where K is determined by the formula:
(12)
ΔРф is the overpressure in the shock wave front at the outer boundary of zone III. ΔРf = 10 (0.1) kPa (kgf/cm2).
Zone 1 with radius r1 is the zone of action of the detonation wave within the cloud of the gas-air mixture. It is characterized by an intense crushing action, as a result of which the structures are destroyed into separate fragments, flying away at high speeds from the center of the explosion. In the course project, we consider an explosion of a substance located on the surface of the earth and part of its energy is spent on the formation of a funnel in the soil.
The radius of this zone is determined in meters by the formula:
(13)
where m is the mass of an explosive substance (in TNT equivalent) that formed a gas-air mixture, 0.08 tons.
Since K > 2, then
Zone II (r2 - r1) - the zone of action of the explosion products, covering the entire area of the expansion of the products of the gas-air mixture as a result of its explosion. The radius of this zone is determined by the formula:
(14)
The outer boundary of the zone under consideration is characterized by an overpressure ΔРf = 300 kPa (3 kgf/cm2). In this zone, buildings and structures are completely destroyed under the action of expanding explosion products. At the outer boundary of this zone, the resulting air shock wave breaks away from the explosion products and moves independently from the center of the explosion. The products of the explosion, having exhausted all their energy, having expanded to a density corresponding to atmospheric pressure, no longer produce a destructive effect.
Zone (r3 - r2) - zone of action of an air shock wave. This zone includes three subzones: IIIa - subzone of strong, IIIb - subzone of medium and IIIc - subzone of weak destruction, each of which is characterized by excess pressure in the front of the shock wave at their outer boundaries ΔРf = 50 (0.5); 30 (0.3) and 10 (0.1) kPa (kgf/cm2), respectively. At the outer boundary of zone III, the shock wave degenerates into a sound wave, which is still audible at considerable distances. Destruction of production facilities and process equipment will not occur due to slight overpressure.
The result of the explosion action is determined by the location from the epicenter of the explosion. Conventionally, there are three zones of action of the explosion (Figure 1).
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Forecasting the scale of damage in emergency situations during the transportation of dangerous goods
The extent of injury in emergencies arising from the transport of dangerous goods depends on a number of parameters. Of primary importance are the properties of the cargo being transported, the amount of leaked or spilled cargo, the weather conditions under which the accident occurred, as well as the terrain.
The approach to forecasting depends on the nature of the substance with which the emergency occurs. When forecasting, the terrain is not taken into account and issues related to the pollution of groundwater and soil are not considered.
To simplify the forecast, we assume that in an emergency the entire cargo is out of the package;
In the event of an accident with kerosene, the area of its spill is determined by the formula:
(19)
where V is the volume of kerosene in 15,000 kg,
D is the density of kerosene, 810 kg/m3,
H is the thickness of the kerosene spill, 0.05 m.
We plot this area on the plan in the form of a circle. Along the perimeter of the formed zone, we establish a protective zone, the size of which is 50 meters. The radius is determined by the formula:
Determination of the number of victims in emergency situations
To assess possible losses from emergencies on the map, we establish the area of residential areas that fall into the area of manifestation of certain hazardous factors. Knowing the population density, we calculate the number of victims and determine the degree of damage to people.
When exposed to a hazardous factor on the territory of a production facility, we also determine the area of the territory of the facility that falls into the impact zone and determine the human losses in production, taking into account the average density of workers at the enterprise 250 people / km2. Within the warehouse, the density of workers is assumed to be 50 people/km2.
For various types of lesions, we determine the ratios that characterize the percentage of victims of a particular type according to the formula:
, (21)
where Npost is the number of victims of one type or another (persons);
Ntotal - the total number of people at the facility or territory (persons).
At industrial enterprises, the area that fell into the zone of contamination with SD and YV was 2.5 km2, the total area of the industrial enterprise was 4 km2; the density of employees at the enterprise - 250 people / km2; the total number of employees is 4 * 250 \u003d 1000 people, then the percentage and number of victims will be equal to:
The area of the settlement that fell into the zone of contamination with SD and YV was 4.5 km2, the total area of the settlement was 22.5 km2; population density - 550 people / km2; the total number of inhabitants is 22.5 * 550 \u003d 12,375 people, then the percentage and number of victims will be equal to:
As a result of the explosion, the area of the warehouse and the industrial enterprise enters the zone of distribution of excess pressure.
The percentage of victims of the explosion at the enterprise:
The total area of the warehouse - 900 m2;
The density of workers in the warehouse - 50 people / km2;
The total number of employees - 0.9 * 50 \u003d 45 people;
Percentage of affected workers in the warehouse:
The total number of victims of the explosion and the impact of SD and nuclear weapons:
Protection of the population in the event of an emergency
Based on the results of predicted calculations, maps of possible foci of chemical contamination are compiled. On topographic maps of cities and districts, foci of possible infection are plotted. The population is notified about potentially dangerous objects, in the immediate vicinity of which there are residential areas.
The medical and sanitary consequences of an emergency is a complex characteristic of an emergency, which determines the content, volume and organization of medical and sanitary support. Includes: the magnitude and nature of the resulting sanitary losses; the need of the affected in various types of medical care; conditions for conducting medical and evacuation measures in the emergency zone; sanitary-hygienic and sanitary-epidemiological situation resulting from the emergency; failure or disruption of the activities of medical and preventive, sanitary and hygienic, anti-epidemic institutions and institutions for the supply of medical equipment, as well as disruption of the life support of the population in the emergency zone and adjacent areas, etc.
Damaging factors of emergency sources - these are factors of a mechanical, thermal, radiation, chemical, biological (bacteriological), psycho-emotional nature, which are the causes of emergencies and lead to the defeat of people, animals, the natural environment, as well as objects of the national economy.
The damaging factors of emergency sources can cause various injuries to people:
Dynamic(mechanical) factors as a result of the direct action of overpressure in the front of the shock wave, throwing a person away by the velocity pressure and impacts on external objects, the action of secondary projectiles (structures of buildings and structures, stones, fragments, glass, etc.) lead to the occurrence of various injuries and closed injuries.
Thermal factors - as a result of exposure to high temperatures (light radiation, fires, high ambient temperature, etc.), thermal burns occur, general overheating of the body; at low temperatures, general hypothermia and frostbite are possible.
Radiation factors - in case of accidents at radiation hazardous facilities and the use of nuclear weapons as a result of exposure to ionizing radiation on the body, radiation sickness (acute and chronic) and radiation burns of the skin can develop, and if radioactive substances enter the body through the respiratory tract and gastrointestinal tract - lesions internal organs.
Chemical Factors - AOXV, chemical warfare agents, industrial and other poisons, affecting people during chemical accidents, the use of chemical weapons, cause a variety of (by nature and severity) damage.
Biological (bacteriological) factors - toxins, bacteria and other biological (bacteriological) agents, the release and spread of which are possible in case of accidents at biologically hazardous facilities, and in military conditions, when used by the enemy, they can lead to mass infectious diseases (epidemics) or mass poisoning.
Psycho-emotional the impact of damaging factors on people in extreme conditions can be manifested by a decrease in working capacity, a violation of their mental activity, and in some cases more serious disorders.
Strickenin emergency situations (when assessing the consequences of an emergency, the concept of “victims” is also used) is a person who, as a result of direct or indirect exposure to the damaging factors of an emergency source, has health problems.
General human losses that occurred in emergency situations are divided into irretrievable and sanitary losses. Irretrievable losses - people who died at the time of the emergency, died before entering the first stage of medical evacuation (to a medical facility) and missing. Sanitary losses - affected (survivors) and sick in the event of an emergency or as a result of an emergency.
Structure of sanitary losses - this is the distribution of the affected (patients): according to the severity of lesions (diseases) - extremely severe, severe, moderate, light; by the nature and localization of lesions (types of diseases).
In a catastrophe, losses usually occur suddenly and their number, as a rule, exceeds the capabilities of local facilities, and sometimes even territorial forces and healthcare facilities. The high severity of injury, a real threat to life during a disaster creates an average of 25-30% of those seriously injured. Among those affected, 20 to 30% are children.
In the structure of losses by localization, the first place in frequency, as a rule, is occupied by traumatic brain injury. Limb injuries and soft tissue wounds usually share the second and third places. On the fourth place of injury with the syndrome of prolonged compression ("crash syndrome"). 70% are affected with multiple and combined injuries. Among the causes of death in the first place is an injury incompatible with life, the second is traumatic shock, and the third is acute blood loss.
A significant part of those affected die from the untimely provision of medical care, although the injury is not fatal. After a severe injury, 30% die after 1 hour, and 60% die after 3 hours.
Specific pathologies affecting the population in extreme peacetime conditions are neuropsychiatric stress, shock, and stupor. Approximately 10-15% of those affected need inpatient treatment in neuropsychiatric LU and at least 50% in outpatient settings. During the earthquake in Armenia, psychotrauma affected all the wounded and up to 90% of those living in the disaster zone, as well as relatives living in the distance.
The nature of the losses from the impact of SDYAV among the population is very diverse. In the structure of losses, mild and moderate severity of the lesion prevails, and in the epicenter, a severe degree. The lethal degree does not exceed 5%. Of particular danger to children are chemicals that act on the mucous membranes of the respiratory tract, which in children are highly tender and vascularized and prone to edema.
In aviation and railway accidents, mainly mechanical and burn injuries occur with a high proportion of the dead.
During a flood, population losses fluctuate over a wide range.
The main pathology is associated with drowning people and diseases of the pulmonary system. In the zone of catastrophic flooding, up to 30% of the population dies at night, and no more than 15% during the day.
During an earthquake, from 22.5% to 45% of injuries occur from falling structures of buildings and 55% from the wrong behavior of people (panic, inability to hide, etc.).
The structure of losses among the population during catastrophic floods and earthquakes is rather quickly supplemented by infectious diseases.
Elements of medical and tactical characteristics of emergency situations
The medical and tactical characteristics of the lesion focus include a description of the possible working conditions for the disaster medicine service in the emergency area. It consists of a description (assessment) of the medical situation (the magnitude and structure of sanitary losses, failure of healthcare forces and facilities, etc.) and the tactical situation (the size of the focus, the nature and zones of destruction, etc.).
Medico-tactical characteristics of the focus include:
1. Determination of the size of the source, destruction zones, zones of contamination with RV, OV (SDYAV), BS, depending on the type of disaster, type and power of the explosion, fires, weather conditions, etc.
2. The nature of sanitary losses:
Quantitative characteristics (by zones of destruction and by location);
Qualitative characteristic or structure (according to the type and severity of the lesion, according to the localization of injuries).
3. The degree of failure of forces and means of health care:
Medical institutions;
medical property;
medical personnel;
Buildings for the deployment of stages of medical evacuation;
Escape routes (roads, bridges, etc.).
4. Organization of medical and evacuation support:
a) tasks of the medical service:
Type, scope, timing of medical care;
The need for forces and means of health care;
Therapeutic and evacuation characteristics of the affected.
b) organization and implementation of sanitary-hygienic and anti-epidemic measures:
Assessment of the sanitary situation in the outbreak and beyond its borders;
Continuing action of ionizing radiation, OV (SDYAV);
Assessment of the epidemiological situation, etc.
5. Moral and psychological state of the population:
Assessment of the psycho-emotional state of the population;
Measures to prevent panic, psycho-neurological stress, etc.
USSR and Russia in the slaughter. Human losses in the wars of the XX century Sokolov Boris Vadimovich
Estimation of the total size of Soviet losses and losses of the civilian population of the USSR in the Great Patriotic War
The total irretrievable losses of the population of the USSR in the Great Patriotic War, including excess mortality from natural causes, can be calculated by estimating the population at the beginning and end of the war, as well as the natural movement of the population and the balance of external migrations during the war. The calculations made on the basis of Soviet population censuses also make it possible to approximately estimate the total military losses of the population of the USSR, both military and civilians. The total population at the beginning of the Great Patriotic War can be estimated based on the estimate of V.S. Kozhurin, the population of the USSR by the beginning of 1941 was 198.7 million people. According to the population assessment of the USSR, conducted in June 1941, the difference between the preliminary and re-assessment of the population of the Khabarovsk Territory at the beginning of 1940 was 72.6 thousand people (1538.0 and 1610.6), or 4.7%. This figure turns out to be even larger than the rate of probable undercount in the 1939 census. However, according to the 1959 census data, there was a significant drop in the birth rate in 1941, probably due to a significant increase in the army in 1940 and early 1941. By the beginning of 1959, the number of people aged 20, i.e., those born in 1940, amounted to 48,390.0 thousand people, and the number of people aged 19, i.e., those born in 1941, was only 43,165 .0 thousand people. If we assume that the birth rate has declined in approximately the same proportion as these cohorts relate to each other, then for 1941 it can be estimated at 2.78%. If we assume that the death rate in 1940 and the first half of 1941 was approximately the same, then the rate of natural increase for 1941 in the absence of war can be estimated at 1%, and the actual volume of natural increase in the first half of 1941 is about 1 million people. Then the population of the USSR by June 22, 1941, without adjusting for the underestimation of the 1939 census, can be estimated at 199.7 million people, and adjusted for such an underestimation, at 205.9-206.7 million people. If we subtract from this the losses in the battles in Finland and Khalkhin Gol, probably not taken into account in the statistics of 1939-1941, the population at the beginning of the Great Patriotic War can be estimated at 205.7-206.5 million people.
The population of the USSR by the beginning of 1946, based on the population estimate of 1950, taking into account the natural increase in that year, can be estimated at 167 million people. Due to the annexation of Tuva and Transcarpathia, the population of the USSR by the beginning of 1946 should have increased by at least 0.9 million people, and due to the return of the Bialystok region and some other territories to Poland, it should have decreased, taking into account losses in the war, also by about 0, 9 million people. In addition, due to external migrations, by the beginning of 1946, the population should have decreased by 0.9 million people. In 1940, the birth rate was 3.12%, the death rate was 1.80%, and the natural increase was 1.32%. The average annual level of natural mortality in 1941-1945, excluding military losses at the level of 1940, can be estimated at 3.4 million people, with an average population for the war of 187 million people. Of the 6.1 million people born in 1940, 4.8 million survived by the beginning of 1959. The average survival index up to 1959 for people of this year of birth can be estimated at 78.7%. Then the total number of those born in 1942-1945 can be estimated at 15.4 million people, given that in 1959 there were 12.155 million people of these ages, and the approximate number of people who died of natural causes over these years is 13.6 million people. Then the conditional natural increase over these years, covered by military losses, can be estimated in 1942-1945 at 1.8 million people. To this must be added another approximately 0.5 million conventional natural increase in the second half of 1941. Then the total population losses in the war can be estimated by subtracting 167.9 million people from 205.7-206.5 million people and adding 2.3 million people. The total losses of the USSR in the Great Patriotic War will amount to 40.1-40.9 million people. Losses of the civilian population, including excess mortality, can be estimated by subtracting the losses of military personnel from the total losses at 13.2-14.0 million people. These losses are, of course, the largest among all the states participating in the Second World War and account for at least half of all losses in this war.
In the occupied territories and in the frontline, a particularly strong decline in the birth rate was observed in large cities. So, in besieged Leningrad in 1943, the birth rate dropped to zero. In Moscow, from 1941 to 1943, the birth rate decreased by 2.6 times. In occupied Dnepropetrovsk in 1942, the birth rate reached only 34% of the pre-war level. At the same time, in the occupied countryside, where a significant part of the townspeople moved in search of food, the drop in the birth rate was probably not so significant. The effect of reducing mortality from natural causes could also be observed here, due to a decrease in the birth rate and a fall in the infant mortality rate for this reason. In addition, many residents of the occupied territories and the frontline died from causes related to the war - during hostilities or as a result of repression by the occupying authorities, which reduced their likelihood of dying of natural causes.
We also note that in the losses of the civilian population of military age, a significant predominance of women is inevitable, since in connection with the conscription of the vast majority of men of the corresponding ages into the army, the probability of death of women among civilians of these ages has increased. Such a phenomenon was observed in Germany, where, according to the results of the bombing of allied aircraft, "in all age groups, losses among women exceed those among men by approximately 40%". Therefore, it is not possible to use data on the female preponderance in the post-war years at military age to determine the losses of the armed forces, since the female preponderance has been significantly reduced due to the losses of the civilian population. The significant number of women who died in the armed forces also contributed to the reduction of the post-war female preponderance. In addition, many of the women who remained widowed or single could have died prematurely before the 1959 census, which should also have significantly reduced the female preponderance in military age.
It is practically impossible to establish in what proportion the victims among the civilian population were distributed between the occupied and non-occupied territory of the USSR. In the occupied territory of the USSR, about 1.5 million Soviet Jews were exterminated by the Nazis as part of the "Final Solution to the Jewish Question." Jews were exterminated both directly by executions carried out by the Einsatzgruppen of the SD (Sicherheitsdienst, Security Service), and through starvation and epidemics in ghettos and concentration camps. There, the food supply of the Jews was limited in such a way that the daily ration did not ensure the physical survival of even a non-working person. And the Jews were also forced to do hard physical labor. In addition, about 0.5 million more Jews from Western Europe were destroyed on the territory of the USSR, but they are not included in the demographic losses of the Soviet Union.
In the occupied Soviet territory, the population also died as a result of executions of hostages and during punitive operations against partisans, as well as German repressions against underground workers associated with partisans and Soviet intelligence. Civilians also died of starvation and disease. In addition, they died in the course of hostilities both between the Wehrmacht and the Red Army, and between partisans and punishers. The losses of the civilian Soviet population also include those who died who did not serve in the Red Army, but ended up in the ranks of partisans or collaborationist formations. There is no reliable data on the number of victims in each of these categories.
On the unoccupied Soviet territory, civilians also became victims of hostilities - shelling and bombing. The victims of the siege of Leningrad should be included in this category, although most of them died of starvation and disease. According to the calculations of the Leningrad City Commission, 16,747 Leningraders died from shelling and bombing, and another 632,253 people became victims of hunger and disease. This number did not include those residents who were evacuated from Leningrad, but died before the end of the war from the consequences of starvation experienced during the blockade. Among them was the Leningrad girl Tanya Savicheva, whose diary shocked the world. She died in 1944. There are also higher estimates that increase the number of victims of the Leningrad blockade to 1 million people.
The victims of starvation were also great, especially among the evacuees. For example, in Arkhangelsk alone, during the first war winter, 20,000 people died from hunger and disease - every tenth inhabitant. And at the very end of the war, mass famine raged in the unoccupied territory, provoking even cannibalism, and not only in besieged Leningrad. Here are the facts, for example, cited by D.A. Volkogonov: “The People’s Commissar of Internal Affairs of the Tajik SSR Kharchenko reported:
“In the Leninabad region ... 20 people were identified who died of exhaustion, and 500 people were swollen from malnutrition. In the Stalinabad region - Ramit, Pakhtaabad, Obi-Garm and other districts - more than 70 people died of exhaustion. There are also emaciated and swollen. Such facts take place in the Kurgan-Tube, Kulyab, Garm regions. The assistance provided to these areas on the spot is insignificant…”
In the Chita region there are facts of "the use of dead animals, trees, bark." A terrible fact was reported when one peasant woman with her sons killed their little daughter and used her for food ... Here is another similar case ... ".
According to the Vologda historian V.B. Konasov, out of 340,000 inhabitants of the Vologda Oblast drafted into the Red Army, 178,000 people died, while civilian casualties amounted to about 220,000 people. Thus, the proportion of deaths among those drafted into the Red Army was about 52.4%, and among civilians - 17.7%. The fact that the proportion of those killed in the Vologda Oblast among those drafted into the Red Army turned out to be somewhat lower than the proportion of those killed among all those mobilized can be explained by the fact that there were no hostilities on the territory of the Vologda Oblast. In the areas on the territory of which hostilities took place, the proportion of those mobilized directly into units was large, among which the irretrievable losses were especially large. The proportion of those who died among civilians in the Vologda Oblast turns out to be twice as high as the proportion of civilians who died throughout the entire territory of the USSR (8.3%). This may be partly due to the inclusion of part of the military losses in the composition of the losses of the civilian population. Indirectly, this fact may testify in favor of the assertion that the death rate among the civilian population in the non-occupied territory was significantly higher than in the occupied one.
It should be noted that in the occupied territory, facts of cannibalism and corpse-eating were found only in prisoner-of-war camps, as well as in blockaded partisan detachments, in particular, in the Crimea and in the Odessa catacombs. This suggests that in terms of food, the situation of the population of the occupied territories was more favorable than the situation of the inhabitants of the non-occupied territories. This was affected, in particular, by the fact that the population of the territories occupied by the Germans and their allies decreased both due to evacuation to Soviet territory and due to the deportation of the population for forced labor in the Reich. The German administration only minimally used the industrial potential of the occupied cities and encouraged the departure of the townspeople to the countryside, where they had a chance to feed themselves through subsistence farming. In addition, the Germans did not control most of the countryside, and the peasants and the townspeople who fled there usually had enough food left to feed themselves. Sometimes the greatest threat to the peasants was not the German occupiers, but all sorts of partisans.
On the contrary, in the territory that remained under Soviet control, the population of the cities was actively used for the needs of the front, was under the strict control of the NKVD and did not have the opportunity to leave for the countryside. In addition, the entire countryside remained under the effective control of the NKVD, and everywhere surplus food was confiscated from the collective farms and state farms, as well as the few remaining individual farmers, which often brought the peasants to the brink of starvation.
From the book I fought in a fighter [Those who took the first blow, 1941–1942] author Drabkin Artem VladimirovichVyacheslav Kondratiev. Comparative analysis of the designs and performance data of Soviet and German fighters that took part in the Great Patriotic War On the eve of the war, the I-16 aircraft, worn by pilots
From the GRU book yesterday and today author Prelovsky Konstantin Valerievich1. GRU in the Great Patriotic War 1.1 The beginning of the war As you know, the war began for the Red Army quite unexpectedly on June 22, 1941, which in fact was the reason for the defeat of the personnel Red Army in the initial period of the war. It is quite clear that if the Red Army
From the book of the USSR and Russia in the slaughter. Human losses in the wars of the XX century author Sokolov Boris VadimovichCriticism of the official figure of irretrievable losses of the Red Army in the Great Patriotic War The Soviet Union and Germany suffered the greatest losses among all participants in the Second World War. Establishing the magnitude of irretrievable losses of both the armed forces and
From the book Washed with Blood? Lies and truth about losses in the Great Patriotic War author Zemskov Viktor NikolaevichEstimation of the true value of irretrievable losses of the Red Army The official figures of Soviet irretrievable losses turn out to be several times less than the actual value, because the calculation of irretrievable losses in the Red Army was very poorly set. Commanders of all
From the book Sniper War author Ardashev Alexey NikolaevichChecking the estimate of the irretrievable losses of the Red Army in the Great Patriotic War according to the Memorial OBD To do this, you need to try to make a sample and evaluate,
From the book Border Troops of Russia in Wars and Armed Conflicts of the 20th Century. author History Team of authors --Estimation of the irretrievable losses of the German armed forces in the Second World War The irretrievable losses of the Wehrmacht up to November 1944 are quite fully taken into account according to the personal (personal) records by the German military registration institutions. Between September 1, 1939
From the author's bookLosses of the civilian population and the general losses of the population of Germany in World War II It is very difficult to determine the losses of the civilian German population. For example, the number of deaths as a result of the bombing of Dresden by Allied aircraft in February 1945
From the author's bookThe ratio of irretrievable losses of the Soviet Union and Germany in World War II The true size of the losses of the Soviet Armed Forces in the dead, including those who died in captivity, according to our estimate, can be 26.9 million people. This is approximately 10.3 times higher than the losses
From the author's book3. The results of the calculation of the losses of the Soviet troops by the authors of the work "Russia and the USSR in the wars of the twentieth century"
From the author's bookThe general ratio of irretrievable losses of the parties in the Great Patriotic War It is time to finally sum up our reasoning about the irretrievable losses of the opposing sides on the Soviet-German front and determine the ratio for them. But first, let us recall that to
From the author's bookV.N. Zemskov, Doctor of Historical Sciences On the issue of the scale of human losses in the USSR in the Great Patriotic War (In Search of Truth) There is a lot of literature on this problem, and, perhaps, someone gets the impression that it has been sufficiently studied. Yes indeed,
From the author's book5. Illustration of the unreliability of the official point of view Estimation of possible losses of the North-Western Front in the summer of 1941
From the author's book8. Features of accounting for personnel and their losses in the USSR Armed Forces The cost of repelling the first enemy strikes in the summer of 1941 Why did N. Vatutin and V. Kashirsky draw up a loss report in this way? Until February 4, 1944, the "Manual on Accounting and Reporting in the Red Army" was in force,
From the author's book13. Analysis of the movement and losses of members of the CPSU (b) and Komsomol in 1941-1945 Determining the total number of losses of military personnel of the USSR Armed Forces Let's turn to the data of party and Komsomol records. It is known that the registration of soldiers - members of the CPSU (b) and the Komsomol was an order of magnitude stricter than the army
From the author's bookCombat account of the best Soviet snipers of the period of the Great Patriotic War The best sniper of the Second World War is Mikhail Ilyich Surkov, who accounted for 702 killed enemies. This is one of the most mysterious figures - with such a combat score, he is not even a Hero
From the author's bookCHAPTER V BORDER TROOPS OF THE USSR IN THE GREAT PATRIOTIC WAR
Observer - Observer 2001 № 4
ON THE SOVIET-GERMAN FRONT
(1941-1945)
(According to the records of the General Staff)
G. Krivosheev,
colonel general, candidate of military sciences,
professor AVN
End of the 20th century with all its great achievements and formidable cataclysms. It became another milestone in world history. The history of our Fatherland - Russia and the Soviet Union - entered into it as an inseparable component.
This century, in terms of the number of large and small wars and the scale of military casualties, far exceeded all previous centuries. Throughout its entire length, there was almost not a single year, and even more so a decade, when military operations were not conducted in some part of the world and soldiers did not die on the battlefield. The peoples of our Motherland in the XX century. more than once they had to take up arms in order to defend their freedom and independence in the fight against foreign invaders. But the Great Patriotic War of 1941-1945, imposed by German fascism, occupies a special place in the history of the Fatherland.
In the centuries-old history of mankind, one cannot find such achievements that, in terms of the scope of events, the scale of heroic deeds, could be compared with the feat of the Soviet people during the Great Patriotic War. 1418 days and nights of extreme tension of all the material and spiritual forces of the country, the broadest masses of the people. About four years of our actual single combat with the colossal military machine of Nazi Germany and its satellites, which has crushed almost all of Western Europe. These are thousands and thousands of kilometers of fiery front roads, where every step is watered with blood, day after day of almost permanent selfless labor in factories and factories, on collective farm fields, in scientific laboratories and design bureaus, in the field of culture and art.
The further the tragic events of this war go down in history, the more closely we peer into them, analyze and study them. Evidence of this - a lot of fiction about the war, thousands of memoirs, research papers, collections, films, memoirs.
Table 1
COMPARATIVE BALANCE TABLE
__________________
1 Including 805,264 persons liable for military service who were in the army at the "Great training camp" by the beginning of the war.
2 The calculation is taken: USSR - from 06/22/1941, Germany - from 09/01/1939. Some data of the USSR (unnecessary for comparison) are omitted.
3 This includes the losses of Germany and its allies.
Any war has been and remains the main disaster of mankind, and is a threat to its very existence.
According to scientists, over the past 5.5 thousand years there have been about 14,500 wars. They claimed at least 3 billion 540 million human lives. In all the past centuries, people diligently exterminated each other. More than 4 trillion rubles were spent on the wars of the past century alone. dollars. With these funds, it would be possible to feed the entire population of the Earth for 50 years. But the main costs of war are human losses.
During the celebration of the 55th anniversary of the Victory over fascist Germany, television and the press often arbitrarily named the losses of the parties in the Second World War, which do not correspond to documentary data. The results of studies on military casualties carried out at the General Staff were first published in the press in the early 1990s.
A team of historians in the statistical study "Secrecy Removed", published in 1993 in Moscow, and in 1997 in London, based on archival documents, gave a comprehensive analysis of various types of losses for 1941-1945. This research is still ongoing. Evidence-based, documented answers are emerging that were previously unfinished. On the same issue, the work "Russia and the USSR in the Wars of the 20th Century. Losses of the Armed Forces" was published.
Tab. 1 of the balance sheet gives an idea of the use of human resources during the Second World War (1939-1945).
Considering the Second World War, it should be noted that the Soviet Union fought not only with Germany. In June 1941, war was declared on him in addition to Germany (06/22/1941) and Italy (06/22/1941), as well as Romania (06/22/1941), Hungary (06/27/1941), Finland (06/26/1941 .1941) and Norway (08/16/1943). They were joined by the puppet government of Slovakia created by the Nazis (06/23/1941). Without declaring war on the Soviet Union, Bulgaria and Croatia declared war on the United States and England (December 13 and December 14, 1941, respectively). Japan and Spain, formally maintaining neutrality, cooperated most closely with Germany. Germany's ally was also the government of Vichy France.
Formations, units and subunits manned by citizens of Albania, Belgium, Denmark, Spain, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Serbia, France, Croatia, the Czech Republic, and Sweden also participated in the war against the Soviet Union.
Suffice it to say that among the prisoners of war captured by the Red Army, there were persons of almost all nationalities of Europe who fought against the USSR (Table 2).
table 2
Immediately after the attack on the Soviet Union, partly spontaneously, partly under the influence of German propaganda, the "Movement of European Volunteers" arose with the aim of waging a "Crusade of Europe against Bolshevism." Volunteers were sent to replenish the 26 SS volunteer divisions and replenish the reserve. However, only a small number of individuals in these divisions were volunteers. And in total, at the end of the war, there were almost 500 thousand foreigners in the Wehrmacht, mainly Volksdeutsche (Germans living outside Germany).
The White Guard Cossack Corps (commander B.A. Shteifon), Cossack units (later the 15th Cossack Corps, corps commander von Panwitz) and some other units formed from citizens of the Soviet Union also took part in the war on the side of Germany.
During the entire war, the Germans attracted 1,800 thousand people from the occupied countries to the Wehrmacht. Of these, 59 divisions and 23 brigades were formed.
The degree of combat use of the armed forces of different states was not the same. The main burden of the armed struggle fell on the Soviet-German front.
Our country was the main force blocking the path of German fascism to world domination. She played a decisive role in the defeat of Nazi Germany, and then Japan.
The most severe consequences of the Second World War for the Soviet Union were total casualties both civilians and military personnel.
According to the results of studies conducted by the Department of Population Statistics of the USSR State Statistics Committee and the Center for the Study of Population Problems at Moscow State University, the total direct human losses of the country for all the years of the Great Patriotic War are estimated at 26.6 million people.
The number is huge. Never before has our country faced such military casualties.
Thus, in the First World War we lost 4,467.8 thousand people; during the civil war (1918-1922) with its deadly epidemics (typhoid, cholera, malaria, etc.), 8 million people were killed, died from wounds and diseases, that is, during the eight years of the war (1914-1922. ) lost 12,467.8 thousand people. military personnel and civilians, but this is 2 times less than in the Second World War.
During the war, only Germany and the USSR attracted about 56 million people into their armed forces. And all the warring countries, together with regular personnel, mobilized and called up reservists, totaled about 120 million people.
Before the start of the Great Patriotic War, there were 4,826.9 thousand servicemen in the Red Army and the Navy.
During the war years, 29,574.9 thousand people were called up. conscripts and conscripts.
In total, during the years of the war, 34,476.7 thousand people were recruited into the Armed Forces.
This figure is equal to the entire population of Denmark, the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden and Finland combined.
In addition, 490.235 thousand women and 219.645 thousand men over 50 years of age who were not liable for military service were called up for military positions.
Of this number, 8,668.4 thousand were killed, died and did not return from captivity - these are demographic irretrievable losses of military personnel.
Of the variety of questions about the human losses of the armed forces in the Second World War, the most important are irretrievable losses of military personnel, demographic losses and missing persons. What is irretrievable loss?
This definition of the category of losses appeared in the First World War and, with some clarifications in content, is still used today. So, the disabled, dismissed from the army during the war, were irretrievable losses. In the Great Patriotic War - to sanitary losses.
In the order of the Deputy People's Commissar of Defense of the USSR No. 023 dated February 4, 1944, this category of losses included "those who died in battle, went missing at the front, died from wounds on the battlefield and in medical institutions, died from diseases received at the front, or those who died at the front from other causes and were captured by the enemy.
During the war years, the total irretrievable losses of the Soviet Armed Forces with border and internal troops, according to reports from the troops, amounted to 11,444.1 thousand people. In the First World War, similar losses of the Russian army were determined by 4,430.9 thousand people. (1,087 thousand killed and dead and 3,343.9 thousand missing and captured).
How were losses taken into account at the front?
During the war, every five days, i.e. 6 times a month, all military units, and formations 3 times a month reported on irretrievable losses. Consequently, 11,444.1 thousand people. - this is the result of daily operational accounting of the loss of personnel during the war, that is, this is the personnel that was not in service at the time of the report, not counting the wounded. But that doesn't mean they all died. Some of them were captured, some, especially during the retreat, remained in the occupied territory, some went to the partisans, and some returned to the regiment or went to the location of other formations, but the accounting was often not clarified.
It was not always possible to determine the number of dead and dead from the number of irretrievable losses during the hostilities, and all military personnel whose fate was unknown at that time were referred to as missing in reports.
Sometimes, for reasons caused by front-line conditions, reports from units and formations were not received. Then the losses were determined according to previous reports on the list number of formations and units.
So, in September - November 1941, 63 divisions were surrounded and could not submit reports. According to the latest report, their number was 433,999 thousand people. This payroll was classified as missing. All of them were attributed to the unaccounted losses of the war, which amounted to 1,162.6 thousand people during the war. Thus, the figure is 11,444.1 thousand people. includes these losses.
But this total, obtained from the reports of formations and units to the General Staff during the war, cannot be taken as the number of those killed and dead, because after the war some of them returned from captivity, and many hundreds of thousands were called up again in the liberated territory.
Demographic losses of the Armed Forces- these are human losses associated only with death (the dead, the deceased, those who were shot and did not return from captivity). Their number is determined after the war, when the results are summed up, and it is possible to clarify which of the missing actually died, died in captivity, and who turned out to be alive.
When determining the demographic losses of military personnel, the number of irretrievable losses of the payroll (11,444.1 thousand people) was reduced by the number of those who found themselves alive after the war - 1,836 thousand people. returned from captivity and 939.7 thousand people. called up for the second time in the liberated territory, previously listed as missing.
Thus, the demographic losses of the listed personnel of the army and navy were determined at 8,668.4 thousand people. This figure is the loss of the army and navy during the war (killed, died, did not return from captivity). This includes combat and non-combat losses.
Some reproach the fact that the General Staff does not show all the losses. And they are trying to name numbers that are many times higher than this. Called and 40 million, and 80 million, and more. (At that time, the entire male population of the country was about 94 million, and the employed - 63 million). 8,668.4 thousand is documentary data, and there could not have been more losses.
But here is how the American scientist Maksudov (Babenyshev) says about it. He argues that this figure is somewhat overestimated:
First, are all the missing, who turned out to be alive, taken into account? Probably not.
Secondly, are all those who returned from captivity accounted for? Also, probably not.
Thirdly, all those who emigrated to other countries after captivity are not taken into account.
Fourthly, the entire number of units that were surrounded was classified as missing. But many of them left the encirclement and were not taken into account.
Most of the irretrievable losses are missing.
According to the documents, out of all the irretrievable losses of servicemen, 5,059 thousand were missing and taken prisoner. But it must be assumed that not all of them were captured.
The results of the study of materials, including archival documents of the German military command, confirm that about 450-500 thousand military personnel of this number died, remained in the occupied territory, went to the partisans, and 4,559 thousand were captured by the Germans.
These figures are confirmed by the chief command of the German ground forces. They are published in the combat journal (volume I), which indicates that by December 20, 1942, 3,350,639 thousand people were captured by Soviet military personnel. This is precisely the period of the war when the Red Army suffered the greatest losses in the missing and captured.
These figures are close to the data of our General Staff, according to which by December 30, 1942, 3,850,703 thousand people were missing and taken prisoner. If we subtract 450-500 thousand of those who remained in the occupied territory or died, then the figure of 3,350,639 thousand is close to reality. In subsequent years, the number of missing people dropped sharply.
Cruelty and inhuman treatment of prisoners of war in German captivity caused a high mortality rate among prisoners of war. Of the 4,559,000 Soviet servicemen who were in German captivity, only 1,836,000 returned from captivity after the war.
Unfortunately, servicemen also died in our prisoner of war camps. According to the reports of the fronts and individual armies, our troops captured 4,377.3 thousand people. German military personnel, of which about 600 thousand people, after an appropriate check, were released directly by the fronts. In the bulk, these were persons of non-German nationality (Poles, Czechs, Slovaks, Romanians, Slovenes, Bulgarians, Moldavians, Volksdeutsche, etc.), as well as partially non-transportable disabled people.
The bulk of the enemy prisoners of war (3,777.3 thousand people) from the front-line collection points were sent to the rear camps of the NKVD of the USSR, including about 752.5 thousand military personnel of Germany's allied countries.
However, 3,486.2 thousand people were registered in the NKVD camps. The difference between the number of sent and recorded prisoners of war amounted to 291.1 thousand people. due to the fact that prisoners of war from among the citizens of the Soviet Union who served in the Wehrmacht or took part in the war on the side of Nazi Germany (more than 220 thousand people), as well as war criminals (14.1 thousand people) were sent to special camps NKVD, and the other part (about 57 thousand people) died on the way from illness and frostbite, before reaching the camps.
Of all the 4,126,964 thousand prisoners of war recorded in the camps, which included Japanese prisoners of war (640,100 people), 580,548 thousand people died in all the years, that is, one in seven. Among the German prisoners of war out of 2,389.56 thousand people. 356.7 thousand died and 93.9 thousand at transit points and on the way (especially after the Battle of Stalingrad) - a total of 450.6 thousand people. This in no way compares with the number of our soldiers who died in German captivity.
Recently, on the basis of archival documents and works published in Germany, it was possible to compile a balance sheet of the number of personnel of the German armed forces during the Second World War.
As of September 1, 1939, there were 3,214 thousand people in the German armed forces. From June 1, 1939 to April 30, 1945, 17,893 thousand people were drafted into the German army. Consequently, 21,107 thousand people passed through the armed forces of Germany during the war years.
By the beginning of the surrender, 4,100 thousand people remained in the ranks. There were 700 thousand people in hospitals in Germany. During the war, 16,307 thousand people lost their lives. Of these, irretrievable losses amounted to 11,844 thousand people, including those killed and died from wounds and diseases, missing - 4,457 thousand people, captured - 7,387 thousand people.
Other loss (total) - 4,463 thousand people, of which they were dismissed due to injury and illness for a long time as unfit for military service (disabled), deserted - 2,463 thousand people, demobilized and sent to work in industry - 2 000 thousand people
Sanitary losses- these are wounded, shell-shocked, burned, sick and frostbitten servicemen who were evacuated from the combat areas to army, front and rear hospitals.
According to the reports of the fronts, fleets of individual armies and flotillas, the sanitary losses of our troops amounted to 18,344,148 thousand people, including 15,205,592 thousand wounded, shell-shocked and burned, 3,047,675 thousand sick and 90,881 thousand frostbitten.
According to the reports of the Main Military Sanitary Directorate, 22,326,905 thousand people passed through all military medical institutions during the war years. The excess (by 4,593.6 thousand people) is explained by the fact that all personnel, including those not participating in hostilities, are taken into account here.
In total, 1,371.504 thousand people died in medical institutions. (of which 1,102.8 thousand people died from wounds).
In the course of work, especially recently, we managed to find a number of new documents about the dead (missing) hospitals. Of the 6,000 hospitals during the war, 227 hospitals were missing, captured by the enemy and killed. Of these, 10 died during the formation, 17 were surrounded and left with heavy losses, and 200 went missing and died. Particularly heavy losses were suffered in the south and the North Caucasus, where 97 hospitals were killed.
Great are our losses on the Soviet-German front during the Second World War. But they were not in vain - the aggressor was defeated, a historic victory over fascism was won.
Under these conditions, the structure of losses of people from the victims will be:
2.3 Conclusions
Measures to reduce the danger of contaminated areas and reduce losses:
· Based on the assessment of the chemical situation, measures are taken to protect people, measures are being developed to conduct rescue operations in conditions of infection and eliminate the consequences of infection, to restore the production activity of the facility and ensure the life of the population.
· When choosing the protection mode at the facility, it is provided: the procedure for using personal protective equipment when continuing production activities, stopping work in contaminated rooms; stay in shelters before carrying out work that excludes damage after people go to work places. In conditions of severe contamination of the territory of the facility, it may be envisaged to evacuate people to uncontaminated areas with the cessation of the operation of individual workshops or the facility as a whole until measures are taken to decontaminate the territory, premises and equipment of the facility.
· Approximate options for typical modes of operation of the facility, carrying out rescue operations should be worked out in peacetime, taking into account the direction of the wind, the specific conditions of the operation of the facility and the provision of workers and employees and personnel of formations with individual and collective protection equipment.
General measures to combat occupational poisoning:
· Elimination of poison from the technological process.
· Improvement of technology and equipment.
Hygienic and sanitary measures:
· Hygienic standardization of raw materials and finished materials.
· Limiting the time spent by a worker in the danger zone, the use of overalls, gas masks and other personal protective equipment, the proper organization of work, the provision of emergency medical care, etc.
· Application of appropriate types of layout and arrangement of equipment.
· Ventilation.
· Training of workers.
· Sanitary-educational work.
Legislative sanitary and treatment-and-prophylactic measures:
· Limited day work, longer vacations, earlier retirements;
· Preliminary upon admission to work and subsequent periodic medical examinations of workers;
· Additional fortification of workers.
Designations:
Explosion center
Direction of the wind
Zone of probable deviation from the aiming point
city border
City center
Object (foundry)
Rice. 2
Scale 1cm: 15 km 3
Scale Fig. four
1. Calculation of the resistance of an object of the national economy to the impact of damaging factors of a ground-based nuclear explosion
1.1 Initial data.
1.2 Characteristics of the object.
1.3 The damaging factors of a nuclear explosion.
1.3.1. Calculation of the damaging effect of the shock wave.
2. Characteristics of the degree of damage to people at the facility:
3. Characteristics of the destruction of the object:
1.3.2 Calculation of the damaging effect of light radiation.
1. The amount of light radiation
2. Characteristics of various materials.
3. Characteristics of fires.
4. Calculation of the duration of the light pulse.
1.3.3 Calculation of the damaging effect of penetrating radiation.
1. Determination of the values of exposure, absorbed and equivalent doses outdoors on the territory of the facility.
1.3.4 Calculation of contamination zones and radiation doses on the trail of a radioactive cloud.
2. Determination of the dose received by the worker in the building of the facility.
1.4 Conclusions
2 Assessment of the chemical situation in the event of the destruction of a container with potent toxic substances (SDYAV).
2.1 Initial data:
2.2 Determining the danger of SDYAV and the zone of chemical contamination (ZKhZ).
2.2.1 Description of SDYAV
2.2.2 Calculation of the depth of the ZKhZ.
2.2.4 Determination of the time during which the infected cloud will reach the object.
2.2.5 Determination of possible casualties in the lesion
2.3 Conclusions
The grafical part
... - density of AHOV; - the height of the evaporation column of the spilled AHOV. h, at, t. At the second stage of calculations, the depth, width and area of the chemical contamination zone are determined. The calculation of the depths of the zones of contamination by the primary (secondary) cloud of AHOV in case of accidents at process tanks, storage facilities and transport is carried out using tables. The tables show the maximum depths of the zones...
VI. Photos Part III 3-1. Assessment of the radiation situation and determination of the enterprise protection regimes in the conditions of radioactive contamination. The radiation situation develops on the territory of an administrative region, a settlement or an object as a result of radioactive contamination of the area and all objects located on it and requires the adoption of certain protective measures that exclude ...
And employees take shelter in shelters. After the expiration of the specified period, the level of radiation on the territory of the facility drops to values that ensure the safe activity of workers and employees in production premises. electromagnetic impulse. A nuclear explosion produces strong electromagnetic radiation in a wide range of waves with a maximum density in the region of 15–30 kHz. Due to the short...
In some cases, the damaging factors of each type of WMD cause additional victims and obstacles in protecting against them, as well as in combating their consequences. Chapter II. Forecasting and assessment of the situation in emergency situations 2.1 Forecasting a possible radiation situation The radiation situation is the scale and degree of radioactive contamination of the area that affect the activity ...
