4% - merchants, 9.5% - other class groups of the population.

Lenin called the zemstvos "the fifth wheel in the cart", but at the same time he recognized that "the zemstvos are a piece of the constitution" confirm that the zemstvos were a representative form of government.

To what extent were the interests of various segments of the population reflected in them?

In 1870, on the model of the zemstvo reform, the reform of urban self-government was carried out, the content of which, you will get to know at home on your own from a textbook.

Judicial reform.

In 1864, another important reform was carried out - the judicial one.

According to one of the active participants in the judicial reform, S. I. Zarudny, “under serfdom, in essence, there was no need for a fair trial. Only the landowners were real judges ... The time has come when for Russia, just like for any decent state, there was an urgent need for a quick and fair court ”

What were the main principles proclaimed by the reform of 1864? what's new in the Russian judicial system?

Why is the question of jurors relevant today?

Judicial reform is rightfully considered the most consistent among the reforms of the 60-70s. However, during its implementation, vestiges of estates were preserved, in particular, the volost court for peasants and corporal punishment for them were preserved.

military reform.

In the middle of the 60s. Minister of War D. A. Milyutin abolished corporal punishment in the army. In the course of the reform of military educational institutions, military gymnasiums and cadet schools were created. The system of higher military education expanded. Finally, in 1874, a new military charter was adopted. Contemporaries called this event February 19, 1861 in the Russian army.

What are the main provisions of the charter, why did contemporaries give such an assessment to the named document?

However, in 1901, Lenin wrote: “In essence, we did not have, and do not have, universal military service, because the privileges of noble birth and wealth create a lot of exceptions.”

Explain what caused such judgments? Argument your opinion.

Explain the following figures: zemstvos were introduced only in 34 provinces of the empire, city dumas - in 509 cities, judicial reform was carried out only in 44 provinces. Why?

Is it fair to call the reforms of the 60-70s. "great"?

How did these transformations affect the daily life of Russian society? How can you explain the words of the historian Klyuchevsky that the reforms, although slow, were sufficiently prepared for implementation, but the minds were less prepared for perception?

Liberal reforms of the 60-70s

In the early 1960s, the need forthe possibility of introducing local self-government, about whichrum was declared by the liberal public: the government could not, on its own, raise theprovincial economy. 1st of January 1864 was accepted law on local government, establishedfor the management of economic affairs: construction maintenance and maintenance of local roads, schools, hospitals prostrate, almshouses, etc.

The administrative bodies of the zemstvos were gu-Bernese and county land meetings, performtelny - provincial and district land administrations. For the election of deputies - vowels- the county zemstvo assembly convened 3 electoral congresses: large landowners, urbanowners and peasants. District zemstvosassembly elected the vowels of the provincial zemstvoth meeting. Zemstvo assemblies were dominated noble landowners.

With the advent of the Zemstvo, the balance of power in the provinces began to change: a “third element” arose, ascalled zemstvo doctors, teachers, agronomists,tists. Zemstvos slowly but surely raisedlocal economy, improved the life of the village,education and health care. Soon the earthstva ceased to be purely economic organizationsnizations; associated with them is the appearance of the zemstvo liberalism, who dreamed of all-Russian elections oforderly authority.

In 1870 was held city ​​government reform. Elections to the Duma were held by three election congresses: small, medium and largeny taxpayers. (Workers don't pay taxestili did not participate in the elections.) city ​​head and council elected by the Duma. Bodies of the cityself-governments successfully engaged in organizingher urban life, urban development, but in generalthey participated weakly in the movement.

In 1864, at the urging of the public, carried out judicial reform. Court in Russiaclassless, vowel, competitive, independentsim from the administration. central linkthe new judicial system became district Court. The prosecution was supported by the prosecutor, the interests ofdefendant defended defendant. Jury givers, 12 people, after listening to the court debate, rendered a verdict ("guilty", "not guilty", "vi-new, but deserving of indulgence"). Based onvaniya verdict, the court delivered a sentence. Such mouth-court courtship provided the greatest guaranteesfrom judicial errors.

Handling petty criminal and civil cases was engaged world judge, elected Zemstvo so- raniy or city council for 3 years. Ruler- the government could not, by its power, remove from a justice of the peace or judges of the district court.

Judicial reform was one of the mostsubsequent transformations of the 60-70s, but still it remained unfinished: it was notreformed the Senate, to parse small con-conflicts in the peasant environment remained classvolost court, which had the right to award to those forest punishments (until 1904).

A number of important military reforms held by D. A. Mi-Lutin, who was appointed Minister of War in 1861. The army was re-equipped according to modern requirements.novations. At the final stage, it shouldthere will be a transition, from recruitment to universalIndian duty. The conservative part of the generals for a number of years blocked this on-making; a turning point in the course of affairs was introduced by the Franco-Prussian the war of 1870-1871: contemporaries were struck by the speed of the mobilization of the Prussian army. On January 1, 1874, a law was passed abolishing the river rutchinu and distributing military obligations for men of all classes who have reached the age of 20 and fit for health. Service life benefitsbecome an additional incentive toeducation. The reform accelerated the breakdown of the class-th building; the abolition of recruitment increased the popularity Alexander II among the peasantry.

Reforms 60-70s, eliminating a number of experiences kov, creating modern self-government bodiesand ships, contributed to the development of the country, growthcivic consciousness of the population. These were only the first steps: the upper levels of power were not touched by the reforms.

Emperor Alexander II (nicknamed the Liberator) carried out a number of liberal reforms in Russia. The reason for their was the backwardness of the state system, its inflexibility and injustice. The Russian economy and the authority of the state suffered from it. Orders and instructions from the authorities practically did not reach their destinations.

The aim of the reforms there was also a release of tension in society, the indignation that was caused by the too tough policy of the state and those in power. So, before you is a table with a list of reforms.

Abolition of serfdom

1. Landlords are deprived of the right to own peasants. Now you can not sell, buy peasants, separate their families, prevent them from leaving the village, and so on.

2. The peasants were obliged to buy their land plots from the landlords (at high prices) or rented it.

3. For renting land from a landowner, a peasant was obliged to serve a corvée or bring quitrent, but this corvee was now limited.

4. A peasant who used a leased plot of land from a landowner did not have the right to leave the village for 9 years.

Significance of the peasant reform did not appear immediately. Although formally people became free, the landowners continued to treat them like serfs for a long time, punished them with rods, and so on. The peasants did not receive land. Nevertheless, the reform was the first step in overcoming slavery and violence against the person.

Judicial reform

An elective position of justice of the peace is introduced. From now on, he is elected by the representatives of the population, and not appointed "from above".

The court becomes legally independent of the administrative authorities.

The court becomes public, that is, it is obliged to give the population access to its decisions and processes.

Established District Jury Court.

The Importance of Judicial Reform was the protection of the judiciary from the arbitrariness of the authorities and the possessors, the protection of the honesty of justice.

Zemstvo reform

The establishment of the zemstvo as a body of power to which the local population elected representatives.

Peasants could also participate in the Zemstvo elections.

The value of Zemstvo reform was the strengthening of local self-government and the participation of citizens of all classes in the life of society.

urban reform

City self-government bodies have been established, whose members are elected by city residents.

They receive the name of city councils and city dumas.

Reduced local taxes.

The police have been placed under the control of the central government.

The Importance of Urban Reform was the strengthening of local self-government and at the same time limiting the arbitrariness of local authorities.

Education reform

1. It is allowed to elect deans and rectors in universities.

2. The first university for women was opened.

3. Real schools were founded, where the emphasis was on teaching technical and natural sciences.

The Importance of Education Reform was the improvement of technical and women's education in the country.

Military reform

1. Reduced service life from 25 years to 7 years.

2. Limitation of the term of military service to 7 years.

3. Now not only recruits are called for military service (previously these were the poorest segments of the population, forcibly driven), but also representatives of all classes. Including the nobles.

4. Previously bloated, incapacitated army reduced by almost half.

5. A number of military schools have been set up to train officers.

6. Corporal punishment has been abolished, except for whipping in special cases.

Importance of military reform very large. A modern combat-ready army has been created that does not consume many resources. The military became motivated to serve (previously, recruiting was considered a curse, it completely broke the life of a conscript).