1) Depending on the number of opposed components, grammatical categories are divided into two-membered (number, form), three-membered (person, mood, gender) and polynomial (case) categories.

2) According to the nature of the opposition of the components, categories are distinguished that are formed on the basis of 1) privative (unequal), 2) equivalent (equivalent), 3) gradual (gradual) relations.

A privative opposition by gender is formed by nouns of the type teacher - teacher, tractor driver - tractor driver, cashier - cashier: a masculine noun in such pairs can name both a man and a woman, and a feminine noun can only name a woman. The privative category is the aspect in the verb. Perfective verbs answer only the semantic question “What to do?”, And imperfective verbs, in addition to the question “What to do?”, in some speech situations also answer the question “What to do?”: What was this boy guilty of? What did he do? He was picking apples in someone else's garden.

Some masculine and feminine personal nouns form an equivalent opposition: mother-father, brother-sister, girl-boy. Masculine nouns denote men, feminine nouns denote women.

Gradual relations are presented in degrees of comparison.

The case as a grammatical category in a certain volume is arranged according to the principle of additional distribution: the same lexical meaning with the help of the case is placed in different syntactic positions: to lose someone, to envy someone, to hate someone, to admire someone, to grieve about com - about what.

In the same grammatical category, different principles of semantic organization can be found. See noun gender.

3) In addition, depending on whether the components of the grammatical category are one word or represent different lexemes, inflectional and classifying (lexicogrammatic) categories are distinguished. Classifying categories combine different words that have the same grammatical meaning. Thus, the categories of gender, number and case of adjectives, the category of case of nouns, the category of person, mood, tense of the verb, etc. are inflectional. Some categories turn out to be of a mixed type, partly inflectional, partly lexico-grammatical (classifying). Such, for example, is the category of number in nouns.

A. V. Bondarko called inflectional categories correlative, and classifying - non-correlative. At the same time, he singled out consistently correlative, consistently non-correlative and inconsistently correlative grammatical categories.

Note. E. V. Klobukov suggested distinguishing interpretative morphological categories as a special type, “designed to express the degree of relative importance of two or more homogeneous semantic elements” of the statement “Thanks to these categories, one of the homogeneous meanings is singled out by the speaker as the main one, and the other sense< >as an additional, accompanying, comitative information part. The grammatical meaning expressed by such categories, E. V. Klobukov calls comitative. On the basis of comitativeness, in his opinion, opposition of full and short forms of the adjective, conjugated and attributive forms of the verb, forms of the active and passive voice, as well as nominative and vocative cases to indirect cases is organized.

Kamynina A. A. Modern Russian language. Morphology. M., 1999

The real form of expression of this category is the case form, which is a morpheme consisting of a certain scale, which, together with the root morpheme, gives a certain content to the word. The set of case forms that make up a certain system of changes forms a declension.

The number of cases is not the same in different languages, and this fact can be considered as one of the criteria for the typological characteristics of the morphological system of a given language, since the presence or absence of cases is associated with the presence, absence or weak development of prepositions. In English, with its limited case system, the number of prepositions is significant.

The same case, depending on the context and the lexical meaning of the noun, can express different meanings. There are four main types of case values: subjective- indication of the producer of the action or the carrier of the sign - The teacher is working;object- an indication of the object to which the action is directed - read a book;adverbial- an indication of time, place, cause, mode of action, measure, degree - live in the city;definitive- an indication of the sign of the subject - house in the village. Almost every case is capable of expressing all these kinds of meanings.

The generally accepted point of view is that in the noun system of modern English there are two cases - common (Common Case), represented by a zero morpheme (unmarked form - by the nature of the external expression) and prepositional case (Possessive Case (Genitive Case - question for the seminar)) - represented by the morpheme 's. (labeled form). ( the meaning of belonging is one of the meanings of the genitive case - L.S. Barkhudarov).

Nouns in the form of the common case are used in any syntactic function, and all nouns have this word form. With regard to nouns that can be used in the form of adverbs. case there are a number of restrictions. Regularly in the form of adv. case, the following two types of nouns are used:

1) animate nouns; 2) nouns denoting units of time, space: a year's absence; a mile's distance.

These restrictions are not absolute, but relative - we can only talk about preferential, but not about exclusive use (the bed's foot).

Number category. Both in English and in Russian there is a grammatical category of number. This is an inflectional category of nouns, expressing in contrasting the correlative forms of the singular/plural of the meaning of singularity/multiplicity of objects.

The main means of expressing a number are the endings of a noun.

The plural of nouns is formed by adding s / es, alternating vowels: foot - feet; adding en: child - children.

In both languages, there is a fairly significant group of nouns that have only a plural form. These are, first of all, nouns denoting paired or compound objects:

scissors

trousers - trousers

tongs - tongs

scales

shackles - fetters

spectacles

pantaloons - drawers, knickers

Some of these nouns do not coincide, and in one language there are nouns in which only the plural form is presented, and in the other - nouns in which there is a contrast between singularity and plurality.

In Russian, the first group includes nouns

1) denoting paired or composite objects:

plunder pl. hours - rake units. h.

swing pl. hours - swing units. h.

scabbard pl. h. - sabbard unit. h.

sled pl. hours - toboggan units. h.

sleigh pl. hours - sledge units h.

hours pl. hours - clock units hours, etc.

2) denoting mass, substance, material:

firewood pl. hours - wood units hours;

spirits pl. hours - scent units. h.

wallpaper pl. hours - wallpaper units h.

ink pl. hours - ink units hours, etc.

3) denoting complex actions, processes, states:

elections pl. h. -election units. h.

funeral pl. hours - funeral units. h.

There are also a number of nouns in English, in which the plural value has been lost and only zn remains. singular

barracks - barracks

news - news, news

works - plant

In English, the category of number is represented only in the noun system. We find agreement in number only in the demonstrative pronoun, where both pronouns this - this and that - that have plural forms these - these and those - those that form attributive phrases with nouns with agreement in number;

this house - this house, these houses - these houses; that house - that house, those houses - those houses.

Genus category. The overwhelming majority of modern Indo-European languages ​​are characterized by the presence of a special lexical and grammatical category of gender. It manifests itself in the ability of nouns to liken themselves in expressing the grammatical meanings of the forms of words dependent on them - adjectives, pronouns, etc.

There are three genders in modern Russian - masculine, feminine and neuter.

The category of grammatical gender in the Russian language has the ability to combine with the forms of agreed words defined for each generic variety - adjectives, ordinal numbers, possessive and demonstrative pronouns, forming free phrases with them; cf .: A blizzard roared, distraught, but through its roar Filka heard a thin and short whistle. (K. G. Paustovsky. Warm bread) A narrow-gauge railway passes near Spas-Klepikov, (K. G. Paustovsky. Road conversations) Vasya was silent for a while. “Miscellaneous is glass,” he said. - There are rough, bottle and window. And there is thin, lead glass.” (K. G. Paustovsky. Glass master)

As a special characteristic of the morphological structure of the Russian language, which is absent in other languages, including English, one should note the ability of nouns to agree in gender with past tense verb forms; cf .: The moon came up for a minute, and in its muddy light a white two-story house loomed. (V. Ya - Shishkov. Gloomy river)

The word-formation structure of masculine nouns is characterized by suffixes: -tel, -chik, -un, -ik - boy, teacher, runner. For noun. female -and I, -awn - cloud, foot, song, fortress, etc. The neuter gender includes suffixes: -nie, -stvo - singing, teaching.

The category of grammatical gender - masculine, feminine, neuter - was once inherent in the nouns of the Old English period. However, the historical development of the morphological structure of the English language has led to the fact that the category of grammatical gender, devoid of morphological means of expression, has ceased to exist.

Category of certainty - uncertainties. In many Western European and some Eastern languages, the noun system is characterized by the category of certainty-indefiniteness. This category has its own morphological design. Most often it is expressed by the article, as in English, German, French.

The article the has the following meanings: 1) individualization, due to which the noun, which carries the article the, stands out from the class of objects homogeneous with it; cf.: "Let" s go into the drawing-room," said Mrs Low. "The boy wants to clear the table." (W. S. Maugham. A Casual Affair); 2) uniqueness, signaling that the item indicated the corresponding noun, is the only one of its kind; cf.: the sun - the sun, the earth - earth (our planet); 3) demonstrative, which is common with the corresponding seme of demonstrative pronouns; cf.: I saw the man, about whom you phoned me last night; 4) generalization, which makes it possible to perceive the given object as a generalized designation of all objects of this class; cf .: The horse is a domestic animal - A horse (every horse) is a domestic animal.

The indefinite article a, an has the following meanings: 1) classification, referring the object with which it is associated to one or another class of objects; cf.: a dog - dog (any dog); 2) singularity, since nouns with the indefinite article a, an are always thought of in the singular; cf.: His gaze rested for a moment on Anthony, and the intense dark eyes filled with pity. (G. Gordon. Let the Day Perish).

The absence of articles in the Russian language is compensated by a diverse system of means of expressing article meanings, penetrating the most diverse levels and sections of the language.

The category of certainty/uncertainty is considered as functional-semantic (Karaulov Yu.N., Akimova O.B., Senichkina E.P. and others). The structure of the considered functional-semantic field is determined by the following areas of certainty/uncertainty functioning:

1) the opposition of the meanings of certainty / uncertainty in the sentence and the text is expressed by word order and phrasal intonation

a) The train came b) The train has come

in) The train has arrived G) The train came

2) the opposition of the meanings of certainty/uncertainty is often presented in the opposition of the meanings opposed in some texts and the use of accusative and genitive cases: Give bread; give me some bread.

3) in sentences with a direct object, one can find a manifestation of the interaction of the elements of the field of certainty / indefiniteness with the elements of the field of aspectuality (the indefinite meaning is usually associated with the semantics of the perfect form of the verb, and the meaning of certainty - with the semantics of the imperfective form);

4) an important area of ​​functioning of the elements of the category of certainty/uncertainty is the system of demonstrative pronouns: some, that, this.

Defining the category of certainty/uncertainty as functional-semantic, linguists note that this category is characterized by a set of multi-level linguistic means (phonetic, lexical, phraseological, morphological, syntactic) for expressing the named semantics.

Quality grade category. The main means of expressing the category of quality degree are adjectives. In terms of their typological features, adjectives in both languages ​​differ significantly from each other. According to their composition, adjectives in Russian are divided into three categories: 1) qualitative adjectives, denoting a sign of an object directly. These adjectives form a number of semantic groups - size (big - small, high - low); volume (thick - thin); color, taste, temperature, rating, etc.; 2) relative adjectives denoting the attribute of an object through its relation to another object or action. Relative adjectives in Russian are derived from the stems of nouns; cf .: stone - stone, spring - spring, Moscow - Moscow, etc .; 3) possessive adjectives denoting that an object belongs to a person or animal; cf .: fathers, women, etc.

Unlike the Russian language, English adjectives have only one category clearly represented by the vocabulary - quality adjectives; compare: while, large, strong, etc. Relative adjectives are represented by a very limited number of lexical units, of which a significant part belongs to the field of science; cf.: biological, chemical, etc.

With regard to the grammatical categories they express, adjectives in both languages ​​also differ significantly: Russian adjectives have the ability to agree with the noun they define in gender, number and case, while English adjectives agree neither in gender, nor in number, nor in do not have a case; cf .: green leaf - green grass - green apple.

The next differential feature of Russian adjectives should be considered the presence of two forms in quality adjectives: full and short.

Unlike the Russian language, in English there is no division of adjectives into full and short ones.

Both in Russian and in English, adjectives form degrees of comparison.

In Russian, the comparative degree is formed synthetically, that is, by adding the suffixes -ee (or -ee) -she, -e to the base of the adjective in a positive degree: strong - stronger, full - fuller; old - older, thin - thinner, etc. Another way of forming a comparative degree is the analytical method, in which words more or less are used before an adjective in a positive degree; cf .: stronger, stronger, stronger, stronger.

The superlative degree of adjectives is formed analytically by adding the word most to the positive form; cf .: the strongest, the oldest, etc.

In English, there are two series of forms for the formation of degrees of comparison: 1) synthetic forms with morphemes -er for comparative forms and -est for superlative forms. The synthetic way of forming degrees of comparison is used for monosyllabic and some disyllabic adjectives; cf.: strong - stronger - (the) strongest, easy - easier - (the) easiest; 2) analytical forms formed by the words more and most, added to the invariable forms of a positive degree; cf.: intelligent - more intelligent - (the) most intelligent.

In Russian, there is a special form of superlative degree, the so-called elative, with the seme "extremity", denoting an irrespectively high degree of quality. This form in Russian is formed synthetically - by adding the affixal morphemes -eysh- (-th, -th, -ee) and -aysh- (-th, -th, -th), if the stem of the adjective ends in back-lingual consonants g, k , X; cf .: nearest, most necessary, smallest, etc. In English, the elative is expressed analytically; cf.: a most beautiful woman.

Category of type and time. The aspect category is usually defined as such a lexical and grammatical category that conveys the characteristics of the course of an action or process indicated by a verb - repetition, duration, repetition, instantaneous action, or effectiveness, completeness - incompleteness, or, finally, limit, that is, the relation of action to its inner limit.

In the Russian language, the main specific differences pass along the line of expressing the relation of the action to its internal limit, in connection with which two types are distinguished in this language: an imperfect aspect and a perfect aspect.

The imperfect aspect expresses the action in its course, in the process of its completion, without any indication of its limit; cf. verbs to write, read, speak, etc.

The perfective expresses an action that is limited by the limit of committing at some point in its implementation or that communicates the result of this action or process; cf .: write, come, say, etc.

The system of species in the Russian language has its own distinctive feature - the presence of correlative pairs of verbs that form correlative series of forms that permeate the entire system of verb forms with the identity of their lexical meaning; cf .: wear - carry; wore - carried; give - give; come on - give; gave - gave, etc.

To express specific meanings in the Russian language, there is a special system of morphological means:

1) Suffixes -yv-, -iv-, -oe- with alternating vowels or consonants, added to the verb stem; at the same time, imperfective verbs are formed from perfective verbs; cf .: warm - warm; show - show; close - close; walk - stroll.

2) Suffix -nu- added to the verb stem; at the same time, perfective verbs are formed from imperfective verbs, cf .: move - move; shout - shout.

3) Prefixes s-, na-, for-, o-, po-, from- and some others; cf .: write - write; eat - eat; build - build; build - rebuild; hide - hide; go blind - go blind, etc.

4) Changing the vowels of the root, in some cases accompanied by an alternation of vowels in the verb stem; cf .: decide - decide; imagine - imagine; answer - answer.

5) Changing the place of stress with the same phonemic composition of the word: pour - pour; cut - cut.

In addition to single-root aspectual pairs of verbs, there is also a very limited number of aspectual pairs formed from different stems; cf .: take-take; speak - say; put.

Proceeding from the understanding of the species as a grammatical category that characterizes the action according to the signs of its course and has fixed morphological indicators, Prof. A.I. time by zero morphemes and -(e)s (3rd person singular), in the past tense by the morpheme -ed (-t) or forms with alternating vowels like sit - sat, speak - spoke, etc., in future tense shall (will) + V and denoting the very fact of the action, and a long form, represented by the verb to be in the form of the corresponding tense and the form on -ing, for example: I am sitting, he is standing, they are walking, etc. .

But unlike the Russian language, in English the verbs of the general and long form of correlative aspectual pairs do not form.

There are absolute forms of time that do not depend on other temporary forms in the sentence and are determined by the relationship with the moment of speech: the form of the present tense, denoting an action that coincides with the moment of speech; the form of the past tense, expressing the action that took place before the moment of speech, and the form of the future tense, which conveys the action that will take place after the moment of speech.

Along with the absolute forms of time, there are relative forms of time, denoting actions considered not from the point of view of the moment of speech, but from the point of view of another temporary form or moment taken as a reference point. He realized that he was in danger.

According to the point of view presented by a number of scientists, the system of tense forms of modern English consists of two correlative series of tense forms - from absolute tense forms, which include the forms of the Indefinite group, and relative tense forms, which include the tenses of the perfect and continuous groups. Species meanings, without forming, according to this point of view, a morphologically expressed category, seem to be superimposed on temporal meanings.

Collateral category. Voice is a grammatical category of a verb that reflects a situation involving action, subject and object, and represents it as either an active action of the subject, or as a state of the object. resulting from this action. The relation of the subject to the action in most languages ​​finds its expression in the personal endings of the verb; the relation of the action to the object can be expressed by case control or adjunction, depending on the typology of the language.

In Russian, only transitive verbs have the category of voice. There are two voices in Russian: the active voice, expressed by certain syntactic structures, covering transitive (personal verbs) verbs denoting an action aimed at a direct object, expressed in the form of the accusative case without a preposition: write a letter.

The passive voice denotes the state of the object resulting from the action of the subject. S. h. expressed by reflexive forms of transitive verbs: The house is being built; or passive participles: House is built. Intransitive (impersonal) passive verbs do not form: The child is sleeping; Chills him.

In English, morphologically expressed features have two voices: the real, or active, voice, which exists in the forms of the indicative and the forms of time included in it and is associated with a direct or prepositional object, and the passive, or passive, voice, expressed in analytical forms, consisting of the forms verb to be and participle II of the conjugated verb.

As in a number of other languages, voice forms as a special grammatical category are present only in transitive verbs. Intransitive verbs, which include, for example, verbs of movement to go, to creep, to swim, verbs of position in space to sit, to lie, to stand, physical state verbs to rest, moral state verbs -to cry, to weep, etc. .d., have no forms of collateral.

The category of modality can be expressed by different means in different languages. In English and Russian, modality is expressed both by grammatical means - forms of moods, and lexical - modal words perhaps, probably, probably, apparently, etc. - certainly, maybe, perhaps, probably, possibly, surely, etc. .d.; modal verbs - to be able, to be able, to want, to desire, to have to, etc. - can, may, must, etc .; modal particles - perhaps, hardly, perhaps, etc., as well as intonation.

The relation of action to reality can be different: if action is conceived as real, then we have a real modality; if the action is conceived as unreal, possible or impossible, as desirable or probable, then we have an unreal modality.

The main grammatical means of expressing real modality is the indicative mood, or indicative. It denotes an action that is thought by the speaker as corresponding to reality.

The indicative mood in both one and the other language denotes a real action taking place in terms of the present time, which happened in the past or is about to happen in the future, as a result of which this mood gets its expression in the appropriate forms of tense and person.

Therefore, although the real modality is similar in content in both languages, nevertheless, the ways of its expression depend on the system of types of tense forms, which, as is known, have significant differences in these languages. So, for example, in Russian the real modality relating to the present tense is expressed by the present tense form, in English it can be expressed not only by the Present Indefinite form, but also by the Present Perfect Continuous form; cf.: It was a wonderful opportunity, and when he had finished his explanations, Isabel was once more all smiles. "You foolish boy, why have you been trying to make me miserable." His face lit up at her words and his eyes flashed. (W.S. Maugham. The Fall of Edward Barnard)

Significantly greater differences are observed in the system of grammatical means that exist in both languages ​​to express the unreal modality.

In Russian, there is only one mood - the subjunctive, which is sometimes called conditional or presumptive. It denotes an action that is thought by the speaker as unreal and only as possible or desirable.

The subjunctive mood is formed analytically - by combining the verb in the past tense with the particle by: would know.

A feature of the Russian subjunctive mood is its timeless nature, that is, it can express an action both in the present, and in the past and in the future; cf .: I would like to know how you will drive up to the pike with your love! - cooled his ruff. (M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin. Karas-idealist)

In contrast to the Russian language, the unreal modality in English is expressed by four moods: subjunctive I - I suggest that he should come; II - I suggest that you come here soon (more often in the American version, in English - a formal character); representing events as possible, although problematic and subjunctive III – If he came here they would be happy and IV - I wish he came here more often presenting events as imaginary. Subjunct forms. n. (with the exception of the second subjunctive mood) can be both perfect and non-perfect. subjunctive I – he should have come; subjunctive III - he would have come; subjunctive IV - he had come. The use of perfect forms shows that an event is presented as preceding another event.

The imperative mood in both languages ​​has categories of person and number. 2nd person singular and plural in Russian is expressed in synthetic forms: read - read, write - write; in English, unlike Russian, there is only one form for the 2nd person of both numbers: read, write, take, go, etc.

The form of the 1st person plural, addressed to both one and several interlocutors, can be expressed in two ways; if the verb is perfective, then this is a form expressed synthetically (let's go, let's go, take, say); if the verb is imperfective, then this form receives an analytical expression (we will read, we will write, we will speak).

These two Russian forms in English correspond to only one analytical form - let us (let "s) read, let us (let" s) go, let us (let "s) take, etc.

The 3rd person form of both numbers is expressed analytically in both languages; cf .: let him come - let him come; let them come - let them come.

face category. In a number of languages, there are special morphemes for denoting a person, that is, a subject of speech, the so-called personal endings. They are used to express the relation of an action and its subject to the speaker. The personal endings of the verb thus serve as a morphological means of expressing the grammatical category of a person. Person is a grammatical category of a verb. Pointing to the manufacturer of the action.

The personal forms of the verb contain the following meanings: “subject of speech” is a morpheme of the 1st person, “addressee of speech” is a morpheme of the 2nd person, “non-participant of speech” is a morpheme of the 3rd person.

Unit hours Mn. h.

1st l. -th (-y) 1st l. -em (-em, -im)

2nd l. -eat (-eat, -eesh) 2nd l. -ete (-ete, -ite)

3rd l. -et (-et, -it) 3rd l. -yut (-ut, -at, -yat)

In the past tense of the imperfect and perfect form and in the subjunctive mood, the category of a person is not expressed by personal forms.

In English, there are two ways of morphologically expressing the category of person: 1) using the morpheme -es(-s) in the 3rd person singular of the affirmative form of the present common tense (he goes to school in the morning; she comes home late; John takes English lessons); 2) using the auxiliary verbs have (has) for the Perfect category; am (is, are) for Continuous discharge; do (does) for the interrogative and negative forms of the Indefinite discharge.

Comparing the ways of expressing the category of a person in both languages, we see that the typological characteristic of the expression of this category in Russian is the personal endings of the verb; in English, in contrast to Russian, the typological characteristic of the category of a person is its expression with the help of auxiliary verbs and the absence of personal endings.

A grammatical category is a generalized, abstract linguistic meaning inherent in a number of words, word forms, syntactic constructions and finding its regular (standard) expression in grammatical forms, namely in the opposition of variants (forms) of units. Unlike the lexical meaning inherent in a particular word, the grammatical meaning is not concentrated in one word, but, on the contrary, is characteristic of many words of the language.

There are the following types of categories:

*semantic category- some generalized meaning, not necessarily having a clearly expressed formal designation. For example, the semantic category of animateness/inanimateness. For example, the semantic category of number includes the morphological category of number, numerals, as well as nouns, adjectives and adverbs that reflect quantity, and some verbs, the lexical meaning of which includes plurality or singularity.

Category of determination- a semantic category, reflected in the languages ​​of the article. Structures with an article are considered either as syntactic structures or as morphological categories of a noun. The category of determination has two meanings: uncertainty and certainty.

Category of representation- according to A. I. Smirnitsky, a morphological category that ensures the use of words of a certain part of speech in secondary functions. This category is most fully developed for the verb. The verb system contrasts the forms in which the verb represents (represents) the action as an action with the forms of the verb that represent the action as something else. Forms that represent an action as an action are personal forms, verb forms that represent an action as something else are impersonal forms. In English, among non-personal forms, there are forms that represent the action as an object (infinitive and gerund) and forms that represent the action as a sign (participle). In Slavic languages, in addition, among the non-personal forms, forms are distinguished that represent an action as a sign of another action (gerund participle).

Typology of parts of speech

In order to establish the typological features of several languages ​​at the level of parts of speech, it is necessary to find such criteria that would be of the most general nature, so that they could be applicable to the maximum number of languages.

There are several such criteria:

1) Semantic The criterion involves the assignment of a given word to a broad conceptual category. For example, a noun denotes an object, an adjective denotes a sign, etc.

2) Morphological the criterion is used to assign a given word to a certain category based on its morphological features. So, for example, the presence of a declension paradigm indicates that a word with such a paradigm belongs to the category of nouns if this morphological feature coincides with the semantic feature of objectivity.

3) Functional the criterion presupposes the ability of the word to function in a sentence. So, for example, the main function of the adverb is the characteristic of the predicate or definition.

4) Compatibility criterion determines how words can be grammatically combined with each other. So, adverbs, combined with adjectives and verbs, are not combined with either nouns or pronouns. For example, the adverb Good, English dialect well

5) derivational the criterion implies the ability of words of a given part of speech to form new words according to a certain type. So, in Russian we can name a number of word-building affixes, the presence of which indicates that the given word refers to nouns; cf. affixes - box in words coachman, sitter etc. In English: -ship in words friendship, -membership etc., in Belarusian –ca: sun, heart, akenz.

It should be noted that, despite significant morphological and syntactic differences in the structure of the Russian, Belarusian and English languages,
becoming parts of speech in them turns out to be largely similar (in English, in addition to parts of speech similar to Russian and Belarusian, there is also an article and linking verbs).

Noun typology.

Existing name . The noun-e in Russian is characterized by the presence of three grammatical categories: 1) the category of case, expressed by the declension paradigm, consisting of six cases; 2) category of number, consisting of two numbers - singular and plural; 3) the category of grammatical gender, representing three genders - masculine, feminine and neuter, having a corresponding morphological expression. Unlike Russian, the name is a noun in English language characterized by the presence of two grammatical categories: 1) the category of number, consisting of two numbers - singular and plural; 2) the category of determinativity (certainty - uncertainty), expressed by articles in the preposition.

K. NUMBERS vyr-em quantity. rel-tion, existing in real action. (in the ancient Indo-European. i-x categories of numbers was represented by 3 numbers: units, duals, and many others). In RJ and AJ cat. The number is represented by semes of singularity and plurality, which find their expression in the forms of singular and plural. h.

The real form of expression is the case. form (case form), representation. a morpheme, comp. from def. sound row, cat. together with the root morpheme gives def. matching word. Set of case forms, comp. x def. with-mu changes, arr-et declination.

The presence / absence of cases is associated with the presence / absence / weak development of prepositions. (in Finn. -14 pad., in Italian, French - no).

Each noun in the composition of its semes, which determine its grammatical essence, necessarily has a seme gender - masculine, feminine or neuter. The category of certainty is uncertainty. This category has its own morphological design. Most often it is expressed by the article.

The content of the category of certainty - uncertainty indicates whether the object designated by the noun is thought of as belonging to a given class of objects (the indefinite article), or as a known object, distinguished from the class of objects homogeneous with it (the definite article), or, finally, as taken not in its entirety, but only in some of its part (partitive, or partial, article).

1. Particle - something added to the noun that needs to be individualized

2. Demonstrative pronouns this, this, this, these or that, that, that, those.

3. Indefinite pronouns some, some, some, some.

12. Typology of the verb In R, the verb has the grammatical categories of tense, mood, voice, kind, faces, numbers and kind.B A(species, genus) PLEDGE in A, P: active voice, passive voice. Constructions with active voice verbs are called active, and constructions with passive voice verbs - passive.Usually a passive construction is used when the speaker needs to emphasize exactly the object of the action. Such a need is most often caused by the fact that the actor is unknown, difficult to define, or seems less important to the speaker than the object of the action: The church was built in 1887 (The church was built in 1887).

MOOD R and A: indicative(the Indicative Mood), subjunctive mood(the Subjunctive Mood) and imperative mood(the Imperative Mood). In Russian subjunctive mood is formed by a combination of the particle “would (b)” and the verb form in –l (would come, would bring, sing b, warmer b) - as you can see, the forms of the subjunctive mood change in numbers and gender, but do not have forms of time and person. in A: to express desirability, (Past Indefinite Tense) or Past Complete Tense (Past Perfect Tense), as well as the verbs should, would, may, might, could in combination with infinitives. Imperative mood expresses a request or command, as well as an incentive to action on the part of the speaker. Imperative form English verb matches its infinitive: Close the door! - Close the door! Pass the bread, please. - Pass the bread, please. Unlike from English, in Russian the form of the imperative mood changes according to persons and numbers. Forms of the imperative mood can express various shades of motivation for action.
In this way, in English, various shades of motivation for action are created only by intonation.

VIEW CATEGORY There are two types in Russian: perfect and imperfect.In A, there is no grammatical aspect category, the aspect of the verb in the sentence can be analytically determined by comparing it with the translation into Russian.
Grammatical category of person and number AT Russian and English verbs have three faces(first, second, third) and two numbers (singular and plural).
In English the third person plural form in the verb forms is not expressed, and the singular form is expressed by the verbs to be and to have in the present tense (He is a student; he has this book), verbs in Present Indefinite by adding - (e) s (He reads English well).

Time category There are three tenses in Russian: present, past and future, and there are five forms of time, since the category of time is associated with the category of the species. In the system of English verb tenses includes present, past, perfect(time)+16 tenses. present tense- the tense of the verb, denoting that the process called the verb is carried out simultaneously with the moment of speech. In Russian, a distinction is made between proper present tense (present actual) and improper present tense (present irrelevant). Actually, the present tense means that the process called the verb coincides with the moment of speech: the teacher reads, the students listen. In English, such an action is conveyed by The Present Continuous Tense (present continuous tense): The teacher is reading; the pupils are listening to. Moreover, The Present Perfect - Continuous Tense is used in English to denote an action that began at a certain moment before the moment of the conversation and continues up to the present moment: We have been waiting for you since 10 o'clock - We have been waiting for you since 10 o'clock. Improper present tense(irrelevant) has two varieties: real constant and real abstract.Present constant tense denotes a process whose implementation has no time limits: the Volga flows into the Caspian Sea. Real abstract time denotes repetitive processes, the implementation of which is not associated with a specific time: He often goes to the theater. In English, these processes are denoted by The Present Indefinite Tense (present indefinite time): The Volga runs into the Caspian See; He often goes to the theatre. The forms of the present tense of the Russian and English languages ​​can express the meanings inherent in the forms of the future and past tenses. In this case, the situation and context play an important role. The forms of the present, used in the meaning of the future, express confidence in the close implementation of the process: Tomorrow I'm going to the theater - I go (am going) to the theater tomorrow. The forms of the present tense in the meaning of the past bring the described event closer to the moment of speech and give expressiveness. In Russian, this usage is called “real historical”, and in English “real dramatic” tense.

Past tense forms have multiple meanings.
Perfect past tense verbs, firstly, denote an action that took place in the past, and the result is preserved to the present: He built a fence around his house. In English, such an action is expressed by The Present Perfect Tense (present perfect tense): He has built a fence around his house. Secondly, an action that took place before another, past: When they arrived, she had already prepared dinner. In English, to convey such an action, The Past Perfect Tense is used: She had already cooked dinner when they came.. Future verbs denote an action that is performed (or will be performed) after the moment of speech. Future tense from imperfective verbs complex, it indicates that the process named by the verb will be carried out as a long or repetitive one, but does not indicate its completion or result, or the action will take place at a certain point in the future: I will visit him twice a month; Tomorrow at seven o'clock I will be working in the garden. In English, this action corresponds to The Future Indefinite Tense: I shall visit him twice a month; and also The Future Continuous Tense: I shall be working in the garden at this time tomorrow. The Future Perfect Continuous is used to express an action that began before a certain point in the future and continues for a certain period up to that moment: By next June he will have been living here for ten years . As you can see, the English verb in this case is also translated into Russian by the verb of the future tense of the imperfective form. Future tense from perfective verbs simple, it indicates the time of the process and indicates its completion, while it may indicate the time by which the process will be completed: By the end of this year they will buy a car. In English, such an action can be expressed as The Future Perfect Tense: They will have bought a new car by the end of this year.

SRT, TOE - under these abbreviations lies the term "theory of relativity", familiar to almost everyone. Everything can be explained in a simple language, even the statement of a genius, so do not despair if you do not remember the school physics course, because in fact everything is much simpler than it seems.

The origin of the theory

So, let's start the course "The Theory of Relativity for Dummies". Albert Einstein published his work in 1905 and it caused a stir among scientists. This theory almost completely covered many gaps and inconsistencies in the physics of the last century, but, in addition, it turned the idea of ​​space and time upside down. It was difficult for contemporaries to believe in many of Einstein's statements, but experiments and studies only confirmed the words of the great scientist.

Einstein's theory of relativity explained in simple terms what people had struggled with for centuries. It can be called the basis of all modern physics. However, before continuing the conversation about the theory of relativity, the question of terms should be clarified. Surely many, reading popular science articles, have come across two abbreviations: SRT and GRT. In fact, they mean somewhat different concepts. The first is the special theory of relativity, and the second stands for "general relativity".

Just about complex

SRT is an older theory that later became part of GR. It can only consider physical processes for objects moving at a uniform speed. A general theory, on the other hand, can describe what happens to accelerating objects, and also explain why graviton particles and gravity exist.

If you need to describe the movement and as well as the relationship of space and time when approaching the speed of light - this can be done by the special theory of relativity. In simple terms, it can be explained as follows: for example, friends from the future gave you a spaceship that can fly at high speed. On the nose of the spaceship is a cannon capable of firing photons at everything that comes in front.

When a shot is fired, relative to the ship, these particles fly at the speed of light, but, logically, a stationary observer should see the sum of two speeds (the photons themselves and the ship). But nothing like that. The observer will see photons moving at a speed of 300,000 m/s, as if the speed of the ship was zero.

The thing is that no matter how fast an object moves, the speed of light for it is a constant value.

This statement is the basis of amazing logical conclusions like slowing down and time distortion, depending on the mass and speed of the object. The plots of many science fiction films and series are based on this.

General theory of relativity

A more voluminous general relativity can also be explained in simple terms. To begin with, we should take into account the fact that our space is four-dimensional. Time and space are united in such a "subject" as "space-time continuum". Our space has four coordinate axes: x, y, z, and t.

But people cannot directly perceive four dimensions, just as a hypothetical flat person living in a two-dimensional world is unable to look up. In fact, our world is only a projection of four-dimensional space into three-dimensional.

An interesting fact is that, according to the general theory of relativity, bodies do not change when they move. The objects of the four-dimensional world are in fact always unchanged, and when moving, only their projections change, which we perceive as a distortion of time, reduction or increase in size, and so on.

The elevator experiment

The theory of relativity can be explained in simple terms with the help of a small thought experiment. Imagine that you are in an elevator. The cabin began to move, and you were in a state of weightlessness. What happened? There can be two reasons: either the elevator is in space, or it is in free fall under the influence of the planet's gravity. The most interesting thing is that it is impossible to find out the cause of weightlessness if there is no way to look out of the elevator cabin, that is, both processes look the same.

Perhaps, after conducting a similar thought experiment, Albert Einstein came to the conclusion that if these two situations are indistinguishable from each other, then in fact the body under the influence of gravity does not accelerate, it is a uniform movement that is curved under the influence of a massive body (in this case, the planet ). Thus, accelerated motion is only a projection of uniform motion into three-dimensional space.

illustrative example

Another good example on the topic "Theory of Relativity for Dummies". It is not entirely correct, but it is very simple and clear. If any object is placed on a stretched fabric, it forms a "deflection", a "funnel" under it. All smaller bodies will be forced to distort their trajectory according to the new curvature of space, and if the body has little energy, it may not overcome this funnel at all. However, from the point of view of the moving object itself, the trajectory remains straight, they will not feel the curvature of space.

Gravity "downgraded"

With the advent of the general theory of relativity, gravity has ceased to be a force and is now content with the position of a simple consequence of the curvature of time and space. General relativity may seem fantastic, but it is a working version and is confirmed by experiments.

A lot of seemingly incredible things in our world can be explained by the theory of relativity. In simple terms, such things are called consequences of general relativity. For example, rays of light flying at close range from massive bodies are bent. Moreover, many objects from distant space are hidden behind each other, but due to the fact that the rays of light go around other bodies, seemingly invisible objects are available to our gaze (more precisely, to the gaze of the telescope). It's like looking through walls.

The greater the gravity, the slower time flows on the surface of an object. This applies not only to massive bodies like neutron stars or black holes. The effect of time dilation can be observed even on Earth. For example, satellite navigation devices are equipped with the most accurate atomic clocks. They are in the orbit of our planet, and time is ticking a little faster there. Hundredths of a second in a day will add up to a figure that will give up to 10 km of error in route calculations on Earth. It is the theory of relativity that allows us to calculate this error.

In simple terms, we can put it this way: General Relativity underlies many modern technologies, and thanks to Einstein, we can easily find a pizzeria and a library in an unfamiliar area.