Mixed forms between the Asian branch of the Mongoloids and the Australoids

Mixed forms between Caucasian and Negroid major races

Mixed forms between Caucasoid and Australoid major races

Mixed forms between Caucasoids and the American branch of the Mongoloids

Mixed forms between Caucasoids and the Asian branch of the Mongoloids

Negroid (African) races

Mongoloid (Asian-American) races

Caucasoid (Eurasian) races

• northern forms
• Atlanto-Baltic
• White Sea-Baltic

• Transitional (intermediate) forms
• Alpine
• Central European
• Eastern European

• southern forms
• mediterranean
• Indo-Afghan
• Balkan-Caucasian
• Western Asian (Armenoid)
• Pamir-Fergana

• Asian branch of the Mongoloid races
• Continental Mongoloids
• North Asian
• Central Asian
• arctic race
• Pacific Mongoloids
• American races

Australoid (Oceanian) races

• Veddoids
• Australians
• Papuans and Melanesians
• Negritos

• Black people
• Negrilli (pygmies)
• Bushmen and Hottentots

• Central Asian groups
• South Siberian race
• Ural race and subural type
• Laponoids and sublapanoid type
• Mixed groups of Siberia

• American mestizo

• South Indian race

• Ethiopian race
• Mixed groups of Western Sudan
• Mixed groups of Eastern Sudan
• Mulattos
• South African "colored"

• South Asian (Malay) race
• Japanese
• East Indonesian group

• Malagasy
• Polynesians and Micronesians
• Hawaiians and Pitcairns

Rasogenesis- the process of racial differentiation of mankind. The vast majority of modern racial types have been formed over the past two or three millennia.

92. List the factors of racial genesis. What is the difference in the action of natural selection during speciation and racial genesis? Are there "pure" races? What is the scientific failure of racism?

The factors of racial genesis, as well as the factors of ontogenesis, can be combined into two groups: genotypic and environmental factors. The genotypic group of factors of racial genesis has its own well-established name - "hereditary variability". hereditary variability - the property of organisms to acquire new traits in the course of life and pass them on to offspring. The main factors of racial genesis are four factors: mutation , miscegenation , insulation and natural selection

Natural selection - according to Darwin, "experiencing the fittest" organisms. The mechanism of natural selection is simple. Individuals with certain qualities leave offspring, and individuals who do not have these qualities leave few or no offspring. For example, the population of the countries of the Asian region has an increased concentration of the “B” blood group, the “AB0” system, due to the fact that smallpox epidemics were quite common in these regions, and people with this group are less likely to get smallpox and tolerate it more easily.

“The main driving force behind the natural selection of living organisms is the struggle for existence. High reproduction rates, leading to a lack of means of life - food, shelters, etc., serve as prerequisites for the struggle for existence, during which some individuals die, and some survive, are selected. So, according to Darwin's calculations, if all the cubs that were born survived and reproduced, a pair of elephants - one of the slowest breeding mammals - would leave 19 million descendants in 750 years. One diatom, with unhindered reproduction, could cover the entire surface of the Earth with a film within a day and a half. However, this potential ability to reproduce is never fully realized in nature. Most of the emerging individuals do not live to adulthood and die in the process of the struggle for existence.

Absolutely pure races does not exist, but the Jews are without any doubt the purest race of all the civilized nations of the world. Racist theories divide humanity into "superior" and "inferior" races, suggesting that morphological features determine the cultural, spiritual and economic potential of a given race. At the same time, it is argued that no external influences, social transformations can change the belonging of a race to one category or another, since this is a hereditary trait acquired as a result of evolution and fixed genetically. The Caucasian race is usually referred to as the "superior" race. According to the racist theory, it is she who is the highest product of evolution, who won the struggle for existence, and is called upon to effectively lead all the "lower" races for the benefit of mankind.

The main sciences that justified racism were social Darwinism and eugenics, which became most widespread in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Their supporters assumed that different races belonged to different species, or subspecies, which, when crossed, produced non-viable or mentally disabled offspring. These sciences were supported by the politicians of the imperialist countries in order to justify the colonial policy pursued by them in the economically underdeveloped countries. These pseudosciences reached their greatest development in the fascist countries - Germany, Italy, Japan.

Criticism of racism is based on several provisions. Firstly, the species unity of humanity is emphasized, the similarity of representatives of different races in terms of basic biologically significant features, as well as the insignificance of racial differences. All races produce viable and fertile offspring. The genetic distance between large races, determined by the frequency of mismatch of allelic genes, is only 0.03. This is much lower than the indicators typical for true subspecies (0.17–0.22), and even smaller compared to the interspecific distance (0.5–0.6). In the animal kingdom, a genetic distance of 0.03 usually corresponds to the genetic differences between adjacent populations living in similar conditions and separated only by distance.

The second proof that refutes the initial “inferiority” and cultural failure of the economically backward peoples and the constant superiority of the Caucasoid race is provided by archeology and history. The degree of development of mental, creative and other abilities does not depend on the race and the time of existence of its representatives. At all times, cultures arose and disappeared that surpassed their neighbors in terms of the level of development of science, architecture, technology and art. At different times, advanced civilizations took shape in Babylon and Egypt, Greece and Rome. There is irrefutable evidence of the flourishing of the culture and power of the Aztec and Inca empires and many others. They enriched neighboring civilizations, at a certain stage there was a "leveling" of cultures until new progressive civilizations appeared.

93. What is meant by the constitutional types of people? What classifications of constitutional types do you know and how perfect are they?

With all the diversity of human personalities, there are three main constitutional types: endo-, ecto-, and mesomorphic. The endomorphic type is characterized by a powerful skeleton, a thick-set figure, a tendency to be overweight, to accumulate fat, which is very difficult to get rid of for its representatives. If fullness is not a consequence of illness or improper metabolism, but the result of “good appetite and good character,” it is not an obstacle to training: such fat men are strong, fast, agile, flexible and able to endure heavy loads. So one should not be discouraged about fullness, although it is necessary to fight with excess. People of an ectomorphic body type are thin-boned, without excess fat deposits, thin, with a pronounced muscle relief (if they are noticeable) and elongated proportions. They show abilities for various sports, especially those requiring endurance and moderate intensity, fine coordination, and dexterity. Exercises with weights, strength development and muscle gain are usually difficult for them (with the exception of the so-called "wiry" people, who sometimes find tremendous strength that is difficult to correlate with their appearance). The mesomorphic, or athletic, type is most proportional, subcutaneous fat is within normal limits, the muscular system is clearly visible, perceives and assimilates loads. Weight training actively affects the growth of muscle mass, training is easily tolerated, and recovery processes are normal. It is easy for such people to “sculpt” their figure and achieve other athletic goals. The constitution is a set of functional and morphological features of the body, formed on the basis of hereditary and acquired properties, which determine the originality of the body's response to external and internal stimuli. In fact, the constitution of a person is the genetic potential of a person, the product of heredity and the environment that realizes hereditary potential. Of the environmental factors, under the influence of which the features of the constitution are realized (socio-economic conditions, nutrition, past illnesses, physical education and sports), especially in childhood and adolescence

Reflexive constitution - genetic memory (embryonic developmental path), immune memory (of past diseases), neural memory (memory fixed by neurons).

The genotypic constitution is the original "hereditary passport" (genomic characteristic, human chromosome system) that determines the regenerative abilities of our morphology (for example, wound healing).

The phenotypic constitution is a traditional (and sometimes the only) idea of ​​​​a person’s constitution, based on the hereditary structure of his musculoskeletal “portrait” (according to modern terminology, these are ectomorphs, mesomorphs, endomorphs, various types of asthenic, normosthenic and hypersthenic constitutions). According to V.P. Petlenko, 5 constitutional types (variants of the norm) are distinguished: 1) normosthenic, 2) hypersthenic, 3) hyposthenic (asthenic) 4) graceful (small, proportional, graceful) 5) athletic type. Most often, these types are variable, that is, it is rarely possible to isolate a pure type in practice.

Somatic constitution - body features. Somatotype - body type - determined on the basis of anthropometric measurements (somatotyping), genotypically determined, constitutional type, characterized by the level and peculiarity of metabolism (the predominant development of muscle, adipose or bone tissue), a tendency to certain diseases, as well as psychophysiological differences.

The immune constitution is a globulin defense system based on the “antigen-antibody” mechanism that determines the nature and intensity of immunological reactions (“normal” or allergic, pathological) that ensure the constancy of the internal environment (homeostasis), or its pathology.

The neural constitution is a state of neurological reactivity that determines the basic foundations of learning, the acquisition of knowledge; it is the basic basis of the emotions and volitional processes that determine our health and our neurological symptoms.

The psychological constitution determines the psychological type of personality, its character and temperament.

The lymphohematological constitution is the features of the lymph flow and the blood type, which are of a genomic, constitutional nature and determine the intensity of the body's metabolism and energy.

The hormonal-sexual constitution characterizes an essential moment in all human behavioral reactions. Sexual behavior is determined by the interaction of certain brain structures with sex hormones (androgens in male sexual behavior and estrogens in female sexual behavior).

94. What do you understand by the geographical variability of a person? Is there a difference between geographic and ecological human variability? What groups of people do you know that have arisen as a result of ecological variability? EOGRAPHIC VARIABILITY - species, differences between spatially separated populations of a species.

They are located at the geographical junctions of large races. On the territory of Russia there are 2 such races:

Ural small race forms the basis of the anthropological type of the peoples of the Mansi, Khanty, Selkups, some Volga peoples, as well as the peoples of Altai. Representatives of the Ural race are similar to representatives of the Laponoid race, but are somewhat larger and have some Mongoloid features. The skin is predominantly light. The hair is dark and dark blond, straight and broadly wavy, often soft. Eye color is predominantly mixed and dark shades, although there is a small percentage of light. The nose is straight or with a concave back, the tip is raised. Lips of medium thickness. The tertiary hairline is weakened. Body length is average and below average.

South Siberian small race concentrated in the steppes of Kazakhstan, the mountainous regions of the Tien Shan and Altai. Widespread among Kazakhs and Kirghiz. It is a variant of mixing the Caucasoid and Mongoloid races. The beginning of the formation of the South Siberian race is precisely established - this is the middle of the first millennium BC, when there was a mixture of Caucasoids and Mongoloids in this part of Eurasia. The skin color is dark and light. Pigmentation of hair and eyes is close to Ural, but a little darker. The nose is straight and sometimes with a convex back.

Ethiopian race localized in East Africa and is a product of a mixture of Caucasians and ancient Afro-Negroids. Skin color varies within various brown shades. Dark hair and eyes. Hair is usually curly, narrowly wavy. The tertiary hairline is weakened. The nose is usually straight, with a high bridge of nose and not wide. The face is narrow, the lips are of medium thickness. The body length is average and above average, the physique is dolichomorphic. This race is common in Ethiopia, Somalia, Kenya and Sudan.

Dravidian or South Indian the race is located at the junction of the southern Caucasians and Veddoids in South India. Brownish skin. The eyes and hair are dark. The hair is straight and wavy.

Ainu, or Kuril race, currently occupies the island of Hokkaido. The origin is not exactly known. Skin color is dark. The hair is dark, coarse, wavy. The eyes are light brown. The tertiary hairline, especially on the face, is very strong, making up the world maximum (some groups of the Balkan-Caucasian m.r.). The face is low and broad, slightly flattened. The nose, mouth and ears are large, the lips are full. The body length is small, the neck is short, the arms are quite long, and the legs are relatively short. The physique is massive. The origin of the Kuril race is not exactly known. Some anthropologists distinguish it as a separate large race.

Polynesian minor race distributed in the Pacific Islands and New Zealand. The skin is swarthy, sometimes rather light, yellowish. Hair is dark, wavy or straight. The eyes are dark. The tertiary hairline on the body is weak, on the face is medium. The nose is moderately protruding and relatively wide. Lips are quite full. Large body sizes are characteristic, a euryplastic type of constitution is very common.

The origin of the Polynesian minor race is not exactly known. It is classified either as a Caucasoid, or a Mongoloid, or an Australoid race. Some anthropologists believe that it occurred as a result of the mixing of all three large races. And there is also an opinion (Bunak) that this is a kind of pan-neicum group.

"The ancient ancestors of man" - The figurines of animals were pierced with arrows, thus killing the beast. Views based on the fact that man was created by God or the gods. Australopithecus is considered to be all bipedal monkeys. Possessing a developed speech, Neanderthals skillfully coordinated their actions. DRIOPITE? KI (Dryopithecinae, "tree monkeys"), a subfamily of extinct great apes.

"Ancient people" - Speech is articulate. Pithecanthropus. Heidelberg man. No. 6. What kind of ancient people belong to? Test 6. The oldest people belong to the species: A skilled person. Well developed chin. The most ancient people (archanthropes) include (_). Human Origins. Height is about 155-165 cm. Yes. 5. Could the earliest people make fire?

"Primitive society" - In the history of cave painting of the Paleolithic era, experts distinguish several periods. We repeat... We can judge the beginning of the development of religion from archaeological excavations. Homo habilis. Neanderthal.

"The origin and development of man" - Voice the religious version of the origin of man? Stages of development. Give examples of the mythological explanation of the origin of man? What do you understand by the term "lifelong learning"? We have come to the following conclusions: Statement of the question of the origin of man. After carefully studying the additional material, make a table "Stages of human development."

"Biology anthropogenesis" - Comparative anatomical. Anthropogenesis -. Test Yourself: Rudiments. Lesson Objective: What evidence is there for evolution? Biological. - the process of evolutionary origin and development of the Homo sapiens species. Factors of human evolution. Paleontological. Evidence of anthropogenesis.

"The emergence of man" - Question 1. Features of the philosophical study of man. Hominid triad. Evolutionary factors of anthropogenesis. One of the specific properties of a person is the analysis of himself. The complex nature of anthropogenesis. Question 4. The philosophical meaning of the concept of "man". Man from a man's point of view. Historical forms of humanism.

In total there are 19 presentations in the topic

The population of our planet is so diverse that one can only be surprised. What kind of nationalities, nationalities you will not meet! Everyone has their own faith, customs, traditions, orders. Its beautiful and unusual culture. However, all these differences are formed only by the people themselves in the process of social historical development. And what underlies the differences that appear externally? After all, we are all very different:

• blacks;
• yellow-skinned;
• white;
• with different eye colors
• various heights, etc.

It is obvious that the reasons are purely biological, not dependent on the people themselves and formed over thousands of years of evolution. This is how the modern races of man were formed, which theoretically explain the visual diversity of human morphology. Let us consider in more detail what this term is, what is its essence and meaning.

The concept of "race of people"

What is a race? It is not a nation, not a people, not a culture. These concepts should not be confused. After all, representatives of different nationalities and cultures can freely belong to the same race. Therefore, the definition can be given such as the science of biology gives.

Human races are a set of external morphological features, that is, those that are the phenotype of a representative. They were formed under the influence of external conditions, the impact of a complex of biotic and abiotic factors, and were fixed in the genotype during evolutionary processes. Thus, the signs that underlie the division of people into races should include:

• growth;
• skin and eye color;
• structure and shape of hair;
• hairiness of the skin;
• features of the structure of the face and its parts.

All those signs of Homo sapiens as a biological species that lead to the formation of the external appearance of a person, but do not affect his personal, spiritual and social qualities and manifestations, as well as the level of self-development and self-education.

People of different races have a completely identical biological springboard for the development of certain abilities. Their general karyotype is the same:

• women - 46 chromosomes, that is, 23 pairs of XX;
• men - 46 chromosomes, 22 pairs XX, 23 pairs - XY.

This means that all representatives of a reasonable person are one and the same, among them there are no more or less developed, superior to others, higher. From a scientific point of view, everyone is equal.

Types of human races, formed over about 80 thousand years, have an adaptive value. It is proved that each of them was formed in order to provide a person with the possibility of a normal existence in a given habitat, to facilitate adaptability to climatic, relief and other conditions. There is a classification showing which races of Homo sapiens existed before, and which are at the present time.

Race classification

She is not alone. The thing is that until the 20th century it was customary to distinguish 4 races of people. These were the following varieties:

• Caucasian;
• australoid;
• negroid;
• Mongoloid.

For each, detailed characteristic features were described by which any individual of the human species could be identified. However, later the classification became widespread, which includes only 3 human races. This became possible due to the unification of the Australoid and Negroid groups into one.

Therefore, the modern types of human races are as follows.

1. Large: Caucasoid (European), Mongoloid (Asian-American), Equatorial (Australian-Negroid).
2. Small: many different branches that were formed from one of the large races.

Each of them is characterized by its own characteristics, signs, external manifestations in the appearance of people. All of them are considered by anthropologists, and the science itself that studies this issue is biology. Human races have interested people since ancient times. Indeed, completely contrasting external features often became the cause of racial strife and conflict.

Genetic studies of recent years allow again to talk about the division of the equatorial group into two. Consider all 4 races of people who stood out earlier and have become relevant again recently. We note the signs and features.

australoid race

Typical representatives of this group include the indigenous people of Australia, Melanesia, Southeast Asia, and India. Also the name of this race is Australo-Veddoid or Australo-Melanesian. All synonyms make it clear which minor races are included in this group. They are the following:

• australoids;
• veddoids;
• Melanesians.

In general, the characteristics of each group represented do not vary too much among themselves. There are several main features that characterize all small races of people of the Australoid group.

1. Dolichocephaly - an elongated shape of the skull in relation to the proportions of the rest of the body.
2. Deep-set eyes, wide slit. The color of the iris is predominantly dark, sometimes almost black.
3. The nose is wide, the bridge of the nose is pronounced flat.
4. The body hair is very well developed.
5. The hair on the head is dark in color (sometimes natural blonds are found among Australians, which was the result of a once-fixed natural genetic mutation of the species). Their structure is rigid, they can be curly or slightly curly.
6. The growth of people is average, often above average.
7. The physique is thin, elongated.

Within the Australoid group, people of different races differ from each other sometimes quite strongly. So, a native of Australia can be a tall blonde with a dense build, with straight hair, with light brown eyes. At the same time, the Melanesian will be a thin, short dark-skinned representative who has curly black hair and almost black eyes.

Therefore, the general features described above for the entire race are only an average version of their cumulative analysis. Naturally, miscegenation also takes place - a mixture of different groups as a result of natural crossing of species. That is why it is sometimes very difficult to identify a specific representative and attribute him to one or another small and large race.

Negroid race

The people who make up this group are the settlers of the following territories:

• Eastern, Central and Southern Africa;
• part of Brazil;
• some peoples of the USA;
• representatives of the West Indies.

In general, such races of people as Australoids and Negroids used to unite in the equatorial group. However, research in the 21st century has proved the failure of this order. After all, the differences in the signs shown between the designated races are too great. And some similarities are explained very simply. After all, the habitats of these individuals are very similar in terms of the conditions of existence, therefore, the adaptations in appearance are also close.

So, the representatives of the Negroid race are characterized by the following signs.

1. Very dark, sometimes blue-black, skin color, as it is especially rich in melanin content.
2. Wide eye slit. They are large, dark brown, almost black.
3. The hair is dark, curly, coarse.
4. Growth varies, often low.
5. The limbs are very long, especially the arms.
6. The nose is wide and flat, the lips are very thick, fleshy.
7. The jaw is devoid of a chin protrusion and protrudes forward.
8. Ears are large.
9. Facial hair is poorly developed, beard and mustache are absent.

Negroids are easy to distinguish from others by external data. Below are the different races of people. The photo reflects how clearly Negroids differ from Europeans and Mongoloids.

Mongoloid race

Representatives of this group are characterized by special features that allow them to adapt to rather difficult external conditions: desert sands and winds, blinding snow drifts, and so on.

Mongoloids are the indigenous people of Asia and much of America. Their characteristic features are as follows.

1. Narrow or slanting eyes.
2. The presence of epicanthus - a specialized skin fold aimed at covering the inner corner of the eye.
3. The color of the iris is light to dark brown.
4. characterized by brachycephaly (short head).
5. Superciliary ridges thickened, strongly protruding.
6. Sharp high cheekbones are well defined.
7. The hairline on the face is poorly developed.
8. The hair on the head is coarse, dark in color, of a straight structure.
9. The nose is not wide, the bridge of the nose is low.
10. Lips of different thickness, usually narrow.
11. Skin color varies in different representatives from yellow to swarthy, there are also fair-skinned people.

It should be noted that another characteristic feature is short stature, both in men and women. It is the Mongoloid group that prevails in numbers, if we compare the main races of people. They populated almost all climatographic zones of the Earth. Close to them in terms of quantitative characteristics are Caucasians, which we will consider below.

Caucasian race

First of all, we will designate the predominant habitats of people from this group. It:

• Europe.
• North Africa.
• Western Asia.

Thus, representatives unite the two main parts of the world - Europe and Asia. Since the living conditions were also very different, then the general signs are again an average option after analyzing all the indicators. Thus, the following features of appearance can be distinguished.

1. Mesocephaly - medium head in the structure of the skull.
2. Horizontal section of the eyes, absence of strongly pronounced superciliary ridges.
3. Narrow protruding nose.
4. Lips of different thickness, usually of medium size.
5. Soft curly or straight hair. There are blondes, brunettes, brown-haired.
6. Eye color from light blue to brown.
7. Skin color also varies from pale, white to swarthy.
8. The hairline is very well developed, especially on the chest and face of men.
9. The jaws are orthognathic, that is, slightly pushed forward.

In general, a European is easy to distinguish from others. Appearance allows you to do this almost unmistakably, even without using additional genetic data.

If you look at all the races of people, the photo of whose representatives is located below, the difference becomes obvious. However, sometimes the signs are mixed so deeply that the identification of the individual becomes almost impossible. He is able to belong to two races at once. This is further aggravated by intraspecific mutation, which leads to the appearance of new traits.

For example, Negroid albinos are a special case of the appearance of blonds in the Negroid race. A genetic mutation that disrupts the integrity of racial traits in a given group.

Origin of human races

Where did such a variety of signs of the appearance of people come from? There are two main hypotheses that explain the origin of human races. It:

• monocentrism;
• polycentrism.

However, none of them has yet become an officially accepted theory. According to the monocentric point of view, initially, about 80 thousand years ago, all people lived in the same territory, and therefore their appearance was approximately the same. However, over time, growing numbers have led to a wider settlement of people. As a result, some groups found themselves in difficult climatic conditions.

This led to the development and fixation at the genetic level of some morphological adaptations that help in survival. For example, dark skin and curly hair provide thermoregulation and a cooling effect on the head and body in Negroids. And the narrow cut of the eyes protects them from sand and dust, as well as from blinding by white snow among the Mongoloids. The developed hairline of Europeans is a kind of thermal insulation in severe winters.

Another hypothesis is called polycentrism. She says that different types of human races descended from several ancestral groups that were unevenly settled around the globe. That is, there were initially several foci, from which the development and consolidation of racial characteristics began. Again, under the influence of climatic conditions.

That is, the process of evolution proceeded linearly, simultaneously affecting aspects of life on different continents. This is how the formation of modern types of people from several phylogenetic lines took place. However, it is not necessary to state for sure about the viability of this or that hypothesis, since there is no evidence of a biological and genetic nature, at the molecular level.

Modern classification

The races of people according to the estimates of current scientists have the following classification. Two trunks stand out, and each of them has three large races and many small ones. It looks like this.

1. Western trunk. Includes three races:

• Caucasians;
• capoids;
• negroids.

The main groups of Caucasians: Nordic, Alpine, Dinaric, Mediterranean, Falian, East Baltic and others.

Minor races of capoids: Bushmen and Khoisans. They inhabit South Africa. In the fold above the eyelids, they are similar to the Mongoloids, but in other ways they differ sharply from them. The skin is not elastic, which is why the appearance of early wrinkles is characteristic of all representatives.

Groups of Negroids: Pygmies, Nilots, Negroes. All of them are settlers of different parts of Africa, therefore they have similar signs of appearance. Very dark eyes, the same skin and hair. Thick lips and no chin protrusion.

2. Eastern trunk. Includes the following major races:

• australoids;
• americanoids;
• Mongoloids.

Mongoloids - are divided into two groups - northern and southern. These are the indigenous inhabitants of the Gobi Desert, which left its mark on the appearance of these people.

Americanoids are the population of North and South America. They have a very high growth, the epicanthus is often developed, especially in children. However, the eyes are not as narrow as those of the Mongoloids. Combine the characteristics of several races.

Australoids consist of several groups:

• Melanesians;
• veddoids;
• Ainu;
• Polynesians;
• Australians.

Their characteristic features have been discussed above.

Minor races

This concept is a rather highly specialized term that allows you to identify any person to any race. After all, each big one is subdivided into many small ones, and they are already compiled on the basis of not only small external distinguishing features, but also include data from genetic studies, clinical analyzes, and molecular biology facts.

Therefore, small races - this is what allows you to more accurately reflect the position of each individual in the system of the organic world, and specifically, in the composition of the species Homo sapiens sapiens. What specific groups exist was discussed above.

Racism

As we found out, there are different races of people. Their signs can be strongly polar. This is what led to the emergence of the theory of racism. She says that one race is superior to another, since it is made up of more highly organized and perfect beings. At one time, this led to the appearance of slaves and their white masters.

However, from the point of view of science, this theory is completely absurd and untenable. The genetic predisposition to the development of certain skills and abilities is the same for all peoples. The proof that all races are biologically equal is the possibility of free interbreeding between them with the preservation of the health and viability of the offspring.

human races

We live in a very difficult time, there are already about 6 billion people on earth. Among them there are no and cannot be two absolutely identical; even twins developing from the same egg, despite the great similarity of their external appearance and internal state, always differ from one another in some small features. Bodily differences are especially noticeable between territorial groups of people who are distant from each other and live in different geographic and climatic conditions.

View division homo sapiens on race happened 2 and a half centuries ago. The origin of the term "race" is not exactly established. According to some scientists, this is a modification of the slave word "ras" (man, beginning, root). There is also an opinion that the term is related to the Italian "razza", which means "tribe". According to the French traveler Francois Bernier, the word "RASA" came from Sanskrit, the ancient language of the Indo-Aryans. In 1682 he created one of the first classifications of human races.

Metis(French métis, from late Latin misticius - mixed, from Latin misceo - I mix) - descendants from interracial marriages. Anthropologically, mestizos usually occupy an intermediate position between intermingled races. It is a mixture of one race with another.
Mulattos- descendants from mixed marriages of representatives of the Negroid and Caucasian races.
Sambo(Spanish zambo) - descendants from mixed marriages of Indians and blacks. In different countries and at different times, the term had different meanings. Old dictionaries define him as a mixture of a black man and a mulatto, or a black woman and a mulatto. The old pronunciation is "zambo", "zamboin".

A great contribution to the description of human races was made by the Soviet scientist Valery Pavlovich Alekseev (1929-1991). In principle, we are now guided precisely by his calculations in this interesting anthropological issue.

So what is race?

This is a relatively stable biological characteristic of the human species. Combines their general appearance and psychophysical features. At the same time, it is important to understand that this unity does not in any way affect the form of the hostel and the ways of living together. General signs are purely external, anatomical, but they cannot be used to judge the intellect of people, their ability to work, live, engage in science, art and other mental activities. That is, representatives of different races are absolutely identical in their mental development. They also have exactly the same rights, and, consequently, duties.

The ancestors of modern man are the Cro-Magnons. It is assumed that their first representatives appeared on Earth 300 thousand years ago in Southeast Africa. As the millennia passed, our distant ancestors spread throughout the world.

They lived in different climatic conditions, and therefore acquired strictly specific biological characteristics. A single habitat gave rise to a common culture.

And within this culture ethnic groups were formed. For example, the Roman ethnic group, the Greek ethnic group, the Carthaginian ethnic group and others.

Human races are divided into Caucasians, Negroids, Mongoloids, Australoids, Americanoids. There are also sub-races or minor races. Their representatives have their own specific biological traits that other people do not have.

1 - Negroid, 2 - Caucasoid, 3 - Mongoloid, 4 - Australoid, 5 - Americanoid

Caucasians - white race

The first Caucasians appeared in Southern Europe and North Africa. From there they spread throughout the European continent, came to Central, Central Asia and Northern Tibet. They crossed the Hindu Kush and ended up in India. Here they settled the entire northern part of Hindustan. They also mastered the Arabian Peninsula and the northern regions of Africa. In the 16th century, they crossed the Atlantic and populated almost all of North America and most of South America. Then it was the turn of Australia and South Africa.

Negroids - black race

Negroids or Negroes are considered the indigenous inhabitants of the tropical zone. This explanation is based on melanin, which gives the skin its black color. It protects the skin from the burns of the scorching tropical sun. No doubt, it prevents burns. But what clothes do people wear on a hot sunny day - white or black? Of course white, because it reflects the sun's rays well. Therefore, in extreme heat, having black skin is unprofitable, especially with high insolation. From this we can assume that the Negroes appeared in those climatic conditions where cloudiness prevailed.

Indeed, the oldest finds of Grimaldi (Negroids), belonging to the Upper Paleolithic, were discovered on the territory of Southern France (Nice) in the Grimaldi cave. In the Upper Paleolithic, this whole area was inhabited by people with black skin, woolly hair and large lips. They were tall, slender, long-legged hunters of large herbivores. But how did they end up in Africa? Just like the Europeans came to America, that is, they moved there, pushing the indigenous population.

Interestingly, South Africa was inhabited by Negroids - Bantu Negroes (the classic Negroes we know) in the 1st century BC. e. That is, the pioneers were contemporaries of Julius Caesar. It was at this time that they settled in the forests of the Congo, the savannas of East Africa, reached the southern regions of the Zambezi River and ended up on the banks of the muddy Limpopo River.

And who did these black-skinned European conquerors supplant? After all, someone lived before them on these lands. This is a special southern race, which is conditionally called " Khoisan".

Khoisan race

It includes Hottentots and Bushmen. They differ from blacks in brown skin and Mongoloid features. They have a different throat. They do not pronounce words on the exhale, like all of us, but on the inhale. They are considered the remnants of some ancient race that inhabited the Southern Hemisphere for a very long time. There are very few of these people left, and in the ethnic sense, they do not represent anything integral.

Bushmen - quiet and calm hunters. They were pushed out by Bichuani Negroes into the Kalahari Desert. That's where they live, forgetting their ancient and rich culture. They have art, but it is in a rudimentary state, since life in the desert is very difficult and you have to think not about art, but about how to get food.

Hottentots (the Dutch name of the tribes), who lived in the Cape Province (South Africa), became famous for being real robbers. They stole cattle. They quickly became friends with the Dutch and became their guides, translators and farm workers. When the British captured the Cape Colony, the Hottentots made friends with them. They live on these lands to this day.

australoids

Australoids are also called Australians. How they got to the lands of Australia is unknown. But they were there a long time ago. It was a huge number of small tribes with different customs, rituals and culture. They did not like each other and practically did not communicate.

Australoids are not similar to Caucasoids, Negroids and Mongoloids. They only look like themselves. Their skin is very dark, almost black. The hair is wavy, the shoulders are wide, and the reaction is extremely fast. Relatives of these people live in South India on the Deccan Plateau. Maybe from there they sailed to Australia, and also settled all the islands nearby.

Mongoloids - yellow race

Mongoloids are the most numerous. They are divided into a large number of sub-races or small races. There are Siberian Mongoloids, North Chinese, South Chinese, Malay, Tibetan. What they have in common is a narrow slit of the eyes. The hair is straight, black and coarse. The eyes are dark. The skin is swarthy, has a slight yellowish tint. The face is broad and flattened, the cheekbones protrude.

americanoids

Americanoids populate America from the tundra to Tierra del Fuego. Eskimos do not belong to this race. They are alien people. The hair of the Americanoids is black and straight, the skin is swarthy. The eyes are black and narrower than those of Caucasians. These people have a huge number of languages. Among them, it is even impossible to make any classification. There are many dead languages ​​now, as their speakers have died out and the languages ​​have been written down.

pygmies

Pygmies belong to the Negroid race. They live in the forests of equatorial Africa. Notable for their small stature. They have it 1.45-1.5 meters. The skin is brown, the lips are relatively thin, and the hair is dark and curly. Living conditions are poor, hence the small growth, which is the result of a small amount of vitamins and proteins necessary for the body for normal development. Currently, short stature has become a genetic heredity. Therefore, even if the pygmy babies are heavily fed, they will not become tall.

Thus, we have considered the main human races that exist on Earth. But it should be noted that race has never been of decisive importance for the formation of culture. It is also noteworthy that over the past 15 thousand years, no new biological types of people have appeared, and the old ones have not disappeared. Everything is still stable. The only thing is that there is a mixing of people of different biological types. There are mestizos, mulattos, sambo. But these are not biological and anthropological, but social factors determined by the achievements of civilization..

At present, according to various scientists, there are 34-40 races. Races differ from each other in 30-40 elements. Racial features are hereditary, are adaptive to the conditions of existence. There are three main approaches to the classification of races:

a) regardless of origin

b) taking into account origin and kinship

c) based on the population concept

The most plausible is the latter. It lies in the fact that large races are huge populations, small races are subpopulations of large ones, within which specific ethnic formations (nations, nationalities) are smaller populations. This results in a structure that includes levels of hierarchy:

Individual - ethnos - small race - big race.

The formation of races.

There are 4 stages of race formation.

At the first stage there was the formation of primary centers of race formation and the main racial trunks - western and eastern. Chronologically, this falls on the epochs of the Lower and Middle Paleolithic, about 200 thousand years ago, i.e. coincide with the rise of modern man.

Consequently, the main racial combinations in the western and eastern regions of the Old World took shape simultaneously with the formation of signs inherent in modern man, as well as with the migration of part of humanity to the New World.

At the second stage the allocation of secondary centers of race formation and the formation of branches within the main racial trunks. Chronologically, this stage falls on the Upper Paleolithic, partly the Mesolithic, ca. 15-20 thousand years ago.

At the third stage racial formation is the formation of local races. By time - this is the eve of the Mesolithic and Neolithic, approx. 10-12 years ago.

At the fourth stage Quaternary centers of race formation arose and populations with deep racial differentiation similar to modern ones were formed. It began in the Bronze and Early Iron Ages, i.e. in 4-3 thousand BC

Historians, as a rule, judge nations and peoples on the basis of the peculiarities of language and culture, but this is not enough. The language can be borrowed from another people, as, for example, the Russian language has become the predominant and even the only one for many small peoples of Russia (now you can meet representatives of the Chuvash, Mordovians, Komi and other peoples who speak only Russian and consider Russian as their native language) . The culture of peoples also changes in close contact with another people. The question of races, peoples and nations is very complex and confusing. However, the parallels drawn by no means claim to be true.