According to the generally accepted point of view, in the middle of the XI - the beginning of the XII centuries. The Old Russian state is entering a new stage in its history - the era of political fragmentation. The beginning of this process is attributed to the moment of the death of Yaroslav the Wise (1054), when Russia was practically divided between his three sons - Izyaslav, Svyatoslav and Vsevolod. Yaroslav's grandson Vladimir Monomakh (1113-1125) managed to unite the Russian lands again. This was facilitated, in particular, by his success in the fight against the Polovtsians. After the death of Monomakh, the Kyiv throne passed to his son Mstislav (1125-1132). With great difficulty he maintains the unity of the Russian lands, but with his death, Kievan Rus finally disintegrated into independent principalities. In the middle of the XII century. there were 15 of them, at the beginning of the XIII century. - about 50, and in the XIV century. the number of great and specific principalities reached 250.

Causes of feudal fragmentation

The weakening of the central government, that is, the power of the Kiev prince.

Lack of strong economic ties between the lands; the predominance of subsistence farming; the growth of cities, which turned into centers of economic and political development.

The emergence and strengthening "on the ground" of their own princely dynasties, which was both a cause and a consequence of the economic, political and military independence of the lands from the center.

The decline in the value of the trade route "from the Varangians to the Greeks", which performed a unifying function at the stage of formation of the Old Russian state.

The most significant state formations into which Kievan Rus broke up were Vladimir-Suzdal, Galicia-Volyn principalities and Novgorod land.

North-Eastern Russia (Vladimir-Suzdal Principality) became independent during the reign of Vladimir Monomakh's son - Yuri Dolgoruky (1132-1157) - he received a nickname for his desire to expand the territory of the principality. The first mention of Moscow dates back to the time of his reign (1147).

North-Eastern Russia had a favorable geographical position:

It was removed from the steppe regions, impenetrable forests served as a reliable protection against nomads, which contributed to the influx of population;

Control over the Volga trade route provided opportunities for economic development.

The economic and political rise of North-Eastern Russia falls on the reign of Andrei Bogolyubsky (1157-1174). He built up the new capital of the principality - Vladimir - with extraordinary splendor. Andrei is known in Russia as a brave, successful warrior and autocratic statesman. He waged a successful war with the Volga-Kama Bulgaria (1164), and in honor of the victory, on his orders, not far from Bogolyubov, the Church of the Intercession of the Virgin was erected on the river. Nerl.

After the death of Andrei, the struggle for the princely table took on an internecine character. The winner was the younger brother of Andrei Bogolyubsky Vsevolod, nicknamed the Big Nest (1177-1212).

He continued his brother's foreign policy: he successfully fought with the Volga-Kama Bulgaria, made several successful campaigns in the Ryazan principality and achieved his submission to his will. Vsevolod was the most powerful of the princes of the Russian land. However, the centrifugal forces were irresistible. After his death (1212), the unified principality broke up into seven appanages: Vladimir, Pereyaslav, Yaroslavl, Rostov, Uglitsky, Yuriev and Murom.

Galicia-Volyn land was located in the extreme south-west of Russia. Thanks to the exceptionally fertile chernozem soil, agriculture successfully developed here, and numerous forestry and fishing industries, salt production, and handicrafts were also developed. Soil fertility contributed to the formation of an influential boyars here, opposing themselves to the princes. A strong influence on the development of Southwestern Russia was exerted by the Polish and Hungarian states, whose rulers actively interfered in the internal affairs of the principality.

Novgorod land gained independence from Kyiv in the 30s. 12th century The harsh climate and infertile soils led to the fact that agriculture was poorly developed here (Novgorod did not provide itself with bread). The main source of income was fishing activities: hunting, fishing, salt production. The rise of Novgorod was facilitated by a favorable geographical position - trade routes connecting Western Europe with Russia crossed here, and remoteness from nomads - Novgorod was never subjected to their raids.

In Novgorod, a special socio-political structure was being formed - the boyar republic - a specific form of government in which the main issues of state life were decided at a meeting of the owners of city estates - veche. It was the veche that adopted laws, approved treaties, considered issues of war and peace, elected the city authorities: the posadnik - the head of the judicial and executive authorities, the thousandth, who controlled the tax system, the archbishop - the church hierarch. The prince in Novgorod performed the functions of a military leader. He was invited by the veche, he took an oath of allegiance to Novgorod traditions, after which an agreement was concluded with him. For more than two hundred years, about 40 people from three princely branches - Suzdal, Smolensk, Chernigov - have been on the throne of Novgorod.

The Novgorod Republic had a class character, the leading role in it was played by the boyars. Unlike the boyars of other lands of Russia, it was caste. It was impossible to become a Novgorod boyar, they could only be born.

Novgorod was the most important trading center of Russia and the largest city in Europe.

Consequences of feudal fragmentation Positive:

Development of economic life;

The flourishing of cities;

The rise of culture.

Negative:

strife;

Conflicts between boyars and princes;

Fragmentation of principalities between heirs;

Weakening of the defense capability and political unity of the country.

The political fragmentation of Kievan Rus did not lead to cultural disunity. A single language, a common religious consciousness and the unity of the church organization slowed down the processes of isolation and created the prerequisites for the future reunification of the Russian principalities. At the end of the XII - the first half of the XIII centuries. North-Western Russia had to face danger from the west - with the onset of German crusader knights, as well as Swedish and Danish feudal lords.

Ever since the end of the 11th century. Crusades to the East begin at the call of the Pope. For their organization, knightly orders are created (an order is an organization of knights with specific goals). In 1202, in order to conquer the lands of Estonians and Latvians, the Order of the Sword Bearers was created, which pursued an aggressive policy under the slogan of Christianization. In 1219, the Danish knights captured part of the Baltic coast, founding the city of Revel (Tallinn) on the site of the Estonian settlement. In 1226, the knights of the Teutonic Order, founded in Jerusalem, arrived to conquer the lands of Lithuania and Russia. In 1237, the swordsmen united with the Teutons, forming a branch of the Teutonic Order - the Livonian Order. Having subjugated the Finnish tribes, the Swedes sought to subjugate the Novgorod lands as well.

At the end of the 30s. It became known that the Swedish knights, led by the son-in-law of King Erik Erikson Jarl (noble title) Birger, were preparing for a campaign against Russia. The goal of the Swedish invasion was to capture the mouth of the Neva River and the city of Ladoga, which made it possible to capture the most important section of the route "from the Varangians to the Greeks", which was under the control of Novgorod the Great.

Alexander, the son of Yaroslav Vsevolodovich, then reigned in Novgorod. In 1240, when the aggression of the Swedish feudal lords against Novgorod began, he was not yet 20 years old. He participated in the campaigns of his father, was well read and had an idea about war and the art of war. But he didn't have much personal experience.

In 1239, Alexander began preparations to repel the Swedish aggression, fortified the border, ordered to “cut down” the city on the Shelon River, established an alliance with the Finno-Ugric population of the Izhora land and its elder Pelgusius. Pelgusius in 1240 gave notice of the beginning of the Swedish invasion. Having received the news of the appearance of the Swedes, Alexander Yaroslavich, without waiting for the approach of all his forces, moved down the Volkhov River and, before the Swedes, went to Ladoga, where the squad of Ladoga joined him; by this time, the Swedes with their allies (Norwegians and Finns) had reached the mouth of the Izhora River. On July 15, 1240, the Battle of the Neva took place. Taking advantage of the fog, the Russians unexpectedly attacked the Swedish camp. Russian soldiers broke into the Swedish ships along the bridges and destroyed them. In battle, Alexander met with Birger himself and inflicted a severe wound on him. The battle ended with a complete victory for the Russians. Birger himself barely escaped. After winning this battle, Alexander received the nickname Nevsky.

The defeat of the Swedes on the Neva did not completely eliminate the danger hanging over Russia. Already in the early autumn of 1240, the Livonian knights invaded the Novgorod possessions and occupied the city of Izborsk. Soon his fate was shared by Pskov. The German feudal lords managed to capture it thanks to the betrayal of the boyars. In the same autumn of 1240, the Livonians captured the southern approaches to Novgorod, invaded the lands adjacent to the Gulf of Finland and created the Koporye fortress here, where they left their garrison. It was an important foothold that allowed control of the Novgorod trade routes along the Neva, to plan further advance to the East. After that, the Livonian aggressors invaded the very center of the Novgorod possessions, captured the Novgorod suburb of Tesovo. In their raids, they approached Novgorod for 30 kilometers. Alexander at that time, due to disagreements with the veche, was in the Vladimir land. Novgorodians again invited him to the princely throne.

In 1241, Alexander Nevsky took the stronghold of the Crusaders Koporye and destroyed the fortress there. In the winter of 1242, Alexander went on a campaign to Pskov and with a sudden blow knocked out the crusaders from the city, after which he set off with his troops to Lake Peipus.

On April 5, 1242, on the ice of Lake Peipsi, which had already melted, a famous battle took place, which went down in history under the name Battle on the Ice. The German regiments lined up in a traditional wedge, "pig", where the cavalry was located on the flanks, and the infantry was in the center. Alexander deployed his main forces on the flanks, and in the center he placed worse armed and trained infantry. The knights crushed the center of the Russian troops, but as a result they were surrounded. 400 knights were destroyed and 50 were taken prisoner. Part of the Livonians drowned in the lake. Those who escaped from the encirclement were pursued by the Russian cavalry, completing their rout.

The victory on Lake Peipsi led to the fact that the crusader offensive was suspended. The Livonian knights were forced to send an embassy to Novgorod, abandoning all their seizures, and concluded a peace treaty in 1243. The western borders of Russia, established after the Battle of the Ice, held out for centuries. The battle on the ice also went down in history as a remarkable example of military tactics and strategy. Skillful formation of a battle order, a clear organization of the interaction of its individual parts, especially infantry and cavalry, constant reconnaissance and taking into account the weaknesses of the enemy in organizing battles, the right choice of place and time, good organization of tactical pursuit, the destruction of most of the superior enemy - all this determined the Russian military art as the foremost in the world.

The Swedes came first. In July 1240, the Swedish fleet entered the Neva with an army of crusaders under the command of Jarl (Duke) Birger, the son-in-law of the king and the de facto ruler of the country. Having passed the Neva to the mouth of the Izhora, the knightly cavalry landed on the shore. The immediate goal of the Swedes was the capture of Staraya Ladoga with a subsequent attack on Novgorod.
Novgorod prince Alexander Yaroslavich, having received the news of the appearance of the Swedish fleet at the mouth of the Neva, quickly moved with his small squad and the few Novgorodians who had time to join him to the place of landing of the Swedes. The calculation of the prince on the success of a sudden blow was fully justified. July 15, 1240, secretly approaching the Swedish camp, Alexander's cavalry attacked the center of the Swedish army, while the foot army, led by the Novgorodian Misha, hit the flank, cutting off the knights' retreat to the ships. A short fast-paced battle ended with the almost complete destruction of the knights who landed on the shore, who could not be supported by the infantry remaining on the ships. Birger, who was seriously wounded in battle by a spear in the face from Alexander, with the miserable remnants of his army, ingloriously sailed to Sweden.

The victory on the Neva, for which Alexander Yaroslavich was nicknamed "Nevsky" by the people, stopped the Swedish aggression to the East for a long time, retained Russia's access to the Baltic Sea, which was so necessary for her economic, political and cultural ties with the countries of Western Europe.

In the summer of 1240, the Livonian knights, supported by Danish feudal lords and crusader adventurers from northern German cities and lands, invaded the Pskov land. The knights “exiled” captured Izborsk, and then, thanks to the betrayal of the mayor Tverdila and part of the Pskov boyars, they captured Pskov. Novgorod boyars did nothing to help Pskov. Moreover, fearing the growing popularity of Alexander Nevsky and the strengthening of his power in Novgorod, the boyars forced him to leave the city shortly after the battle on the Neva and go to his ancestral Pereyaslavl-Zalessky. In the meantime, separate detachments of crusaders appeared near Novgorod, to which residents fled from the Pskov and Novgorod volosts ravaged by the Germans. Further delay in organizing a rebuff threatened not only Novgorod, but also the independence of the entire North-Western Russia. Under pressure from ordinary Novgorodians, the boyars were forced to ask Alexander Nevsky to return to Novgorod and lead the fight against the Order. In 1241, the prince arrived in the city, and soon the newly formed Vladimir regiments sent to help him by the Grand Duke Yaroslav Vsevolodich came there.
With his swiftness in actions, Alexander with a sudden blow knocked out the Germans from Koporye, which they captured, cleared the Votskaya land from them, and then, after conducting a short demonstrative raid into northern Estland, unexpectedly for the enemy, made a quick transition to the south, freeing Pskov and Izborsk. After that, he transferred military operations to the lands of the Estonians, captured by the Order.

Having received news from intelligence that all the forces of the Order were moving against him, Alexander retreated with his regiments to the eastern
shore of Lake Peipus, where he took up a combat position at the Voronye Stone near the mouth of the Zhelcha River. Having placed the regiments under the steep banks on the ice of the lake, the prince ruled out the possibility of reconnaissance by the enemy of the numbers and battle formations of the Russian regiments and, depriving him of freedom of maneuver, imposed his battle plan on him. Taking into account the usual formation for knightly troops in the form of a quadrangle with a trapezoidal wedge, the tip of which was a knightly cavalry clad in heavy armor (whose task was to break through and dismember the ranks of the enemy), Alexander abandoned the traditional formation of Russian regiments in one line. He built shelves in the form of a triangle, with a tip resting on the shore. Alexander placed the main forces on the flanks that made up the sides of this triangle. By choosing a combat position and building regiments for battle, Alexander Nevsky again showed himself to be a skilled commander, about whom the Russian chronicler proudly wrote: “We won’t run everywhere, but we won’t win at all.”

On April 5, 1242, one of the bloodiest battles of the Middle Ages took place on the ice of Lake Peipus, which went down in history as the “Battle on the Ice”. As Alexander Nevsky expected, the knightly armored wedge, having broken through the center of the Russian army, was drawn into the depths of its battle formations, where it got stuck. Then, at the base of this wedge, a powerful blow from the Russian regiments from the flanks followed, crushing and overturning the entire formation of the crusader militia. After a hot battle, the knights faltered, and then turned into a stampede. Their persecution turned into a massacre: “And the chase is chasing, like in the air and don’t beat them, comfort them and bish them for 7 miles on the ice.” More than 500 knights fell in battle, drowned in the lake, 50 captured knights were carried out in disgrace through the streets of Novgorod.
The response to the "Battle on the Ice" was the rise of the liberation movement of the peoples of the Baltic states against the German and Danish invaders. The knights with great difficulty, with the help of the Roman Curia and the German Empire, managed to break the resistance of the Estonians, Latvians, Curonians, Pomeranians, Prussians. Russia, which fell under the Mongol yoke, was deprived of the opportunity to provide the neighboring peoples with the necessary assistance. By the end of the XIII century. German and Danish invaders established themselves in the Eastern Baltic.
The “Battle on the Ice”, in which the entire color of Livonian chivalry perished, frustrated the plans of the crusader aggression, designed to take advantage of the plight of Russia as a result of the Batu invasion. The Order was forced to sue for peace. Subsequent attempts by the Order and the Danish feudal lords to move east met with the same crushing rebuff that they were given by Alexander Nevsky on the ice of Lake Peipus. In 1268, the united Russian regiments at the battle of Rakvere inflicted such a crushing defeat on the German and Danish knights, which contemporaries quite rightly compared with the “Battle on the Ice”.
The attempt of the Hungarian and Polish feudal lords to organize, with the blessing of the Pope of Rome, a crusade to capture Galicia-Volyn Rus was also successfully repulsed. In 1245, with the help of the Galician boyars, who fought for many years with their prince Daniel Romanovich, they captured Przemysl and laid siege to Yaroslav. But southern Russia, just devastated by the hordes of Batu, found the strength to repulse the new invaders. Near Yaroslav, the Galician-Volyn regiments of Prince Daniil Romanovich utterly defeated the combined army of Polish and Hungarian feudal lords and Galician boyars, forcing them to flee outside Russia.

History of Russia IX–XVIII centuries. Moryakov Vladimir Ivanovich

2. The struggle of the Russian people against the German-Swedish Crusader aggression

When North-Eastern and Southern Russia lay in ruins and ashes after the invasion of Batu, North-Western Russia was forced to repel the crusading aggression of German and Swedish feudal lords, which posed a great danger. She threatened the assimilation of Russia by the Germans and Swedes, the imposition of their own language and culture by them, the loss of not only statehood, but also national and cultural independence.

In the XII century. German knights, supported by the Vatican and the German Empire, began to pursue a policy of conquest of the Eastern Baltic. On the southeastern coast of the Baltic Sea from the Gulf of Finland to the Vistula, the Baltic and Finno-Ugric tribes have long lived: Aukshait Lithuanians, Samogitians (Zhmud), Yotvingians; Latvians-Latgalians, Livs, Curonians (Kors), Semigallians (Zimigols); Estonians, called Chud in Russia. All these tribes have long maintained economic, political, cultural ties with the Russian lands. In the XII century. the population living along the Western Dvina paid tribute to the prince of Polotsk. At the beginning of the XII century. tribal unions arise among the Baltic tribes, princes and military retinue nobility stand out, among the Lithuanians the processes of state formation were actively going on. An important trade route from the Baltic States to Eastern Europe passed through the island of Ezel and the mouth of the Western Dvina. The Eastern Baltic was a tempting target for conquest.

In 1184, a monk from Denmark, Meinard, landed near the Liv village of Ikskul, not far from the trading post of German merchants. He was elevated by the Pope to the rank of Archbishop of Livonia with the right to convert infidels to Catholicism. But Maynard's activities of forcibly converting the local population to Catholicism met with active resistance.

The Pope gave absolution to all those who would be actively involved in the spread of Catholicism in the Eastern Baltics. Meinard soon died in Germany, and his successor Berthold was killed by the Livs during the first crusade against them in 1198.

In 1200, the Pope sent his canon Albert to the Baltics. He managed to capture the mouth of the Western Dvina, where Riga was founded in 1201, and Albert became the first bishop of Riga. In 1202, the German knights created the Order of the Sword, which was subordinate to the Bishop of Riga. The main goal of this spiritual and knightly order was the conquest of the Baltic lands and the conversion of the local indigenous population to Catholicism. Following Riga, other German cities began to emerge. In 1207, the knights demanded that Albert give the order a third of all conquered lands. By his bull, Pope Innocent III confirmed this agreement between the order and the bishop.

The population of the Baltic offered desperate resistance to the actions of the order and the bishops. The Russian princes came to the aid of the Baltics in their struggle. Especially often the Lithuanian and Russian princes united their efforts. But the difference in princely interests forced them to act disunitedly. In addition, the Polotsk, Lithuanian and Polish princes did not disdain to conclude agreements with the crusaders and use them in the fight against each other. This made it easier for the German knights to conquer the Baltic lands.

In 1215-1216 they seized the lands of the Estonians, where they clashed with the Danish feudal lords, who claimed these lands from the beginning of the 12th century. The Danish king also had the title of Duke of Estonia. In 1219, the Danes captured northern Estonia and founded the city of Revel (Tallinn) there, but the sword-bearers won it back from the Danes in 1224.

The Crusaders of the Order of the Swordsmen were repeatedly defeated by the Novgorodians. But the contradictions between Novgorodians and Pskovians weakened Novgorod and Pskov in the fight against the Crusaders.

In 1226, the Teutonic Order, founded in Jerusalem, transferred its operations to the Baltic states. The swordsmen suffered setbacks there. The Lithuanian prince Mindovg in 1236 inflicted a particularly severe defeat on them near Siauliai. In 1237, the swordsmen united with the Teutons, and the Livonian Order was formed. He entered into a close alliance with the Danish feudal lords. Swedish feudal lords intervened in the Baltic affairs. The Germans and Swedes made plans to conquer the northwestern Russian lands, weakened by the payment of large tributes to the Golden Horde.

The first in the summer of 1240 were the Swedes. The campaign was led by the son-in-law of the king and the de facto ruler of Sweden, Duke Birger. The Swedish ships entered the Neva to the mouth of the Izhora, and the aggressors, having landed on the shore, began to prepare for a campaign against Staraya Ladoga and Novgorod. Having received the news of the landing of the Swedes, the Novgorod prince Alexander Yaroslavich with his retinue and the Novgorod militia moved to the Neva. Alexander's attack was unexpected. His squad hit the center of the Swedish army, and the militia, led by the Novgorodian Misha, hit the flank in order to cut off the enemy's retreat to the ships. A quick and short battle ended in the complete defeat of the Swedish army, the remnants of which sailed to Sweden. For this victory, Alexander Yaroslavich became known as Nevsky.

In the summer of 1240, the knights of the Livonian Order invaded the Pskov land. They took Izborsk and, thanks to the betrayal of the Pskov mayor Tverdila, captured Pskov. There was a direct threat to Novgorod and the entire North-Western Russia. The boyars of Novgorod, under pressure from the Novgorodians, turned to Alexander Nevsky, whom they themselves expelled after the battle on the Neva, fearing his increased popularity, with a request to return to the city and lead the fight against the Germans. The prince agreed and led the army of Novgorodians. With a sudden blow, the Germans were driven out of Koporye, Votskaya land. Then Pskov and Izborsk were liberated. Military operations were transferred to the lands of the Estonians. Having received the news about the movement of all the forces of the Livonian Order to Russia, Alexander Nevsky went out to meet them and deployed his troops on Lake Peipsi near the Raven Stone. On April 5, 1242, the bloodiest battle of the Middle Ages began, called the Battle of the Ice. The order was destroyed. This battle finally buried the plan of crusader aggression against Russian lands.

Inspired by the victory on Lake Peipus, the inhabitants of the Baltic lands they had captured - Estonians, Latvians, Curonians, Pomeranians, Prussians - opposed the Germans. Russia did not have the strength to help them, and the knights, albeit with great difficulty, suppressed the resistance of the rebels. By the end 13th century German and Danish feudal lords established themselves in the Eastern Baltic.

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The struggle of the Russian people against the Polish intervention After Boris Godunov and the short reign of Fyodor Godunov, the Russian throne was occupied by Vasily Shuisky. The people had already lost count of impostors. False Dmitry was the first to appear, False Dmitry the second, then the third, the fourth. The state

Reasons for the German-Swedish aggression on Russian lands:

1) in the XII century. the previously united state of Kievan Rus disintegrated into warring lands. Swedish and German feudal lords took advantage of the situation in Russia. They were mainly attracted by the territory of the Baltic States, where at that time the tribes of the Western Slavs (Ests, Lats, Kirsh) lived. The internecine strife of the latter made them easy prey;
2) XII century. was also the time of expansion of the West to the East. The Roman Catholic Church handed out indulgences (forgiveness of sins) for military conquests in the hope of extending the sphere of influence of the Catholic Church to Northwestern Russia. To this end, in 1201, the German Order of the Sword was founded. In 1237, the Livonian Order was founded by German knights. Since the end of the XII century. The Germans began to capture Latvia. The expansion of Germany and Sweden to the east intensified at the beginning of the 13th century, after the call of the Pope, when crusades were organized against the peoples of Finland and the Baltic states who supported the Russians.

At the end of the 12th - beginning of the 13th centuries. united in spiritual and chivalric orders German feudal lords seized most of the rich Baltic lands and created Livonian Order (Catholic state and military organization of the German knights-crusaders in Livonia in 1237-1561).

After the conquest of the Baltic States, the aggression of the order was directed against Novgorod.

At the same time, the northwest of Russia was attacked Swedish feudal lords who sought to conquer part of the Baltic coast belonging to the Novgorodians. The Swedes tried to take control of the trade route "from the Varangians to the Greeks."

Summer 1240 Swedish a flotilla with a 5,000-strong army entered the Neva and stopped at the mouth of its tributary. Izhora. On July 15, 1240, the Novgorod army led by Prince Alexander Yaroslavich won a quick and glorious victory. With an army of 2 thousand people, they completely defeated the Swedes. Novgorodians and Ladoga lost only 20 soldiers in this battle. For valor and courage, the people called Alexandra Nevsky. Russia retained the shores of the Gulf of Finland and the possibility of trade exchange with European countries.

At the same time the knights Livonian Order in 1240, Pskov was taken during a seven-day siege. The threat of losing Novgorod loomed.

Alexander Nevsky was in Pereyaslavl because of a quarrel with the Novgorod boyars. The attack of the German knights forced the Novgorodians to ask Alexander Nevsky to again lead their army.

Having agreed, Alexander began to prepare for the future battle. Detachments from the Vladimir principality joined the Novgorod militia. In 1242, with the Suzdal army, he liberated the city of Koporye and returned the city of Pskov to Russia.

On April 5, 1242, the Battle of the Ice took place on the ice of Lake Peipus. Germans tried to dismember the Russian regiments, and then defeat them piece by piece.

The victory on Lake Peipsi was of great importance. The independence of the Novgorod and Pskov lands and the integrity of Russia were preserved. The victory was achieved thanks to the heroism of the Russian soldiers and the military talent of Alexander Nevsky.

In his activities, he was always guided by the interests of the people, but by no means by his own personal benefit. In all his life, Nevsky did not lose a single battle. He was a talented diplomat, commander, was able to protect Russia from many enemies, as well as prevent the campaigns of the Mongol-Tatars. He achieved compromise relations with the Tatars, strengthened the power of the Grand Duke and, in general, the position of the state. For this, the Russian Orthodox Church elevated Alexander Nevsky to the rank of saints.

QUESTION No. 17: The unification of the principalities of North-Eastern Russia around Moscow.

In the XIV-XV centuries. specific Russia persistently collected its “crushed parts into something whole.

The process of gathering Russian lands led to the formation of a single Russian state. Devastated, bled dry by the Mongol-Tatar yoke, divided into dozens of specific principalities, the country for more than two centuries consistently, difficultly, overcoming obstacles, went to state and national unity.

Association background.

The growth of the population, the restoration of the destroyed economy, the development of abandoned and new lands, the spread of the three-field system, the gradual revival of cities and trade - all this contributed to the unification, but hardly made it really necessary.

The decisive prerequisites have developed in the political sphere:

The main impetus was the ever more insistent desire for liberation from the Horde yoke, for gaining complete independence, for the rejection of humiliating trips to the Horde for a label for the great reign of Vladimir, from paying tribute, from extortions.

The prerequisites for unification include the presence of a single church organization, a common faith - Orthodoxy, language, the historical memory of the people, who kept memories of the lost unity and the "bright bright and beautifully decorated" Russian Land.

Why Moscow has become the center of association? Objectively, two “young” cities, Moscow and Tver, had approximately equal chances to lead the process of unification of Russian lands.

Moscow and Tver stood on the lands where, after the Batu invasion, the population of Vladimir, Ryazan, Rostov and other principalities fled, where demographic growth was observed. Important trade routes passed through both principalities, and they knew how to take advantage of their location. The outcome of the struggle between Moscow and Tver was therefore determined by the personal qualities of their rulers. Moscow princes in this sense surpassed Tver competitors. They were not outstanding statesmen, but better than others were able to adapt to the nature and conditions of their time. “Flexible, quick-witted businessmen”, “peaceful masters”, “hoarding, thrifty organizers of their lot” - this is how V. O. Klyuchevsky saw the first Moscow princes.

STAGES OF COMBINATION:

The process of creating a unified Russian state took a long period from the end of the 13th to the beginning of the 14th century. until the end of the 15th - beginning of the 16th century.
Late XIII - first half of the XIV century:
- the formation of the Moscow principality under Prince Daniel Alexandrovich and its territorial growth (Pereslavl, Mozhaisk, Kolomna), the beginning of rivalry with Tver for a shortcut to the great Vladimir reign and the first success of Moscow;

The reign of Ivan Danilovich Kalita. Kalita managed to accumulate considerable funds, which were spent on buying up new lands and on strengthening the military power of the principality. Relations between Moscow and the Horde were built during this period on the same basis - with regular payment of tribute, frequent visits to the khan's capital. Ivan Kalita managed to save his principality from new invasions.

Second half of the 14th century:

In the 60-70s. 14th century Prince Dmitry, the grandson of Ivan Kalita, managed to solve a number of long-standing and very important problems in favor of Moscow:

First of all, the claims of neighboring princes to a great reign were repulsed. The label remained in Moscow.

Secondly, managed to avert the military threat from the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.

Thirdly- and this is especially important - Moscow has achieved a decisive advantage over its traditional rival, the Tver principality.

Fourth, for the first time in more than a century, the Moscow prince felt strong enough to go into open conflict with the Horde, to challenge her.

An event of great historical importance was the victory of the Russian army in 1380. on the Kulikovo field over the army of the Tatar temnik Mamai.

The significance of the victory on the Kulikovo field is enormous: Moscow has strengthened in its role as a unifier of Russian lands, their leader; in relations between Russia and the Horde, a turning point occurred (the yoke will be lifted in 100 years); the amount of tribute that Russia now paid to the Horde has significantly decreased; The Horde continued to weaken, from the blow received in the Battle of Kulikovo, she never managed to recover. The Battle of Kulikovo became an important stage in the spiritual and moral revival of Russia, the formation of its national identity.

The second half of the XIV - the beginning of the XV century.

The final stage of the unification process is associated with the reign of Ivan III (1462-1505) and the first years of the reign of his son Vasily III (1505-1533):
- the collection of Russian lands around Moscow was basically completed. Novgorod, Tver, Pskov, Ryazan, Smolensk were annexed to Moscow;
- "standing on the Ugra" (1480) ended the struggle of Russia for liberation from the two hundred and forty-year-old Mongol yoke;
- the process of formation of a unified Russian state was also completed. Ivan III took the title of "Grand Duke of Moscow and All Russia".

Content

Introduction
Spiritual knightly orders
Neva battle
Battle on the Ice
Conclusion
Bibliography

1. Introduction
Crusader aggression on the territory of Russia, which reached its peak in the first quarter of the 13th century, dates back to the 12th century. It was then that the German knights settled on the lands of the Western and Pomeranian Slavs, of which the detachments of “crusader” invaders mainly consisted at first, they moved further east, invaded, on the one hand, Prussia, on the other, the Baltic states.
From the end of the 80s of the XII century. “Crusader” detachments of “missionaries” are increasingly carrying out armed attacks on the territory of northwestern Russia, mainly on the lands of the Polotsk and Smolensk princes, primarily on the lands of the Livs.
The ancient Livonian chronicle of the late 13th century, known as the Rhymed Chronicle, contains a clear indication that the lands inhabited by the Baltic tribes belonged politically to the Russians and the Russian princes received tribute from them: in the hands of the Russians until the appearance of the “brothers” who took these lands by force.” Our chronicle also confirms this news. The chronicle more than once mentions the names of a number of these tribes, telling how they, together with the Slavic tribes, built the Russian state.
Since ancient times, the peoples of the Baltic have been connected by historical destinies with Russia. These relations were strengthened by constant trade ties and significant cultural influence. In the language of Estonians and Latvians, these ancient Russian influences have survived to this day. Already in the X-XI centuries. Christianity also penetrates into the Baltic states from Russia, as evidenced by ancient burials, cult objects (crosses, etc.) found during excavations. From the middle of the XII century. German merchants from Bremen, Lübeck and other northern cities, who traded various goods, reached the mouth of the Dvina and established episodic ties with the Baltic. Soon, these ties became more permanent, as a result of which the desire of German merchants to create a solid base in the Baltic grew and strengthened. From the Baltics, the merchants sought to penetrate even further, into the borders of the Russian lands proper. In 1184, a German-Latin merchant yard was built in Novgorod, named after St. Peter, and the church. This court entered into a sharp competitive struggle with the trading post of Gotland merchants that already existed here, which bore the name of St. Olaf.
At first, the invaders in the Baltic were the clergy themselves, represented mainly by the Cistercian monks. They acted following the example of the robber knights of that time. Soon, the usual forms of Western European feudalism were established on the occupied lands: the local population turned into serfs, the lands were given as a beneficiary grant to vassals, churches and monasteries were built. This was done not only on the lands of the Livs, but also on the lands of the Kurs, Semigals and other tribes.
A vivid picture of this unceremonious lordship on the lands of the Baltic states was left by Henry of Latvia, the author of the lengthy Chronicle of Livonia, who himself was one of the participants in the “crusading” offensive to the east.
The first steps of the "missionaries" usually had a "peaceful" character. So, around 1188, the Catholic monk of the Augustinian order Maynard turned to Prince Vladimir of Polotsk to be allowed to preach Christianity in the land of the Livs. Henry of Latvia writes about Meinard that he “began preaching to the Livs and building a church in Ikeskol”.
The actions of the "missionaries" did not meet with sympathy among the local population, on the contrary, they aroused strong hatred. According to Henry of Latvia, the Livs almost sacrificed the helper of Meinard-Dietrich (Theodoric) to their gods, and Meinard himself was not allowed to leave his land, fearing that he would lead a Christian army. Maynard chose as the center of his activity the Ikeskol (Ikskul) castle built by him on the Dvina, located slightly above its mouth.
Attaching great importance to the activities of Meinard, Bishop Hartwig II of Bremen appointed him in 1186 "Bishop of Ikskul in Russia", and two years later Pope Clement III approved this appointment and issued a special bull on the founding of a new bishopric under the authority of the Bremen Archbishop. Thus, an outpost of German Catholic aggression was created in the east, from where a systematic invasion of the lands that were part of Russia and subject to Russian princes began.
The papal curia led this “activity, attaching considerable importance to it in its general policy. Maynard sent reports to Rome about his “mission,” and the pope did not skimp on blessings, praises, and other verbal “gifts” and “favors”: the pope could not help the new bishop more significantly. Only a few years later, when the unexpected death of Emperor Frederick Barbarossa unleashed the hands of the new pope Celestine III, and when, on the other hand, the Third Crusade suffered a complete failure, the Roman curia made an attempt to provide Maynard with more effective assistance.
The Pope called for a “crusade” into the land of the Livs to forcibly convert them to Christianity. All who take part in such a campaign were promised remission of sins. However, the popular masses in the land of the Livs unanimously opposed all attempts to "convert" to Catholicism. Quite rightly, they associated it with the inevitable final loss of the remnants of their freedom. The crusaders managed to use only those groups of the local population that had already begun to stand out as the dominant social elite: tribal leaders, elders of the clan. Sources report that Maynard relied on them even before his death, in the autumn of 1196 he called them together and took from them a promise to continue his “missionary” activity. However, the calculations of Maynard and the representatives of the local nobility who supported him did not materialize.

2. Spiritual knightly orders

At the beginning of the 13th century, a new powerful political force appeared - the Germans. From the first years of the 13th century, the German conquest of the Eastern Baltic developed (which began at the end of the previous century, but expanded widely only in the first years of the 13th century, after the founding of Riga and the creation of the Order of the Sword). Having subdued without much difficulty the scattered Livonian-Latvian tribes, who did not receive serious help from their overlord, the Polotsk prince, by the end of the first decade of the 13th century, the Germans came close to the Estonian lands, to the area of ​​state interests of Veliky Novgorod. The struggle of the Novgorod state against the German conquest of Estonia began.
Order of the Sword - German Catholic spiritual and chivalric order,
officially called "Brothers of the Host of Christ", founded in 1202 with the assistance of the Bishop of Riga Albert and Pope Innocent III to capture the Eastern Baltic. The Order of the Knights of the Sword was given the charter of the Templars. The swordsmen wore a red sword and a cross on a white cloak and were not subordinate to the pope, but to the bishop, who undertook to cede a third of the occupied territory as it was conquered. Each member of the order had to take four vows: obedience, chastity, poverty, and constant struggle against the opponents of Catholicism.
Of all these vows, the sword-bearers diligently fulfilled only the last one.
At the head of the order was the master, whom the knights themselves chose from their own circle. Under the master, there was a council of the noblest knights, together with whom all important issues in the life of the order were resolved. In the provincial castles and the territories surrounding them, the court and administration were concentrated in the hands of the commanders, or vogts.
At the beginning of the 13th century, the swordsmen undertook crusades against the Livs, Estonians, Zemgalians, and other Baltic peoples, capturing many lands in the Eastern Baltic, a third of which, with the approval of the pope, was assigned to the order. Soon the sword-bearers invaded the Polotsk principality, began to threaten Novgorod and Pskov. In 1234, Prince Yaroslav Vsevolodovich of Novgorod inflicted a heavy defeat on the order near Dorpat, and in 1236 the combined forces of Lithuanians and Semigallians utterly defeated the sword-bearers near Saule.
The Teutonic Order (German Order, Order: Crusaders) is a German Catholic spiritual and knightly order, which carried out in the 13th - early 15th century. feudal aggression in Eastern Europe. Originated at the end of the 12th century
Palestine during the Crusades, in 1198 approved by Pope Innocent III. He had large land holdings in Germany and Southern Europe. Since the ever-increasing onslaught of the Turks created extremely unfavorable conditions for the activities of the knights in the east, the Grand Master of the Order Hermann von Salza (1210-1239) moved the center of gravity of the order's activities to the west. The Teutons acquired large lands in Germany and Silesia and, at the suggestion of the Hungarian king, opened their branch on the Hungarian border, in Semigradia. However, the Hungarian king realized in time what danger threatened him from the immediate neighborhood of the Germans, and in 1224 he deprived the Teutons of Semigradje of their privileges. In 1226, under an agreement between the Grand Master of the Order Hermann von Saltz and the Polish appanage prince Konrad of Mazovia, the Order received Kemlinsky land and, transferring its activities to Eastern Europe, began to conquer the Prussians.
In 1237, the remnants of the defeated Order of the Swordsmen united with the Teutonic Order, the Livonian Order became a branch of the Teutonic Order in the Eastern Baltic. The Teutonic Order captured the lands of the Prussians (end of 1283), Eastern Pomerania with Gdansk was captured (1309), Estland (1346), Samogitia (1382-1398), the island of Gotland (1398). Fortified castles became strongholds in the occupied lands. The local population was almost completely exterminated.
Since 1309, Marienburg (Koenigsberg) has been the residence of the grand master (grand master) of the order.
In the Battle of Grunwald in 1410, the Teutonic Order suffered a decisive defeat, the expansion of the Secularization - the order was stopped. According to the Peace of Purun - 1468. the order, recognizing itself as a vassal of Poland, returned East Pomerania to it. In 1525, Grand Master Albrecht of Brandenburg secularized the possessions of the Teutonic Order in the Baltics and they turned into the secular Duchy of Prussia. Its surviving possessions in various parts of Germany were secularized at the beginning of the 18th century, and in 1809 the order itself was closed.
The Livonian Order is a Catholic and military-political organization of the Knights of the Teutonic Order, which created in the 13-16th century. feudal state in the Eastern Baltic. Formed in 1237 after the defeat of the Order of the Sword in the Battle of Saul. The territory of the Livonian Order included almost 2/3 of the Latvian and Estonian lands captured by the German knights in the Eastern Baltic.
At the head of the Livonian Order was a master elected for life with a residence in Riga or Wenden. The fortified castles were controlled by commanders and vogts, who reported to the annual meetings of the highest ranks of the order. In the 13th century, the Livonian Order was the main military force of the German feudal lords and the Catholic Church in the Eastern Baltic. The defeat in the Battle of the Ice in 1242 stopped the advance of the Livonian Order to the east. From the end of the 13th century, the struggle of the order against the archbishops of Riga began for political hegemony in the Eastern Baltic. Having won, the Livonian Order in 1330 became the feudal lord of Riga. But the defeat of the Teutonic Order (Battle of Grunwald, 1410) undermined the political position of the Livonian Order. During the Livonian War of 1558-1583, the Livonian Order collapsed.

3. Neva battle

The situation in northwestern Russia was alarming. The Russian land was devastated by the Tatar-Mongols, the forces of German, Swedish and Danish feudal lords were drawn to the northwestern borders of the Novgorod-Pskov land. At the same time, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania tried to seize the lands of Polotsk-Minsk Rus and Smolensk that had survived from the Tatar-Mongolian devastation. At this difficult moment, Prince Alexander of Novgorod and his father Yaroslav Vsevolodovich, who became the Prince of Vladimir and Suzdal after the death of Prince Yuri, took a number of urgent measures to strengthen the western borders of Russia. First of all, it was necessary to protect Smolensk, where the Lithuanian prince settled. In 1239, he was expelled by Russian troops, and the Smolensk princely table was occupied by a protege from Suzdal. At the same time, by order of Prince Alexander, the Novgorodians built fortifications along the Shelon River, along which the path to Novgorod passed from the west. Finally, the political ties of the Vladimir-Suzdal land with Polotsk were strengthened. Their expression was the marriage of Prince Alexander Yaroslavich with the daughter of the Polotsk prince. The political significance of this marriage was emphasized by the fact that it was celebrated in Tropets, a stronghold of defense against the Lithuanian feudal lords. All these military and diplomatic measures brought results: over the next few years, the troops of the Principality of Lithuania did not violate the borders of Russia. Things turned out differently in the northwestern positions on the border. The German crusaders were preparing a decisive invasion of Russian soil. The danger was especially aggravated by the fact that this time Sweden also participated in the campaign. The Swedish feudal lords were the first to launch an offensive against Russia. Apparently, during these years, the Novgorod government took some measures to restore its positions in the land of Emi, as well as in the land of Sumi. Such a conclusion can be drawn from the contents of the bull of Pope Gregory IX, sent in 1237 to the head of the Swedish church, the Archbishop of Uppsala. The pope urged the Swedish feudal lords to take up arms against the Finns. "By the fury of these pagans," the pope wrote, "Swedish dominion is overthrown, which is why the complete fall of Christianity can easily occur if it does not resort to the help of God and the apostolic throne." Obviously, the uprising in the Finnish land acquired a wide scope, led to the expulsion of the Swedish feudal lords and the restoration of political ties with Novgorod. From this bull it follows that the failures of the Swedish feudal lords in the land of the Finns, the pope explained by the intervention of the Russians, and these failures were so great that the papal curia proclaimed a crusade against both the Finns and the Russians. As you can see, the situation here was similar to the situation in the land of the Latgalians and Estonians. The papal bull, since it was based on information from Sweden, correctly conveys the beliefs that developed at the royal court that the Swedish position in the land of the Finns and the Gulf of Finland cannot be strengthened until not only the land of Emi, but also Novgorod itself is subjugated. Russia. An English Dominican, Uppsala canon (priest) Bishop Thomas was an active conductor of the aggressive policy of the papal curia. Consequently, the papal curia participated in the preparation of an offensive against Russia not only from the west, where in 1237 it contributed to the unification of the forces of the Livonian, Prussian and Danish crusaders, but also from the north, supporting the organization of the offensive of large Swedish feudal lords. The Swedish government decided to send an expedition not so much against them as against Novgorod Rus. The purpose of the campaign was to capture the Neva and Ladoga, and in case of complete success, Novgorod and the entire Novgorod land. By capturing the Neva and Ladoga, two goals could be achieved at once: firstly, the Finnish lands were cut off from Russia, and deprived of Russian support, they could easily become the prey of the Swedish feudal lords; secondly, with the capture of the Neva, the only access to the Baltic Sea for Novgorod and all of Russia was in the hands of the Swedes, i.e., all foreign trade in the north-west of Russia had to fall under Swedish control. One can hardly doubt that the performance of the Swedish feudal lords was coordinated with the actions of the Livonian feudal lords, who in 1240 launched an attack on Izborsk and Pskov, and contrary to tradition, not in winter, but in summer. To march on Russia, the Swedish government of King Erich Burr allocated a significant army led by Prince Ulf Fasi and the king's son-in-law, Birser. There were many hunters to profit from the Russian lands that survived the invasion of the Tatar-Mongols. There were Swedish spiritual and secular knights-feudal lords, who were looking for means to improve their affairs in a predatory campaign, hurrying to where, it seemed, they could profit without much risk. The predatory meaning of the campaign was covered by talk about the need to spread among the Russians "true Christianity" - Catholicism. Auxiliary Finnish detachments from the funeral parts of the Emi and Sumi lands were also involved in the campaign. As early as 1239, Prince Alexander Yaroslavich took care of protecting not only the western, but also the northern borders, and established careful protection of the bay and the Neva. Here were low-lying, damp wooded lands, the places were difficult to pass and the paths went only along the rivers. In the region of the Neva, to the south of it, between Votskaya (from the west) and Lopskaya (from the east) Novgorod volosts was the Izhora land. A small people lived here - the Izhorians, their social elite already owned the land and adopted Christianity, while the main population remained pagan. In particular, "an elder in the land of Izher" by the name of Pelgusius was baptized, taking the name of Philip. In the Izhora land there was a special tiun set up by Novgorod. Foreman Pelgusius, Prince Alexander instructed the "guard of the sea", i.e. guarding the routes to Novgorod from the sea; apparently, the guards stood on both sides of the bay. The description of the arrival of the Swedish troops and their defeat was made by a contemporary, probably a warrior, Prince Alexander.
One day at dawn on a July day in 1240, when Pelgusius was on patrol on the shore of the ships of the Gulf of Finland, he suddenly saw the Swedish ships "much more" sent on a campaign by the king, who gathered many warriors - Swedish knights with their prince and bishops, "Murmans" and Finns. Pelgusy hurriedly went to Novgorod and informed the prince about what he had seen. The Swedish flotilla, meanwhile, passed along the Neva stop to the mouth of the Izhora. Here it was decided to make a temporary stop at the mouth; Obviously, part of the Izhora ships entered the mouth of the Izhora, and most of them moored to the banks of the Neva, along which they had to sail. Bridges were thrown from the moored ships, the Swedish nobility went ashore, including Birger and Ulf Fasi, accompanied by bishops, among whom was Thomas; the knights landed behind them. Birger's servants pitched a large tent embroidered with gold for him. Birger had no doubts about success. In fact, the situation of Novgorod was difficult: there was nowhere to wait for help, the Tatar-Mongol invaders devastated northeastern Russia. The Swedish commander, "staggering with his madness, wanting to perceive Ladoga, also Novograd and the entire region of Novgorod," sent an ambassador to Novgorod, ordering him to tell the prince: "If you can resist me, the queen, then I already am here and I will captivate your land." Apparently, he did not expect resistance, believing that without the Vladimir regiments, Novgorod was not terrible for him. However, Birger miscalculated.
Prince Alexander Yaroslavovich gathered his squad on Sofiyskaya Square in Novgorod, "strengthened it with a speech and decided to quickly attack the enemy. He managed to take on a campaign only part of the militia - the Novgorodians-townspeople:" Many Novgorodians did not copulate byakha, sooner the prince to drink. The army set out from Novgorod and moved to Izhora; walked along the Volkhov to Ladoga, where a detachment of Ladoga joined. It is likely that the Izhora participated in the campaign. By the morning of July 15, the entire army approached Izhora. The fact that Alexander Yaroslavich accelerated the advance of the troops is explained , of course, the desire, firstly, to strike the Swedish feudal lords unexpectedly and, secondly, it was on Izhora and the Neva that a sudden blow was needed, because the Swedish army was much larger than the Russian.The prince had a small squad.From the description of the exploits of Russian soldiers a general idea of ​​the course of the battle is formed.Alexander proceeded from the fact that most of the enemy ships Th troops were on the ships, and the knights, the most combat-ready part of the troops, were on the shore. The cavalry squad of Prince Alexander was obviously supposed to strike along the Izhora at the center of the Swedish troops. At the same time, the “foot” of the Novgorodians was supposed to advance along the Neva and, crowding the enemy, destroy the bridges connecting the ships to the land, cutting off the knights, overturned by an unexpected cavalry blow, the way to retreat and reducing their ability to receive help. If this plan was successful, the numerical ratio of troops on land should have seriously changed in favor of the Russians: with a double blow along the Neva and Izhora, the most important part of the enemy troops was squeezed into a corner formed by rivers, during the battle, foot and horse Russian rati, united, were supposed to push back enemy to the river and throw him into the water. Russian troops suddenly attacked the Swedish camp. The chronicler did not leave a description of the course of the battle, but reported on the most outstanding exploits of the Russian people. So, he talks about an important episode of the battle, when Prince Alexander, having made his way to the center of the location of the Swedish troops, fought with Birger and seriously wounded him with a spear. The eyewitness also speaks of the successful actions of the Novgorod foot militia, which, moving along the banks of the Neva, not only cut down bridges, fighting off the Swedes from land and river, but even captured and destroyed three augers. The battle was fierce. Russian soldiers were "terrible in the rage of their courage", and the talented commander Alexander Yaroslavovich managed to confidently direct them to the enemy, "and their courage was strong with the prince." The author noted the exploits of several more warriors: the Novgorodian Sbyslav Yakunovich, the princely hunter of Polotsk, a native of Yakov, the princely servant of Ratmir. So the Russian people fought heroically on the border of the Motherland, defending northwestern Russia from the enemy, which had survived from the Tatar hordes, while the ruins of cities, villages and settlements smoked on most of the Russian land. The battle, carried out at a rapid pace, brought a brilliant victory to the Russian army. Infamously, the Swedish invaders fled in panic. The leadership of the talented and brave commander Alexander Yaroslavich, combined with the amazing heroism and selflessness of ordinary Russian soldiers, ensured a quick and glorious victory with the least losses on the part of the Russians. Novgorodians and Ladoga residents fell about 20 people. For the courage shown in the battle, the people nicknamed Prince Alexander Yaroslavich "Nevsky".
The struggle for the mouth of the Neva was a struggle to maintain access to the sea. The Russian people, on the way of their development into a great nation, could not be isolated from the seas. The struggle for Russia's free access to the Baltic Sea in the form of decisive military clashes began precisely in the 13th century. The Battle of the Neva was an important stage in this struggle. The victories of the Russian army, led by our great ancestor Alexander Nevsky, prevented the loss of the shores of the Gulf of Finland and the complete economic blockade of Russia, did not allow interrupting trade exchanges with other countries, and thereby facilitated the further struggle of the Russian people for independence, for the overthrow of the Tatar-Mongol yoke.
After the defeat on the Neva, the Swedish government did not abandon the idea of ​​taking possession of the land of the Finns. At the beginning of 1248, Birger, the king's son-in-law, became Jarl of Sweden. He began to prepare a campaign against the Finns. In 1249, the second stage of the conquest of the Finnish country by the Swedish feudal lords and the subjugation of the main population of the country, the Yemi, began. Birger gathered a large knightly army and, having landed on the southern coast of Nylandia, defeated it; the population that refused to accept Christianity was mercilessly exterminated. By the middle of 1250, the city was conquered. The political situation of Novgorod at that time did not allow him to help the Finns. Birger founded Tavastgus in the center of the Finnish land, on the shores of Lake Vanaya, and settled Swedish feudal colonists here, distributing Finnish lands to them. Inspired by the captures in the land of the Finns and knowing that Novgorod was threatened by the Tatar yoke, the Swedish feudal lords risked another attack on northwestern Russia in 1256, this time in alliance with the Danes. The invaders decided to close Russia's access to the Gulf of Finland, to occupy Vodskaya, Izhora and Karelian lands. They settled on the Narova River and began to build a city on its eastern Russian bank. The papal curia also supported this aggression by recruiting crusaders and even appointed a special bishop for these lands. At this time, the troops of Alexander Yaroslavich were not in Novgorod, and the Novgorodians sent "by regiments" to him in Vladimir, and they themselves "distributed throughout their parish, also saving regiments." The Swedish and Danish feudal lords did not expect such actions and, having learned about them, "flee across the sea." In the winter of the same year, Prince Alexander came with regiments from Vladimir and organized Alexander's campaign in the land of the Finns, thereby deciding to give a proper answer to the Swedish government. Having crossed the ice of the Gulf of Finland into the land of Emi, the Russian army devastated the Swedish possessions here. Despite the fact that after the brutal Swedish conquest, the land of Emi was weakened, the entry of the Russian army caused a new anti-Swedish uprising. We learn about this fact from the message of Pope Alexander IV. Forcibly baptized and oppressed by the Swedish feudal lords, the Finns in large numbers joined the Russians. But the Finnish people were so weakened that they could not help the Russian army to consolidate the victory, and the Vladimir-Suzdal regiments had to limit themselves to a demonstrative defeat of the Swedish colonies.
The struggle for Karelia was also stubborn. The Karelian people have repeatedly acted together with the Russian people against the Swedish and German invaders. In 1282-1283, the Swedish knights invaded Lake Ladoga across the Neva, but were repulsed by Novgorodians and Ladoga. At the same time, the Swedish feudal lords launched an attack on the lands of Western Karelia and built the fortress of Vyborg there in 1293. An attempt to occupy Vyborg, made the following year by the troops of Grand Duke Andrei Alexandrovich, was unsuccessful. However, in 1295, when the Swedish governor Sig set up another city in the Karelian land, the Novgorodians demolished it and killed the governor. In 1310, on the site of the old fortification, the Novgorod government built the Karelu (Priozersk) fortress in Karelia to protect the western coast of Lake Ladoga.
By the beginning of the 13th century, the German feudal lords managed, after a fierce struggle, to subjugate the Slavic tribes of the Western Baltic - the so-called Pomeranian Slavs. Next in line was aggression against the Balts and Estonians who inhabited the Eastern Baltic. According to the most famous tribe of Livs to the Germans, they called this entire territory Livonia. In 1184, the Catholic missionary monk Maynard appeared here, but met with resistance from the local population. Under his successor Bertholdev, in 1198, the first crusade against the Livs took place. The third bishop of Livonia, Albert, firmly decided to seize the Dvina region and, under the guise of a bishop to spread Christianity, create an independent German principality. Having enlisted the support of the pope and the emperor, in the spring of 1200 the bishop appeared at the mouth of the Dvina and began the systematic conquest of Livonia. In addition to the German merchants, who were interested in capturing the trade routes to Russia, this enterprise was especially zealously supported by the German knights, greedy for prey, who sought to gain new lands and new labor in the Baltic states. In 1201, Albert founded the city of Riga at the mouth of the Dvina. In the same year, he acquired the first allies and swordsmen among the local population, and later tried to get his hands on both the winners and the vanquished, pitting them against each other. The following year, desiring to have a standing army at his disposal, he instituted the Order of the Knights of the Sword. With the establishment of the Order of the Sword-bearers, the military occupation of Livonia went at a rapid pace. The livs, acting at random, could not offer long-term and energetic resistance to the order, which was united and constantly replenished by a new influx of knights-adventurers. Marx noted: "More and more German knights are striving for a new German fief; their slogan was: Christianity or death." The princes of Polotsk, who were engaged in the struggle against the Lithuanians, could not fight back, besides, they unraveled the predatory thoughts of the bishop and the order too late. Basically, already in 1210, the conquest of the Livs and the right-bank Latvians by the Germans was completed, and the German emperor Philip of Swabia approved the conquered country for Bishop Albert as an imperial fief. Next in line was the conquest of Estonia.
The establishment of the Teutonic Order in Prussia created unfavorable conditions for the Livonian swordsmen. The German adventurous knights, who had previously been heading for booty to the Dvina, now sought to get the same booty closer, in Prussia. Deprived of the influx of new human forces from Germany, the swordsmen, who quarreled with the bishop and townspeople, could hardly restrain the pressure of strong neighbors. In 1234, the troops of Novgorod Prince Yaroslav, who invaded Estonia, defeated the knights and devastated the surroundings of Yuryev and Odenpe, avenging the death of the brave Yuryev garrison. The Russians failed to take Yuryev back. In 1236 the Germans suffered an even greater setback. When trying to establish themselves in Courland and Zhemgalia, the order army was utterly defeated by the Lithuanians and Zhemgals, and the master of the order, Volkvin, and many knights died. As a result of this defeat, the chickens, who recognized their dependence on the Germans in 1230, fell away from Christianity. The Germans feared that the local population of Livonia would follow their example. Under such difficult circumstances, the swordsmen began to seek help from the Teutons, and in 1237 the orders merged, and the order of the swordsmen lost its independence and turned into the Livonian branch of the Teutonic Order. To reorganize the sword-bearers, Landmaster German Balk, who became famous as a skillful organizer, was sent to Riga, and a significant detachment of knights came with him to help the Livonian Germans. German aggression in the Baltics gained new strength and, continuing their advance to the east, the knights began to threaten Novgorod and Pskov, dreaming of subjugating the entire Russian land, which had been extremely weakened by the Tatar devastation. Apparently, they had an agreement with the Swedes, who in the summer of 1240 were the first to set out on a crusade against Novgorod. The victory over the Swedish invaders against Izborsk was only a part of the great cause of the defense of the Motherland. In 1240, German crusaders, gathered from all the fortresses of Livonia, including Otepää, Tartu, Viljandi, as well as Danish knights from Reval, captured the Russian fortress of Izborsk.
When this became known in Pskov, the local militia, which included "all to the soul" combat-ready Pskovians, opposed the knights, but the Pskovians were defeated by superior enemy forces. In an unequal battle, the princely governor of Pskov also fell. German troops besieged Pskov for a whole week, but they could not take it by force. If not for the traitorous boyars, the invaders would never have taken the city, which in its history withstood 26 sieges and never opened the gates to the enemy. The pro-German group among the Pskov boyars has existed for a long time. It was noted in the annals as early as 1228, when the traitorous boyars made an alliance with Riga, but then this group kept a low profile, having Tverdila Ivankovich among its supporters. After the defeat of the Pskov troops and the death of the princely governor, these boyars first ensured that Pskov gave the children of the local nobility to the crusaders as a pledge, then some time passed without peace, and finally, the boyar Tverdilo and others "brought" the knights to Pskov. Relying on the German garrison, the traitor Tverdylo "he himself often owns Plskov with the Germans ...". His power was only an appearance; in fact, the Germans took over the entire state apparatus. The boyars, who did not agree to treason, fled with their wives and children to Novgorod. The situation was dangerous and the prince of defense needed urgent and decisive measures. In addition, the Novgorod boyars, putting their interests above the interests of the Motherland, came into conflict with Prince Alexander Nevsky, as a result of which he and his family and court went to his father in Pereyaslavl. At the beginning of 1241, the knights began to increasingly invade the Novgorod possessions. They, together with the auxiliary detachments of the Estonians, attacked the land of the Vod and imposed tribute on it. Part of the property of the local nobility went over to the side of the invaders. in 1241, the Crusaders set out to capture not only the land of the Vod, but also the coast of the Neva and Karelia. The papal curia even transferred all these lands under the jurisdiction of the Ezel bishop. At the same time, the invaders built a fortified city in the Koporsky churchyard. The knights also reached the Sabelsky churchyard, which lay 40 versts from Novgorod. The enemy captured a vast territory in the area of ​​Izborsk - Pskov - Sabel - Tesov - Koporye. Apparently, at this time, when the population fleeing the robbers fled to the city from the surrounding villages and churchyards, a popular movement broke out in the city, supporting supporters of an alliance with the Vladimir-Suzdal princes. The Novgorod veche sent ambassadors to Yaroslav Vsevolodovich, and he let his son Andrei reign to them. But Andrei was not distinguished by special abilities, he was not suitable for such a responsible task. Therefore, the Novgorodians, having gathered at the veche and "having thought", sent to Yaroslav Vsevolodovich to ask Alexander Yaroslavich to come to him.
At this time, the Germans, having gathered regiments, as well as some detachments from Estonians and Lithuanians, moved forward. The ambassadors reported this to Yaroslav, and he granted their request. In the same year, Prince Alexander, having gathered an army of Novgorodians, Ladoga, as well as Karelians and Izhorians, opposed the crusaders. With an unexpected blow, the Russian army drove the enemy out of Koporye. At the same time, the Vod land was liberated from the invaders. The captured prisoners from among the Vodi and Estonians, who had gone over to the service of the German feudal lords, the prince ordered to be executed.
Decisive actions and courage of the Russians and their allied regiments brought the first success, but the main thing was ahead. The news of the successful actions of the Russian troops against the German invaders caused a new explosion of popular movements in 1241 in the Estonian land: in 1241, an uprising of the heroic inhabitants of Saaremaa broke out. Preparing a counteroffensive against the enemy, Alexander turned to Vladimir for help, and Prince Yaroslav Vsevolodovich sent his newly formed after the Tatar-Mongol pogrom Vladimir-Suzdal "Nizovsky" regiments to help him. With all the combined forces that Russia then had, Prince Alexander Nevsky marched into the land of the Estonians, the fate of the Russian land depended on the actions of his troops. Having launched an attack on the land of the Estonians, Alexander suddenly turned towards Pskov. Unexpectedly, by "exiling" his regiments, this ancient Russian city was liberated from the invaders and traitors-boyars. The prince, having "chained" the captured knights and Estonians, sent them to Novgorod, the Pskov traitors, probably, shared the fate of the Koporsky ones. After the liberation of Pskov, Prince Alexander led his army into the land of the Estonians. At this time, when the Russian army was on the western shore of Lake Peipsi, here in the Mooste region, a patrol detachment led by Domosh Tverdislavich reconnoitered the location of the bulk of the German troops, started a battle with them, but was defeated. The decisive battle was approaching, which the Russian army was looking for and about which the people thought with anxiety and hope in Novgorod, and in Pskov, and in Ladoga, and in Tver, and in Moscow, and in Vladimir. What did Prince Alexander do? He ordered his army to retreat to the ice of Lake Peipsi: "... the prince went back to the lake ...". Scientists believe that the mounted knights used a special formation of troops in the form of a wedge or a trapezoid; our chroniclers called this system "pig". Servants marched into battle on foot. The main goal of the infantry was to help the knights. Among the Teutons, the infantry consisted of townspeople, colonists, detachments exhibited by conquered peoples, and so on. The knights were the first to enter the battle, and the infantry stood under a separate banner. If infantry was also brought into battle, then its formation was probably closed by a number of knights, because. the infantry of the above composition was unreliable. The task of the wedge was to split the central, most powerful part of the enemy’s troops. Using such a formation, the German crusaders defeated scattered detachments of Livs, Latgalls, Estonians. But the Russians (and later the Lithuanians) found means of fighting the "pig" clad in shell. A brilliant example of this is the battle on the ice of Lake Peipus. The usual combat formation of the Russian troops consisted of a strong center, where a large regiment ("chelo") stood, and two less strong flanks ("wings"). This formation was not the best in the fight against the "pig" of the crusaders, and Alexander Nevsky, boldly breaking the established tradition, changed the tactics of the Russian troops. He concentrated the main forces on the flanks, which contributed a lot to the victory. The new tactics caused the Russians to retreat to the ice of the lake. As expected, "the Germans and Chud went after them." Prince Alexander posted a regiment on the steep eastern shore of Lake Peipsi, at the Raven Stone, opposite the mouth of the Zhelcha River. The chosen position was beneficial in that the enemy, moving on open ice, was deprived of the opportunity to determine the location, number and composition of the Russian troops. On April 5, 1242, the entire mass of the German troops in Peipsi rushed to the Russians. The crusaders made their way through the Russian army and considered the battle won. Suddenly, they were attacked by the main forces of the Russians, concentrated on the flanks, contrary to tradition, and "there was a great German and people cutting that." Russian archers with crossbows brought complete disorder to the ranks of the encircled knights. The Russians fought for a just cause, for their Motherland. The victory was decisive. The Russians furiously pursued the fleeing enemy across the ice to the Subolicho coast. Only 400 knights were killed, in addition, 50 Russian knights "by the hands of Yash", many Estonians fell. The disgraced captive crusaders were led to Novgorod, as it is said in the Pskov chronicle, "the ovs were beaten, and the ovs tied the barefooted ones to lead on the ice." Apparently, the fleeing crusaders threw off heavy armor and shoes.
The victory on Lake Peipsi - the Battle of the Ice - was of great importance for all of Russia, the battle for the entire Russian and peoples associated with it, because. this victory saved them from the foreign yoke. This victory was of international importance. This largest battle of the early European Middle Ages for the first time in history put a limit to the predatory advance to the east, which the German rulers had been continuously carrying out for several centuries. The battle on the ice played a decisive role in the struggle of the Lithuanian people for independence, it also affected the position of other peoples of the Baltic states.
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