Extracts from the excellent monograph by Professor V.I. Gulyaeva
Ancient Civilizations of America (M., 2008).
(and no, this is not a reissue of a 1970s book, but a completely revised, new presentation)
New horizons of Maya archeology. Exhibition in New York.
Secrets of ancient pottery
On April 20, 1971, New York's elite club, the Grolier, was in a frenzy of excitement.
In the spacious halls, behind the sparkling glass of the showcases, the most diverse and unexpected objects shimmered with all the colors of the rainbow - clay figurines of gods, tall ceramic vases with elegant painting, carved plates of translucent greenish jade, bone tubes and shell pendants. These were exhibits of the exhibition "Writing of the ancient Maya". They belonged to a distinctive and vibrant culture that flourished in southern Mexico and Guatemala in the 1st-9th centuries AD.
The divine pair of Twins of the ancient Maya before the Creator Itzamna
(Cylinder Vase, Peten, Guatemala, AD 593-830)
When the well-known American archaeologist Professor Michael Koh was offered to become the organizer and main manager of such an exhibition, he was initially even confused: what kind of Maya writing was there?
[...] And after much hesitation, Michael Ko chooses a different path.
He decided to collect for the exhibition at the Grolier Club those products of the ancient Maya that belonged to the 1st millennium AD. and had some kind of hieroglyphic inscription on them.
Having very broad connections in various circles of society, he quickly established contact with museums and with the largest private collectors in the United States. The positive results of his energetic activity were not long in coming. By the appointed day, hundreds of magnificent products of potters, jewelers and bone carvers of the ancient Maya were placed in the halls of the club.
Among the exhibits of the exhibition there were especially many elegant clay vases with multi-color paintings of various contents and short hieroglyphic inscriptions, which were applied with bright mineral paints with great skill by a Mayan calliographer directly onto the smooth surface of the vessel.
In this sense, every Mayan vessel of the 1st millennium AD. resembled Mayan manuscripts of the 12th-15th centuries, where images of gods and various mythological characters were also accompanied by a short explanatory text.
The exhibition was a great success with the public, but more importantly, it gave very significant scientific results. Shortly after its closing, Professor Koh released a colorful album in New York, which included photographs of all the ceramic vases presented at the exhibition at the Grolier Club.
They were accompanied by lengthy and qualified comments.
And when experts got acquainted with this edition, it became obvious that the world is on the verge of a new scientific sensation. It was a discovery of great significance, and, moreover, in a field of Mayan archeology that no one had taken seriously before.
Mayan polychrome ceramic vessel depicting
dancing characters and a stylized maize plant,
(Naranjo, Guatemala, VII-VIII centuries AD)
Placing the exhibits in the showcases of the exhibition and describing them, Michael Ko noted to himself that, despite all his rich archaeological experience, he had never seen so many magnificent and well-preserved examples of painted polychrome Maya ceramics of the 1st millennium AD. e. The vast majority of these beautiful vessels have not yet come to the attention of the scientific world at all, since they were kept in closed private collections, where they fell from the hands of grave robbers - “guaqueros”. Naturally, the place of each such discovery remained, as a rule, unknown.
True, similar vessels were also found by scientific archaeological expeditions. They were found in rich tombs and burials, probably belonging to the rulers and the highest aristocracy of the Maya.
Thus, there were certain grounds for assuming that the painted earthenware vases shown at the Grolier Club were once in the royal tombs of various ancient Mayan cities in southern Mexico and northern Guatemala.
More carefully becoming acquainted with this ceramics, Professor Ko first of all drew attention to the hieroglyphic inscriptions. They were divided into two large groups. The first, applied with a brush or chisel of an ancient master, was usually placed along the edge of the vessel and has a standard, repetitive character. The inscription in this case begins with a verbal hieroglyph, also known from the manuscripts of the 12th-15th centuries and meaning “to lead the lineage”, “to be a descendant”. In the middle of the inscription are signs that convey the concepts of "road" and "death". It ends with a not entirely clear epithet, most likely referring to the personality of the ruler or king. Between these more or less understandable hieroglyphs are signs in the form of heads of gods, most of which are associated with death and the afterlife.
The second group of inscriptions is located, as a rule, near the figures depicted on the vase and is strictly individual in nature (names and titles?).
Upon careful study of the images located on the walls of most vessels, one could notice that they all boil down to several basic motives:
* a ruler or king sitting on a throne surrounded by his courtiers and servants (“palace scene”);
* two young men in rich clothes and outwardly similar to each other (“young rulers”);
* a deity in the form of a vampire bat with symbols of death on its wings;
* some disgusting skeletal spirits and creatures;
* ritual ball game;
* scenes of human sacrifice.
Maya polychrome pottery vessel with court scene
Yomchilak (Mexico), 600-900
According to the point of view, which was very common then among specialists, these scenes on painted ceramics of the 1st millennium AD. reflect the real life and deeds of those Mayan rulers and aristocrats, in whose tombs these vessels were placed.
However, how to explain in this case the abundance of various gloomy symbols on these polychrome vases: skulls, crossbones, black painting of faces and bodies of characters - the color of war and death, etc.? Why do they so often feature hideous spirits and deities?
And so, contrary to the opinion of most colleagues, Michael Koh decides:
"Both the scenes and the texts imprinted on these graceful vessels do not refer to the daily life of the Mayan elite, but to the afterlife - to the Underworld of death."
Thus, according to the assumption of this scientist, the polychrome ceramics of the ancient Maya were purely funerary in their purpose and were made only in order to immediately get into the tombs of kings and the highest nobility. But what exactly was this done for? The answer has not yet been found.
Professor Koh was further strengthened in his conclusions after he managed to prove a direct coincidence of some plots of painted Mayan ceramics of the 1st millennium AD. with the content of the myth about the adventures of the divine twins in the Underworld, which is set forth in the epic of the Maya-Kiche Indians "Popol-Vuh".
This is a very important and unique document that gives a general idea of the cosmology and theology of the ancient Maya. "Popol Vuh" was written down in the 16th century, shortly after the conquest, in Maya-Kiche, but in Latin letters. There is no doubt that the epic was based on information gleaned from some ancient Maya hieroglyphic manuscripts, subsequently lost.
Before describing the myth about the adventures of the twin heroes in the gloomy labyrinths of the underworld in more detail, it is necessary, at least in the most general form, to acquaint readers with the Mayan philosophical views on the problems of life, death and the fate of man.
In the depths of the underworld
Judging by written sources, the Mayan ideas about the universe and about death were as follows.
Above the flat surface of the rectangular earth are thirteen layers of the sky, each of which had its own deity. The sky rested on five large world trees, standing on the four cardinal points and in the center of the earth. Birds perched on the tops of the trees. Under the earth there was an afterlife kingdom, which, according to some sources, consisted of nine tiers. The souls of warriors who died on the battlefield or from the sacrificial knife of a priest, and women who died in childbirth, were sent to heaven, to the paradise of the sun god. And those who drowned, killed by lightning, died from diseases associated with water, went to the heavenly paradise of the god of rain.
However, the souls of most people who died an ordinary death, in the "home bed", fell into the underworld - " Mictlan"(Aztec. -" The area of \u200b\u200bthe dead", "The area where we lose ourselves", "The area of the incorporeal") - a cold and dark realm of death, where they wandered until their final death. Mayan word " Metnal", probably comes from the Nahua term "Miktlan" - "Death". But there is another, purely Mayan word - “ Xibalba ”, from the term “shib” - “fear”, “horror”.
During its long journey through the labyrinths of the Underworld, the human soul was subjected to severe trials, vividly described in Mayan and Aztec myths: it crossed a fetid river of blood and pus, made its way between mountains colliding with each other, crossed high plateaus with cold winds penetrating through like obsidian knife. After four years of wandering, the soul fell into the lowest tier of the underworld, where a pair of terrible gods reigned - miktlantecuhtli(among the Aztecs), the ruler of the Land of the Dead and his wife.
Both of them were depicted as skeletons.
Sitting in a palace built from human bones, this couple ruled over their terrible kingdom.
All other deities of the Underworld were subordinate to them.
Kerr 7226.
Incidentally, David Stewart believes that the deities of the Lower "D" and "N"- one character;
meanwhile, both are depicted on the right, peacefully talking to each other. A case of hypostases?
In the Mayan manuscripts of the 12th-15th centuries, the god of death bears the name Yum Tzek(lit. "Lord of Skulls") and is also usually depicted as a skeleton. He has the permanent epithet " Ye-Cham-El"-" Threatening Death", but sometimes it is called " Yum Kim-il- "Lord of Death".
According to Mayan beliefs, the entrance to Mictlan is located in the Alta Verapaz region rich in caves in the Guatemala Mountains.
But even there, in the gloomy depths of the Underworld, the ultimate fate of a person depended on his social position during life. The kings "resurrected" again and turned into heavenly gods, and ordinary community members forever remained in the underworld.
The burial ritual of the rulers fully corresponded to such ideas.
Maya- pokomam, who lived in the Verapaz region in Mountainous Guatemala, in the 16th century the deceased ruler was placed in a large clay vessel, which was lowered into the grave pit along with the wealth and jewelry of the deceased. A hill was subsequently poured over this place, the size of which depended on the strength and power of the deceased. A stone statue of the ruler was installed on top and worshiped.
In other cases, the dead king was dressed in the finest clothes, adorned with jewels, and seated on the throne. Friendly rulers and their subjects came to the funeral, bringing with them slaves and bringing gifts. Then the deceased was placed in a wooden box or in a stone sarcophagus in a sitting position, with legs crossed. Together with him they put gold, paper raincoats and other valuables.
The box was lowered into a grave dug at the top of the mountain.
Slaves were killed and placed around the box. If the slave was a farmer, agricultural implements were buried with him; if he was a hunter, then he had a bow and arrows with him. With the slaves they put "manos" and "metates" - "stone mirror grinders" for making flour from corn grains, clay vessels for cooking food, drinking bowls, plates and bowls. In a word, everything was done so that in the afterlife the existence of the ruler was no different from the earthly one.
A small stone altar was built over the tomb, on which the Indians usually burned fragrant resin and made other sacrifices.
But back to the myth of the divine twins.
“The old mother goddess Shmukane,” says the epic “Popol-Vuh”, “had two sons, Hun Hun Ahpu and Vukub Hun Ahpu". They were very fond of playing with a rubber ball and therefore spent whole days on the playground. Once, their noisy fun seriously angered the rulers of the Underworld, or Xibalba according to the Maya, and the lords of the underworld lured the brothers into their terrible possessions. After a series of difficult and unsuccessful tests for them, the twins suffered a final defeat during a ritual ball game and were sacrificed by the inhabitants of the underworld.
As a token of their victory, the lords of Xibalba cut off Hun-Hun-Ahpu's head and hung it on a gourd tree. The daughter of one of the lords of the Underworld once passed by this tree, and the saliva from the head of the executed twin fell on her hand, as a result of which the girl became pregnant. Learning about this and fearing the revenge of her father, she fled from the underworld to the surface of the earth, where she gave birth to another pair of divine twins - Hunahpoo and Xbalanque.
Twin heroes on a vessel for drinking chocolate
(San Pedro Mártir River / Usumacinta, Guatemala 600-900 A.D.)
They soon developed into handsome youths, ritual ball gamers and skilled hunters.
Like their uncle and father, they aroused the wrath of the Lords of Xibalba with their romp. And they ordered them to appear in the Underworld. Descending down very steep stairs, the young men set off on their difficult journey, which, apparently, coincided with the path of the soul of a deceased person, as the ancient Maya imagined it.
They passed between hills and ravines, they reached the intersection of four roads of different colors. Here the twins outwitted the lords of Xibalba by sending a mosquito ahead of them along the black road they had chosen. The mosquito, biting each of the rulers of the underworld in turn, recognized their names, and, according to the myth, they immediately lost their magical power.
There were twelve named gods of Xibalba in all; at their head were the supreme lords Hong Kame("First Death") and Vukub Kame("Seventh Death"). Other gods of the underworld probably personified various diseases.
The twins also went through a series of dangerous ordeals in the five chambers or "houses" of the Underworld: "House of Cold", "House of the Jaguar", "House of Bats" (led by Kama Sotsem, or "Vampire Bat") and "House of Obsidian Knives".
Finally, the lords of Xibalba gave the twins in the "House of Gloom" cigars and torches, which they were to smoke and burn all night, but return in the morning safe and sound. By planting fireflies on the tips of cigars and tying bunches of red feathers to the torches, simulating smoking and burning, the twins thus coped with this task.
Hunahpu and Xbalanca play ball with the deities of Xibalba
(Mayan polychrome vase of the 1st millennium AD)
Illustration of the descent into Xibalba; ritual ball game
They won a complete victory in the ritual ball game.
Further, surprising the lords of the underworld with the fact that they could chop themselves into pieces and rise again, the twins tempted the lords to do the same with themselves. Hun-Kame and Vukub-Kame were cut by the twins with large flint knives, but were not resurrected again.
The final words of the twin heroes addressed to the defeated gods of Xibalba sound like a real hymn to life and the victory of the human mind over death:
«... Here is our verdict, which we proclaim to you. Listen to him, all of you, inhabitants of Xibalba... You will get very little from blood and skulls, and the ball game will not be for you. You will spend your time making clay pots, pans, and corn stones. Only the children of the thickets and deserts will be given your patronage. But the creatures of the light, the sons of the light will not have fellowship with you ... Sinners, seekers of strife, bearers of sorrows, traitors who give themselves over to vices - these are those who will welcome you».
But in the same words of the ancient myth, one of the greatest tragedies of mankind was also reflected - sharp social inequality not only during life, but also after death. After all, the revival and deliverance from the horrors of the kingdom of the dead did not fall to the lot of all people, but only the “sons of light”, that is, the divine twins themselves and the rulers and the highest nobility of the Maya who followed their example.
Only they, after a four-year journey through Xibalba, will ascend to heaven and turn into gods.
« Then they moved away from them(from the inhabitants of the underworld. - V.G.), - it is said in the "Popol-Vuh" about the twin heroes, - and went up into the center of light, in an instant they were lifted up to heaven. One was given the Sun, the other the Moon. Then the dome of the heavens and the face of the earth were illuminated. Now they dwell in heaven».
"Young rulers" (twin heroes from "Popol-Vuh") in the Underworld.
Late Classic polychrome vessel from mountainous Guatemala.
Hunahpu - one of the divine twins - on the hunt
It should be noted that the veneration of twin heroes appeared a very long time ago and took place among many Mayan tribes. So the Indians of the Verapaz region in Guatemala worshiped as twin gods Hunahpoo and Ashbalanken. In the dictionaries of the Maya Pocomam (Guatemala) language, Hunahpu is called "one of the most important idols."
The Spanish chronicler Fuentes y Guzman, speaking of the funeral of the supreme rulers of the Maya Pocomam, indicates that the corpse was buried in the darkness of the night, after two days of ceremonies and sacrifices to the Xbalanque idol, so that this god would accompany the deceased on a journey through the Underworld.
Thus, the cult of divine twins was widespread throughout the territory of the ancient Maya. The twins were closely connected with the afterlife and, apparently, served as intermediaries between the Underworld and living people, in any case, they acted as such for the rulers and the highest nobility of the Maya.
Apparently, the story of the twin heroes is just one of many ancient myths dedicated to the underworld and its terrible gods; It is possible that in the 1st millennium A.D. e. there were entire hieroglyphic books on this topic. And the fragment about the divine twins that survived in the Popol Vuh was an important part of the funerary text or hymn at the funeral of representatives of the local elite.
The most remarkable thing about M. Ko's discovery is that he established a direct connection between the images on many painted Mayan vessels of the 1st millennium AD. with the myth about the adventures of the twin heroes in the Underworld from the Maya-Kiche epic "Popol-Vuh" (XVI century).
We are talking about civilization in the wilds of the rainforest. The ruins of a mysterious civilization that existed for more than a thousand years.
Ancient Maya. They built majestic pyramids, magnificent palaces and spacious squares. In the jungle they were masters.
They effectively used energy sources and created amazing engineering structures and works of art for one and a half thousand years.
But suddenly an ancient civilization with centuries of history has disappeared: the noisy cities were empty, and the jungle closed over them.
maya code
Tikal was one of the few cities that gained strength in the preclassic period, and successfully existed until the end of the classical period. The history of this city has not been interrupted.
But in the 6th century, Tikal had a rival: the star of the city called .
The Maya had two cities with strong rulers: Calakmul and Tikal. Between them there were conflicts. As a rule, Calakmul was their initiator: he constantly made alliances with Tikal's neighbors against a common enemy.
Ikin Chan Cavil and Temple of the Great Jaguar
Calakmul became a powerful state thanks to a decisive and far-sighted ruler. His name was Ikin Chan Cavil.
He built one of the most famous Mayan structures, this pyramid has survived the centuries:.
The construction took a lot of effort. The pyramid was not only a temple, but also a symbol of power and authority of the ruler: it was assumed that, convinced of the power of the ruler, people would go over to his side.
Building in the rainforest is not easy today, but they built the pyramids with Stone Age tools. Most of the technologies that we use in the construction of large structures were unknown to the Maya: they there were no draft animals, there were no metal tools.
The Maya had only practically inexhaustible reserves of limestone and working hands. Every citizen of the state was must work annually for the ruler certain time.
From the quarry to the construction site stone had to be dragged or carry on your back. To do this, they had baskets with a strap, or, as it is also called - forehead harness. In this way, it was possible to carry tens of kilograms of stones.
Step by step the pyramid grew upwards. As necessary, they erected and rearranged wooden "forests". Blocks were hewn with stone chisels and wooden mallets.
The inner surface of the walls was left untreated, but they polished the outside: they were coated with a solution - the so-called "mayan stucco" and painted red.
They knew about the wheel, about the metal, but in practice they did not use either one or the other. Apparently, they believed that the more labor expended, the greater the value of the structure.
The façade of the Temple of the Great Jaguar faces west towards the setting sun. The temple on the main square of Tikal was a symbol of the power of the ruler, who paid the debt of the people to the gods.
Ikin-Chan-Kavil built it in honor of the victory over the main rival, Calakmul, in 736. Then, in 743-744, he defeated the allies of Calakmul, who threatened Tikal: in the west and in the east. The noose that squeezed Tikal's "throat" was broken.
In honor of this victory, he rebuilds and expands the palace, erects new pyramids. Tikal in its current form is basically the fruits of that victory.
Most likely, it was he who started the construction the tallest building in Tikal – Temple IV. Pyramid with a volume of 200 thousand cubic meters of stone 65 meters high with a 22-storey building. From its top, towering over the tropical forest, there was a magnificent view of the city.
In other cities, the Maya also built tall buildings, but during the reign of Ikin-Chan-Kavil Tikal was the most powerful city Maya civilization. But not the only one.
Mysterious Ruler
400 kilometers to the west, another dynasty was building its acropolis. In the 7th century, an outstanding ruler appeared there. He turned one of the wettest cities in the world into the "Mecca" of New World architecture.
He enters the sanctuary, looks around and sees in the floor holes with stone plugs. He suggests that ropes were threaded through these holes to lift a massive slab like the current drop doors. He shifts the slab and walks down the stairs, which are clogged with dirt and rubble.
No one has seen such Mayan pyramids before, and he begins to dig. He walks up the wet steps, gets to the landing, and sees the stairs turn. He keeps digging and finds secret doors and false passages- a clear sign that the construction plan was carefully thought out.
Finally, after a long 3 years, he gets to the base of the 25-meter staircase. In front of him is a small passage and a stone sarcophagus with 6 skeletons - the remains of those who were sacrificed to protect the one who built this temple. But he does not yet know the name of this person.
And finally, he sees a door in front of him - a huge triangular stone. Together with his assistants, he opens the door and goes inside.
There is crypt measuring 9 meters in length and 7 in height. And in it- massive sarcophagus from a single piece of limestone with a carved lid depicting a ruler.
Its edge is painted with cinnabar - red paint and smeared with poison against possible robbers. If the Egyptians had used this method, perhaps more ancient treasures would have come down to us.
Here we see shield image, the same shield is depicted in the sanctuary. In the language of the ancient Maya, the shield sounds like "pakal". Alberto Rus opened the tomb of an outstanding Mayan ruler - Pacal Great.
Pacal the Great
The discovery of the Temple of the Inscriptions changed our understanding of the Mayan pyramids: they were not just tombs.
In addition to the stairs, the builders led to the tomb well in the form thin-walled pipe. Through this pipe, any word spoken at the top of the pyramid could be heard in the crypt. Thus, it was possible to communicate directly with Pacal, lying in the tomb.
The 20-ton sarcophagus was supposed to survive eternity. To put the body inside, it was necessary to move the lid to the side. After Pakal's death, the lid was put back in place, the entrance was walled up, and the stairs were filled up.
The stone cutters depicted on the lid a symbolic picture of Pacal's rebirth in the underworld. And also a kind of table in which 640 hieroglyphs were placed with a narrative of the history of Pakal's reign.
In most Mayan pyramids there are practically no texts, with the Temple of Inscriptions the situation is the opposite: literally every stone, both outside and inside, reminds that here is the resting place of the founder of one of the greatest Mayan dynasties.
In 683, in the 68th year of his reign, at the age of 80 the great Mayan ruler Pacal passed away. The body was dyed with cinnabar and studded with jewels. The faces were covered with a jade mask.
Can Balam
Pacal was a great ruler, but his son patiently waited his turn - almost 50 years.
Something great had to be done. The laws of physics and Mother Nature came to the rescue.
684 year. The great ruler Pacal turned Palenque into a city that the Mayan culture had never known before. After 68 years in power, he was buried in a tomb that was not inferior to the tombs of the Egyptian pharaohs. It was up to his son to continue the work begun by his father. His name was Can Balam.
Pacal founded the dynasty, but strengthened the state and thus created the conditions for its continuation by his son.
48 year old ruler started building three temples at once. This complex immortalized his name.
He built "Group of the Cross"- one of the most complex and elegant temple complexes in the history of the Maya. His creation towered over his father's palace. There is an opinion that this complex reflects the character of its creator: he wanted to leave a memory of himself, as his father also wanted.
He ordered the construction of three buildings: Temple of the Cross, Temple of the Leafy Cross and Temple of the Sun.
Mayan number system
In this era, architecture reached a qualitatively new level. Mayan number system allowed to make complex calculations that were not available to other cultures.
The Maya were ahead of the rest of mankind, by entering a character to represent zero. A set of three characters: shells, which denoted zero, dots - ones, and dashes - five in various combinations, made it possible to perform operations with huge numbers.
The Greeks and Romans were great engineers, but their mathematical system was limited because it didn't have a zero. Oddly enough, the great builders, philosophers, compared to the Maya, were useless mathematicians.
It is possible that the architects of Kan-Balan were able to extract from among square root and knew about the golden ratio, the proportions inherent in inanimate nature, animals and even humans - 1 to 1.618.
The ratio of the distance from the crown to the navel and from the navel to the soles corresponds almost exactly.
Scientists find this proportion in structures erected thousands of years ago: in the Egyptian pyramids, in the Greek. I studied it: there is an opinion that the golden ratio is present in the features.
It is possible that with the help of sticks and rope alone, the engineers of Kan-Balam were able to extract. In the Temple of the Cross, the pylons at the entrance, the gates themselves and the walls of the interior are close to this proportion. The dimensions of the side walls and facades when viewed from above are related as 1 to 1.618.
The alternation of squares and rectangles creates an amazing geometric picture on the floor of the Temple of the Cross, full of mythological and historical symbols.
Water supply Palenque
But not all buildings in Palenque were built with the afterlife in mind, the architects thought about more practical things.
Between 800 and 1050 Chichen Itza becomes a large and powerful city. People flocked here from all over the country, and he benefited from this.
Caracol - astronomical observatory
In the city, among other buildings stands out caracol, astronomical observatory. Time and stars the Maya were extremely interested, in the sky they were looking for answers to their questions.
Most likely the Maya used such a device as vizier. Watching the passage of stars through the crosshairs of the reticle, they drew certain conclusions.
Despite primitive tools, the Maya accurately calculated the movements of the stars and planets and the passage of time.
Caracol does not fit into the general layout of the city, but a deviation of 27.5 degrees to the northwest corresponds to northernmost position of Venus in the sky.
The building is focused on celestial bodies and phenomena, namely: the movement of Venus and the equinox.
. The narrow slits appear to be in disorder, but they correspond exactly to astronomical events.Judging by the fact that the proportions and orientation of Karakol do not fit into the overall layout, we can judge roles of Venus in Mayan thought.
Venus behaves differently from other celestial bodies, it moves across the sky first in one direction, then in the other. Apparently, Caracol indicated the days when Venus changes direction.
Knowing the patterns of movement of celestial bodies, the Maya created two interconnected calendars: ritual and solar These were the most accurate calendars of the ancient world.
The Mayan solar year had 365 days.. In addition, they determined the periods of revolution of Venus and lunar eclipses with no less accuracy.
Mayan new era
Maya took only 200 years to revive the civilization that had fallen into decline in the south. But, as it turned out, in the north was waiting for them no less formidable enemy: He destroyed the Mayan culture, leaving the cities intact.
In the 9th century AD the cities of the classical Mayan period, for some unknown reason, are empty, and the new era of prosperity.
With the revival of culture in the north, the Maya, as never before, were able to put into practice their knowledge of astronomy. Mayan admiration for celestial mechanics left its mark on the architecture of Chichen Itza.
The main building of Chichen Itza was, or "Castle", built in the 9th-10th centuries AD.
365 steps, according to the number of days of the year of the Mayan civil calendar. 52 plates symbolize the 52-year cycle, and 9 steps - the 18-month cycle of the solar calendar.
The temple is oriented so that twice a year the shadow from the Sun falls in a certain way. When looking at the balustrade and the northwest corner of El Castillo at sunset, one could observe amazing shadow play. The illuminated triangles of the ledges of the pyramid ended at the foot with a stone head of a snake. A “serpent” descended from heaven to earth, and this meant the onset of the rainy season.
The Maya saw this as a manifestation of the will of the god, the "Feathered Serpent".
The Maya knew how to determine - days when the duration of day and night is the same. Every year on March 21, the descent of Kukulkan could be observed.
The layout of the city around El Castillo has acquired a new quality - space: temples, market, ball court, colonnades.
Most likely, the sides with colonnades served not only ritual purposes. Perhaps they were either specially invited here, or everyone could come to see how processions of ambassadors and merchants from other cities arrive in the city.
These columns are similar to Greek and Roman ones, but for the Maya they were a completely new type of building structure, they allowed the roof to be flat. No need for step masonry, which did not give 100 percent certainty that the vault would not collapse.
The structure of the columns is simple: cylindrical drums put one on top of the other on a layer of gravel. A square slab was laid on top, and the roof was made of wood and covered with lime mortar.
Now what was happening inside the temples was available to a greater number of people than in the era of the classical Mayan pyramids. Only the chosen ones climbed those pyramids, temples were placed on top, and from below it was not visible what was happening in them, and buildings with columns were more accessible.
The death of the Mayan civilization
However, this did not last long, the heyday of Chichen Itza lasted 200 years, and then it suffered the fate of its southern neighbors: it mysteriously depopulated.
When the Spaniards landed in the Yucatan in 1517, all Mayan cities were abandoned and abandoned. The heirs of a collapsed civilization lived in scattered settlements, but courageously resisted .
It turned out to be difficult to subdue them: instead of taking the ruler prisoner, they had to capture the villages one by one. Leaving, they left in the rear potential hotbeds of rebellion.
Mayan warriors killed thousands of conquistadors, but their weapons were powerless against another enemy: disease. For 100 years, 90% of the population of the New World died. The survivors were expected to be persecuted.
Came from Spain to convert the Maya to Christianity, and in his zeal did not know mercy.
Landa was an idealist. He arrived in the New World to save souls, to convert the natives to the true faith. But the Maya were by no means going to abandon their beliefs.
July 12, 1562 Landa burned all Mayan manuscripts, believing them to be diabolical writings. The knowledge accumulated by the Maya over a thousand years was destroyed, for history it was great tragedy.
By good fortune, four codes escaped destruction in flames and not lost over time. In the 19th century, some of these manuscripts were rescued from the hands of the monks, and over time they became known to the general public.
Mayan archeology is just beginning
The ancient Maya tried to find answers to questions by looking from the earth to the sky, and now we are looking for answers by looking from the sky to the earth.
Recently NASA and with the help of modern technology, they tried to find new, unknown Mayan cities. The forested hills may well be the ruins of ancient cities abandoned hundreds of years ago. Perhaps the solution to the mysteries of the Maya lies under our feet.
Mayan archeology is just beginning: an incredible number of cities, temples and other structures have not yet been explored. The "golden" age of Mayan archeology is ahead: by the end of the century, it will be one of the most studied civilizations of the Ancient World.
The Maya were smart, resourceful, but notable for their propensity for violence. What is it that attracts scientists generation after generation to this highly developed and at the same time mysterious civilization? The architecture of majestic palaces and temples? Intricate characters? Or amazing knowledge in astronomy and mathematics with the concept of zero unprecedented for antiquity? Or a people who managed to build not a village, not a town, but magnificent cities in one of the most inhospitable corners of the planet?
In the tropical rainforests between and the Yucatan, they are still hidden hundreds of unknown Mayan cities. One and a half thousand structures have not yet been excavated in Palenque alone. If you imagine what archaeological treasures await scientists in cities like Tikal and Palenque, it becomes clear that the jungle keeps many more secrets of the mysterious Mayan civilization.
Mesoamerica in the classical era.
The territory on which the Maya civilization developed was once occupied by the modern southern Mexican states of Chiapas, Campeche and Yucatan, the Petén department in Northern Guatemala, Belize and part of Western El Salvador and Honduras. The southern borders of the Maya possessions were closed by the mountain ranges of Guatemala and Honduras. Three-quarters of the Yucatan Peninsula is surrounded by the sea, and the land approaches to it from Mexico were blocked by the endless swamps of Chiapas and Tabasco. The Mayan territory is distinguished by an extraordinary variety of natural conditions, but nature has never been too generous to man here. Each step on the path to civilization was given to the ancient inhabitants of these places with great difficulty and required the mobilization of all the human and material resources of society.
The history of the Maya can be divided into three major eras in accordance with the most important changes in the economy, social institutions and culture of local tribes: Paleo-Indian (10000-2000 BC); archaic (2000-100 BC or 0) and the era of civilization (100 BC or 0 - XVI century AD). These eras, in turn, are divided into smaller periods and stages. The initial stage of the classical Maya civilization falls approximately at the turn of our era (1st century BC - 1st century AD). The upper border belongs to the 9th century. AD
The earliest traces of human presence in the area of distribution of the Mayan culture were found in central Chiapas, mountainous Guatemala and part of Honduras (X millennium BC).
At the turn of III and II millennia BC. in these mountainous regions, early agricultural cultures of the Neolithic type appear, the basis of which was maize agriculture.
At the very end of the II - the beginning of the I millennium BC. The development of the Mayan tribes of the tropical jungle begins. Separate attempts to settle on the fertile, game-rich lands of the plains were made earlier, but the mass colonization of these areas began precisely from that time.
At the end of the II millennium BC. the milp (slash-and-burn) system of agriculture is finally taking shape, progressive changes are observed in the production of ceramics, house building and other areas of culture. Based on these achievements, the tribes of the mountain Maya gradually mastered the forest lowlands of Peten, eastern Chiapas, Yucatan and Belize. Their general direction of movement was from west to east. In the course of their advance into the interior of the jungle, the Maya used the most favorable directions and routes, and above all the river valleys.
By the middle of the 1st millennium BC. the colonization of most of the plains of the jungle was completed, after which the development of culture here proceeded quite independently.
At the end of the 1st millennium BC. Qualitative changes are taking place in the culture of the plains of the Maya: palace complexes appear in cities, former sanctuaries and light small temples turn into monumental stone structures, all the most important palace and religious architectural complexes stand out from the general mass of buildings and are located in the central part of the city on special elevated and fortified places, writing and a calendar are being formed, painting and monumental sculpture are developing, magnificent burials of rulers with human sacrifices inside the temple pyramids appear.
The formation of statehood and civilization in the flat forest zone was accelerated by a significant influx of people from the south from the mountainous regions, where, as a result of the eruption of the Ilopango volcano, most of the land was covered with a thick layer of volcanic ash and turned out to be uninhabitable. The southern (mountainous) region, apparently, gave a powerful impetus to the development of the Mayan culture in the Central region (Northern Guatemala, Belize, Tabasco and Chiapas in Mexico). Here the Mayan civilization reached the peak of its development in the 1st millennium AD.
The economic base of the Mayan culture was slash-and-burn maize agriculture. Milp farming consists of clearing, burning, and planting a patch of rainforest. Due to the rapid depletion of the soil, after two or three years, the site must be abandoned and a new one must be sought. The main agricultural tools of the Maya were: a digging stick, an ax and a torch. Through long-term experiments and selection, local farmers have managed to develop hybrid high-yielding varieties of the main agricultural plants - maize, legumes and pumpkins. The manual technique of processing a small forest area and the combination of crops of several crops on one field made it possible to maintain fertility for a long time and did not require frequent change of plots. Natural conditions (soil fertility and abundance of heat and moisture) allowed Maya farmers to collect here an average of at least two crops per year.
In addition to fields in the jungle, near each Indian dwelling there was a personal plot with vegetable gardens, groves of fruit trees, etc. The latter (especially breadfruit "ramon") did not require any care, but provided a significant amount of food.
The successes of ancient Maya agriculture were largely associated with the creation by the beginning of the 1st millennium AD. a clear and harmonious agricultural calendar that strictly regulates the timing and sequence of all agricultural work.
In addition to slash-and-burn, the Maya were familiar with other forms of agriculture. In the south of Yucatan and Belize, on the slopes of high hills, agricultural terraces were found with a special system of soil moisture. In the Candelaria River basin (Mexico), there was an agricultural system reminiscent of the "floating gardens" of the Aztecs. This so-called "raised fields", which have almost inexhaustible fertility. The Maya also had a fairly extensive network of irrigation and drainage canals. The latter removed excess water from swampy areas, turning them into fertile fields suitable for cultivation.
The canals built by the Maya simultaneously collected and brought rainwater into artificial reservoirs, served as an important source of animal protein (fish, waterfowl, freshwater edible mollusks), were convenient ways of communication and delivery of heavy loads on boats and rafts.
The craft of the Maya is represented by ceramic production, weaving, the production of stone tools and weapons, jade jewelry, and construction. Ceramic vessels with polychrome painting, graceful figured vessels, jade beads, bracelets, diadems and figurines are evidence of the high professionalism of Mayan artisans.
In the classical period, the Maya developed trade. Imported Mayan ceramics of the 1st millennium AD. discovered by archaeologists in Nicaragua and Costa Rica. Strong trade ties were established with Teotihuacan. In this vast city, a large number of shards of Mayan ceramics and carved jade gizmos were found. Here was a whole quarter of Mayan traders, with their dwellings, warehouses of goods and sanctuaries. A similar quarter of Teotihuacan traders existed in one of the largest Mayan cities of the 1st millennium AD. Tikal. In addition to land trade, sea routes were also used (images of dugout rowing boats are quite common in the works of art of the ancient Maya, starting at least from the 7th century AD).
The centers of the Mayan civilization were numerous cities. The largest of them were Tikal, Palenque, Yaxchilan, Naranjo, Piedras Negras, Copan, Quirigua, and others. All these names are late. The original names of the cities are still unknown (the exception is Naranjo, which is identified with the Jaguar's Ford fortress, known from the inscription on a clay vase).
Architecture in the central part of any major Mayan city of the 1st millennium AD. represented by pyramidal hills and platforms of various sizes and heights. On their flat tops there are stone buildings: temples, residences of the nobility, palaces. Buildings were surrounded by massive rectangular squares, which were the main planning unit in Mayan cities. Ordinary dwellings were built of wood and clay under roofs of dry palm leaves. All residential buildings stood on low (1-1.5 m) platforms lined with stone. Usually residential and auxiliary buildings form groups located around an open rectangular patio. Such groups were the habitat of a large patriarchal family. In the cities there were markets and craft workshops (for example, for processing flint and obsidian). The location of a building within the city was determined by the social status of its inhabitants.
A significant group of the population of Mayan cities (the ruling elite, officials, warriors, artisans and merchants) was not directly connected with agriculture and existed at the expense of a vast agricultural district, which supplied it with all the necessary agricultural products and mainly maize.
The nature of the socio-political structure of Maya society in the classical era cannot yet be unambiguously determined. It is clear that, at least in the period of its highest prosperity (7th-8th centuries AD), the Mayan social structure was quite complex. Along with the bulk of community farmers, there was nobility (its layer was made up of priests), artisans and professional merchants stood out. The presence of a number of rich burials in rural settlements testifies to the heterogeneity of the rural community. However, it is too early to judge how far this process has gone.
At the head of the hierarchical social system was the deified ruler. The Mayan rulers always emphasized their connection with the gods and performed, in addition to their main (secular) functions, a number of religious ones. They not only had power during their lifetime, but were revered by the people even after their death. In their activities, the rulers relied on the secular and spiritual nobility. From the first formed the administrative apparatus. Despite the fact that little is known about the organization of Mayan administration in the classical period, the presence of a control apparatus is undoubted. This is indicated by the regular planning of Mayan cities, an extensive irrigation system and the need for strict regulation of agricultural labor. The latter was the task of the priests. Any violation of the sacred order was regarded as blasphemy, and the violator could end up on the sacrificial altar.
Like other ancient societies, the Maya had slaves. They were used for various household chores, worked in the gardens and plantations of the nobility, served as porters on the roads and rowers on merchant boats. However, it is unlikely that the proportion of slave labor was significant.
After the 6th century AD in the Mayan cities there is a consolidation of the system of power based on the rules of inheritance, i.e. dynastic regime is established. But in many ways, the classical city-states of the Maya remained "chiefdoms" or "chiefdoms". The power of their hereditary rulers, although sanctioned by the gods, was limited - limited by the size of the territories controlled, the number of people and resources in these territories, and the comparative underdevelopment of the bureaucratic mechanism that the ruling elite had.
There were wars between the Mayan states. In most cases, the territory of the defeated city was not included in the state borders of the winner. The end of the battle was the capture of one ruler by another, usually with the subsequent sacrifice of the captured leader. The foreign policy goal of the Mayan rulers was power and control over neighbors, especially control over the lands suitable for cultivation and over the population in order to cultivate these lands and build cities. However, not a single state has been able to achieve political centralization over a large territory and has not been able to keep this territory for any long period of time.
Approximately between 600 and 700 years. AD Teotihuacan invaded Maya territory. Mostly mountainous areas were attacked, but even in the lowland cities at this time Teotihuacan influence increases significantly. The Mayan city-states managed to resist and rather quickly overcame the consequences of the enemy invasion.
In the 7th century AD. Teotihuacan perishes under the onslaught of the northern barbarian tribes. This had the most serious consequences for the peoples of Central America. The system of political unions, associations and states that had evolved over many centuries was violated. A continuous period of campaigns, wars, migrations, and invasions of barbarian tribes began. This whole motley tangle of ethnic groups, different in language and culture, was inexorably approaching the western borders of the Maya.
At first, the Maya successfully repelled the onslaught of foreigners. It was to this time (the end of the 7th-8th centuries AD) that most of the victorious reliefs and stelae erected by the rulers of the Mayan city-states in the Usumacinta river basin belong: Palenque, Piedras Negras, Yaxchilan, etc. But soon the resistance forces the enemy is exhausted. To this was added the constant hostility between the Maya city-states themselves, whose rulers, for any reason, sought to increase their territory at the expense of their neighbors.
A new wave of conquerors moved from the west. These were the Pipil tribes, whose ethnic and cultural affiliation has not yet been fully established. The Mayan cities in the Usumasinta river basin were the first to be defeated (end of the 8th - first half of the 9th century AD). Then, almost simultaneously, the most powerful city-states of Peten and Yucatan perished (second half of the 9th - early 10th century AD). In the course of some 100 years, the most populous and culturally developed region of Central America falls into a decline from which it has never recovered again.
The low-lying areas of the Maya after these events did not turn out to be completely deserted (according to some authoritative scientists, up to 1 million people died in this territory in just one century). In the XVI-XVII centuries, a fairly large number of inhabitants lived in the forests of Peten and Belize, and in the very center of the former "Old Kingdom", on an island in the middle of Lake Peten Itza, there was a populous city of Taysal - the capital of an independent Mayan state that existed until the end of the XVII century .
In the northern region of Maya culture, in the Yucatan, events developed differently. In the X century. AD the cities of the Yucatan Maya were attacked by warlike Central Mexican tribes - the Toltecs. However, unlike the central Maya region, this did not lead to catastrophic consequences. The population of the peninsula not only survived, but also managed to quickly adapt to the new conditions. As a result, after a short time, a peculiar culture appeared in the Yucatan, combining Mayan and Toltec features.
The reason for the death of the classical Mayan civilization is still a mystery. Some facts indicate that the invasion of the militant groups "Pipil" was not the cause, but the result of the decline of the Mayan cities at the very end of the 1st millennium AD. It is possible that internal social upheavals or some serious economic crisis played a certain role here.
The construction and maintenance of an extensive system of irrigation canals and "elevated fields" required enormous efforts from society. The population, sharply reduced as a result of wars, was no longer able to support it in the difficult conditions of the tropical jungle. And she died, and the Mayan classical civilization died with her.
The end of the classical Maya civilization has much in common with the death of the Harappan culture in. And although they are separated by a rather impressive period of time, typologically they are very close. Perhaps G. M. Bograd-Levin is right, linking the decline of civilization in the Indus Valley not only with natural phenomena, but primarily with the evolution of the structure of sedentary agricultural cultures. True, the nature of this process is not yet clear and requires further study.
Maya lived in one of the most comfortable corners of our planet. They did not need warm clothes, they were content with thick and long strips of fabric, which they wrapped around their bodies in a special manner. They ate mainly corn and what was mined in the jungle, cocoa, fruits, and game. They did not keep domestic animals either for transportation or for food. The wheel was not used. According to modern concepts, it was the most primitive of the civilizations of the Stone Age, they were far from Greece and Rome. However, the fact remains, archaeologists have confirmed that during the period mentioned, this people managed to build several dozen amazing cities on a fairly large territory, far from each other. The basis of these cities is usually a complex of pyramids and powerful stone buildings, completely covered with strange mask-like icons and various dashes.
The highest of the Mayan pyramids are not lower than the Egyptian ones. For scientists, it still remains a mystery: how these structures were built!
And why were such cities of pre-Columbian civilization, perfect in beauty and sophistication, suddenly abandoned, as if on command, by their inhabitants at the turn of 830 AD?
At that very time, the center of civilization went out, the peasants who lived around these cities scattered into the jungle, and all the priestly traditions suddenly degenerated sharply. All subsequent bursts of civilization in this region were distinguished by sharp forms of power.
However, back to our topic. Those same Mayan, who left their cities, fifteen centuries before Columbus invented an accurate solar calendar and developed hieroglyphic writing, used the concept of zero in mathematics. The classical Maya confidently predicted solar and lunar eclipses and even predicted the Day of Judgment.
How did they do it
To answer this question, you and I will have to look beyond what is permitted by established prejudices and question the correctness of the official interpretation of some historical events.
Maya - Geniuses of the pre-Columbian era
During his fourth American voyage in 1502, Columbus landed on a small island off the coast of what is now the Republic of Honduras. Here Columbus met Indian merchants sailing on a large ship. He asked where they were from, and they, as Columbus recorded, answered: “From Mayan province". It is believed that the generally accepted name of the Maya civilization is formed from the name of this province, which, like the word "Indian", is, in essence, an invention of the great admiral.
The name of the main tribal territory of the Maya proper - the Yucatan Peninsula - is of a similar origin. For the first time anchoring off the coast of the peninsula, the conquistadors asked the local inhabitants what their land was called. The Indians answered all questions: "Siu tan", which meant "I do not understand you." Since then, the Spaniards began to call this large peninsula Siugan, and later Siutan became Yucatan. In addition to the Yucatan (during the conquest of the main territory of this people), the Maya lived in the mountainous region of the Central American Cordillera and in the tropical jungle of the so-called Metene, a lowland located in present-day Guatemala and Honduras. Maya culture probably originated in this area. Here, in the basin of the Usu-masinta river, the first Mayan pyramids were erected and the first magnificent cities of this civilization were built.
Mayan territory
By the beginning of the Spanish conquest in the 16th century Mayan culture occupied a vast and diverse territory in terms of natural conditions, which included the modern Mexican states of Tabasco, Chiapas, Campeche, Yucatan and Quintana Roo, as well as all of Guatemala, Belize (formerly British Honduras), the western regions of El Salvador and Honduras. millennium, apparently, more or less coincided with those mentioned above. At present, most scientists distinguish within this territory three large cultural and geographical regions, or zones: Northern, Central and Southern.
Maya civilization location map
The northern region includes the entire Yucatan Peninsula - a flat limestone plain with shrub vegetation, crossed in some places by chains of low rocky hills. The poor and thin soils of the peninsula, especially along the coast, are not very favorable for maize farming. In addition, there are no rivers, lakes and streams; the only source of water (except for rain) are natural karst wells - senates.
The central region occupies the territory of modern Guatemala (Peten department), the southern Mexican states of Tabasco, Chiapas (eastern) and Campeche, as well as Belize and a small area in the west of Honduras. This is a zone of tropical rain forests, low rocky hills, limestone plains and extensive seasonal swamps. There are many large rivers and lakes here: rivers - Usumacinta, Grijalva, Belize, Chamelekon, etc., lakes - Isabel, Peten Itza, etc. The climate is warm, tropical, with an average annual temperature of 25 above zero Celsius. The year is divided into two seasons: dry (lasts from late January to late May) and the rainy season. In total, from 100 to 300 cm of precipitation falls here per year. Fertile soils, the lush splendor of the flora and fauna of the tropics greatly distinguish the Central Region from the Yucatan.
The central region of the Maya is central not only geographically. This is also the area where Mayan civilization reached the pinnacle of its development in the first millennium. Most of the largest urban centers were also located here at that time: Tikal, Palenque, Yaxchilan, Naranjo, Piedras Negras, Copan, Quiriguaidr.
The southern region includes the mountainous regions and the Pacific coast of Guatemala, the Mexican state of Chiapas (its mountainous part), and certain regions of El Salvador. This territory is distinguished by an unusual diversity of ethnic composition, a variety of natural and climatic conditions, and a significant cultural specificity, which noticeably distinguishes it from the background of other Maya regions.
These three regions differ not only geographically. They are different from each other and their historical destinies.
Although all of them were inhabited from very early times, there was certainly a kind of transfer of the "baton" of cultural leadership between them: the Southern (mountainous) region, apparently, gave a powerful impetus to the development of the classical Maya culture in the Central region, and the last reflection of the great Mayan civilization is associated with the Northern region (Yucatan).
Mayan house: on
House (on the) a simple Maya Indian was like a peasant house anywhere else, it was simple and practical.
Having married, Maya at first built a small house - opposite the dwelling of his father or father-in-law. Later, he built a large house for himself - already with the help of the community. The house could be built round, square, rectangular, or (most common in the Yucatan) rounded at both ends. Its frame was made of willow, which was placed on a stone base. Then the frame was coated with clay. Later, the house was brightly painted. The high pointed roof was made from the trunks of young trees and beautifully covered (both then and now) with palm leaves "of very good quality and in great quantity," as Landa wrote. In ancient times (c. 500), the Mayan house was usually square and stood on a low foundation. The houses of the Mayan Indians, while not always the same, tended to be similar to each other even in remote areas.
Rice. 64. Mayan home past and present. Left: the house (na) of a simple Indian, immortalized on a stone frieze at Uxmal. Right: modern Mayan home
The interior of the house was divided by a wall. One part of it became a kitchen, and the other was sleeping places. “They had beds made of small trees,” Landa writes, “tied together with wicker rods that… sagged with body movements like a mattress.” This bed was covered with a mat woven from grass. The Maya used their cotton mantas as blankets. It seems doubtful that the hammock later used by the Maya was known to them prior to the arrival of the Spaniards, who brought several examples of hammocks from the island of Hispaniola (now the island of Haiti. - Transl.).
The house had one entrance without a door. Across the doorway, a light rope was pulled from above, from which small copper bells hung. The incoming touched them and let the owner know about his arrival. People rarely entered the house without permission, as "they considered it a serious crime to harm someone else's house."
This functional house has changed little in two thousand years. The words for different parts of a building are the same in different dialects of the Mayan language and can be considered, as one archaeologist writes, as "linguistic paleontology." The crate of the roof is called the “rat road”, the entrance is called the “mouth of the house”, and the main pillar supporting the roof is the “leg of the house”.
The commoner also built the houses of the nobility, which were larger and more spacious than others. Some of these houses were made of carved stones. "The slope of the roof goes very low in the front, because they love the sun and the rain" (as protection from rain and sun). The walls of the Mayan houses "were very delicately painted" - this observation was confirmed by archaeological excavations. The only entrance without a door Maya could close the drapery, which was a richly decorated woven curtain. Some of the buildings currently found in the temple cities may have been the homes of nobles, although no buildings have been found that can be definitely associated with the ruling class.
The house stood a little more than the life of one generation lasted. Excavations of the barrows in which the houses were found reveal a "completed ceramic period". When the inhabitants of the house died, they were buried under a hard earthen floor ("they bury their dead inside or in the back of their houses"). After several burials, the residents left the house and began to treat it as a sacred place for the graves of their ancestors.
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