Terms and concepts for the section "Ancient Russia"

Anty - the name of the association of Slavic tribes by Byzantine and Gothic writers (VI-early VII c.)

Varangians - (Normans, Vikings) the name of the participants in predatory campaigns - immigrants from Scandinavia (Danes, Norwegians, Swedes)

Druzhina - a group of permanent combat associates, friends of the prince, professional soldiers and advisers to the prince (armed cavalry detachment)

Verv - Old Slavic community

The world is a peasant community. Form of social organization

Temple - a place of idolatry, where a pagan cult copes

Idol - the image of a deity

Magi and sorcerers - priests, ministers of pagan cults

Trizna - ritual actions and a feast in memory of the deceased

Evening meeting of community members (male warriors)

servants, servants

Events - crowded tribal holidays (from -to be together)

Polyudye - collection of tribute from community members in favor of the prince

Otrok, child - junior squad, ordinary soldiers

Voi - people's militia

Rat - army

Warrior - warrior

Outposts - border fortresses

Vira - a fine in favor of the prince in the ancient Russian state

Virnick the fine collector

Glagolitic, Cyrillic - Slavic alphabets created by Cyril and Methodius. (first not

got accustomed)

Gridi - princely warriors, bodyguards of the prince, junior squad.

Outcasts - in Ancient Russia XI-XII centuries. peasants who broke ties with the community and did not

enjoyed her patronage, freed or redeemed

serfs and other persons.

Chronicles - historical works, weather records of the most important events.

A posadnik is an elected official in an ancient Russian city-republic. Chapter

executive power

Posad people (posad) - the commercial and industrial population of Russian cities (townspeople)

who carried duties in favor of the prince (including military service) and paid him

Ognischanin, tiun - steward in the household of the prince

Gardarika - that's how Russia was called in Scandinavia - that is, the country of cities.

Pogost - a tribute collection place, established by Princess Olga

Kupa - loan (grain, cattle)

Purchase - (peasant dependent on the feudal lord) - working in his field for a kupa (loan)

People are communal peasants (hence the commoner)

patrimony - land inherited from father to son (feudal possession)

Tysyatsky - appointed by the prince or elected head of the city government and

militia leader.

Miniature - small colorful drawing

Yoke - (yoke) - oppression, heavy bondage, burdens of enslavement.

Yarlyk-khan letter for the right to own a principality

Ulus - specific possession of the khan (sons and grandsons of Genghis Khan)

Baskaks - tribute collectors

Golden Horde - the state of the Mongol-Tatars

Paiza - a sign of the power of Mongolian officials (silver or gold platinum, on

which were cut out by the orders of the Khan)

Yasa - a set of laws created by Genghis Khan

Exit - payment of tribute to the Golden Horde

The number is a census of the population of Russia by the Mongols to collect tribute.

Basic terms and concepts (16-17 century)

Arshin- a measure of length equal to 16 inches -71.12 cm.

White settlements- the name of the settlements, the population of which was temporarily exempted from state duties.

Vershok- a measure of length equal to 4.4 cm.

Verst- Russian travel measure equal to 1066.7 m.

Head- the name of military and administrative positions in Russia in the 16th-17th centuries.

Golytba- poor poor people. They fled south to the Cossacks and formed the golutvenny (alien) Cossacks.

Golutvenny Cossacks- (golutva - cutting down, a field cleared for cultivation) - was not included in the registered Cossack army, did not receive any income, was engaged in agriculture.

city ​​clerk- commandant of the fortified city, head of the garrison, later mayor.

Lip- territorial district in Russia in the XVI-XVII centuries. headed by the labial warden.

lip reform- carried out in the 30-50s. 16th century on the withdrawal of cases of robbers from the court of the governors and their transfer to the gubernatorial institutions - local governments in the guba. At first they were in charge of the investigation and the criminal court, then the issues of current management.

walking people- the general name of freed serfs, runaway peasants and townspeople. They lived by work for hire and robbery.

Dragoons- a type of cavalry intended for operations on horseback and on foot.

Duma boyars- members of the Boyar Duma, its first rank. In addition to them, it included devious, duma nobles, duma clerks.

Heresy- a trend that deviates from the dogmas of the official church, advocating its transformation.

Zaporizhzhya Sich- organization of Ukrainian Cossacks. It was located beyond the thresholds of the Dnieper in the form of freemen - a Cossack republic with a Sich Rada headed by a ataman.

notch- a defensive line from an external enemy.

Zemshchina- the main part of the territory of Russia, not included in the oprichnina.

Cossacks - free people who served in the border areas. They created self-governing communities - Cossack freemen with an elected foreman.

Privateering(Dutch - sea robbery) - a legal form of piracy, an attack by armed merchant ships of a belligerent state on other people's ships carrying goods for the enemy. Used by Ivan the Terrible in the Livonian War.

equestrian- a court position, the highest duma rank. Headed the Stable Order.

penny- Russian small change, put into circulation in 1534, was 1/100 of the ruble.

Serfdom- the most severe form of dependence of the peasants, manifested in their attachment to the land and complete submission to the power of the feudal lord.

Manufactory - a large enterprise with manual labor divided into specialties.

Small commodity production- the work of handicraftsmen who manufacture products for the market in their workshops, mainly without the use of hired labor.

Moskovka- Moscow denga, Russian silver coin (0.34 g)

Mercenaries- the general name of ruined peasants and townspeople, runaway serfs, etc., who were hired and became personally dependent on the employer.

German settlement- a place of settlement of foreigners in Russian cities.

Odnodvortsy - state peasants from former service people "according to the instrument" (archers, gunners, city Cossacks, etc.) until 1840. had the right to own serfs.

Oprich - according to Dahl's dictionary, means: "Outside, besides, outside, beyond what."

Oprichnina- comes from Old Russian "oprich", which means "special", "Besides". 1. Oprichnina in the Moscow principality was called the "widow's share", which, after the death of the prince, was allocated to his widow. 2. The personal lot of Ivan the Terrible, where a terrorist regime was established, carried out by the guardsmen in the fight against the alleged betrayal among the feudal lords.

Parsuna- (from the word persona) - portraiture, which used the techniques of icon painting in writing portraits.

Scribe books- summary descriptions of the economy for taxable land taxation - sosh letter (collection of taxes from the plow)

Suspenders- peasants and townspeople who lost their economy. They lived in the yards of heavy people, helped them in their work.

podyachy- serving in orders and local institutions (assistant clerk).

Ladles- feudal dependent peasants who worked for the feudal lord, usually giving him half of the harvest.

Polushka- a small change silver coin minted since the 15th century. The smallest coin of the Moscow State, equal to 1/4 kopeck, was 0.17 g of silver

local order is a central government agency. He endowed the nobles with estates, controlled changes in land ownership, conducted an inventory of land and a census of the population, and a search for fugitive peasants. Central court for land issues.

Orders- central authorities

Protectionism- (lat. - protection) - the state policy of protecting the domestic market from foreigners by strengthening exports and restricting imports, introducing high customs duties and a number of other measures.

Rogue order- central state an institution that dealt with the investigation and trial of major criminal cases, the performance of peasants and townspeople, and the control of labial institutions.

Discharges - appointment to the service, taking into account the locality and with an entry in the discharge books, which were kept by the Discharge Order, which was in charge of the affairs of service people, the salaries of the nobles, the military administration, the appointment of regimental and city governors, and the border service.

Split- Separation from the Russian Orthodox Church of part of the believers who did not recognize Nikon's reforms. The supporters of the schism are schismatics (Old Believers), led by Archpriest Avvakum.

Reiters- (German - horsemen) - heavy cavalry in the Russian army, mainly from foreign mercenaries.

Autocracy- a monarchical form of government in Russia, based on the strong, almost unlimited power of the tsar.

"The word and deed of the sovereign"- the system of political investigation of the end of the 15th-18th centuries: everyone, under pain of death, is obliged to report on known intentions against the tsar, about treason. The informer uttered the phrase "Word and deed" and stated the fact. The informer and the slandered were subjected to interrogation and torture.

Soha - unit of taxation, measured by the amount of labor, in the XV century. - the Novgorod plow was equal to 3 compressions (an obzhasoshnaya shaft, a measure of land plowed per day by one horse) From the middle of the 16th century. a large plow consisted of several quarters (400-600 hectares of land).

Mill- administrative-territorial unit. 2-3 camps made up the county.

archers- service people, foot soldiers with firearms, made up a permanent army. They were recruited from the free population, they could engage in trade and crafts. The service became lifelong and hereditary with a monetary and grain salary.

Tamga- the state duty levied for the transportation of goods, which was subject to a special stamp - tamga. From this word came the concept - customs, an institution that controls the transport of goods across the border and establishes customs duties.

specific lands- the share of a member of the princely family in the family property, an integral part of a large grand duchy, controlled by a member of the grand ducal family - specific principality: landed property of the imperial family, created in 1797. from palace grounds.

Enamel- a type of cloisonne enamel (in jewelry art).

Tselovalnik- an official elected from among the townspeople or black-haired peasants to carry out financial, judicial cases. Took an oath (kissed the cross)

Quarter- an ancient measure of the earth, equal to 40 fathoms in length and 30 in width. Fathom 2.134 m.

Ancient Russia (9-12 centuries) was a proto-state (early), which was just beginning to take shape as a political system. Former scattered communities began to gradually unite into a single state, headed by the Rurik dynasty.

Scientists agree that Ancient Russia was an early feudal monarchy.

The origin of the socio-political system of Ancient Russia

The state (Ancient Russia) was formed at the end of the 10th century on the territory of the Eastern Slavs. At the head is a prince from the Rurik dynasty, who promises patronage and protection to the surrounding feudal lords. In exchange for this, the feudal lords give parts of their lands to the use of the prince as a payment.

At the same time, part of the lands conquered during wars and military campaigns is given to the use of the boyars, who receive the right to collect tribute from these lands. To remove the tribute, combatants are hired who could settle in the territory to which they were attached. Thus, the feudal hierarchy begins to take shape.

Prince –> estates –> boyars –> petty holders of land.

Such a system contributes to the fact that the prince from an exclusively military leader (4-7 centuries) turns into a political figure. The beginnings of a monarchy appear. Feudalism develops.

Socio-political system of Ancient Russia

The first legal document was adopted by Yaroslav the Wise in the 11th century and was called "Russian Truth".

The main objective of this document is to protect people from unrest and regulate social relations. In "Russian Truth" various types of crimes and punishments for them were prescribed.

In addition, the document divided society into several social categories. In particular, there were free community members and dependents. Dependents were considered to be citizens without full rights, had no freedoms and could not serve in the army. They were divided into smerds (commoners), serfs (servants) and temporarily dependents.

Free community members were divided into smerds and people. They had rights and served in the army.

Features of the political system of Ancient Russia

In the 10-12th century, the head of the state (which united several principalities) was the prince. The council of boyars and warriors were subordinate to him, with the help of which he carried out government.

The state was an association of city-states, since life outside the cities was poorly developed. City-states were ruled by princely posadniks.

Rural lands were ruled by boyars and votchinniki, to whom these lands belonged.

The prince's squad was divided into old and younger. The old one included boyars and older men. The squad was engaged in the collection of tribute, the implementation of trials and local administration. The younger squad included young people and less noble people. The prince also had a personal squad.

Legislative, executive, military and judicial power were in the hands of the prince. With the development of the state, these branches of government began to separate into separate institutions.

Also in Ancient Russia there were the beginnings of democracy, which were expressed in the holding of people's assemblies - veche.

The final formation of the political system in Russia was completed by the end of the 12th century.

Features of the society of Ancient Russia

In ancient Russia, from the beginning of the development of the state, the formation of an early feudal society went on. The bulk of the population of the state were free community members. In the Old Russian state, the agricultural community was the socio-economic basis of society. The community was responsible to the state for order on its territory, paid the fee for its members, disposed of the land. The community was called "vervyu", perhaps this word is associated with a rope that was used to delimit land. The community members paid tribute to the prince for owning the land; over time, the prince began to be perceived as the owner of all the land.

Military booty remained the main source of income for the prince and the squad, despite the fact that they collected tribute from the population. It is noteworthy that already at the end of the $X$ century, settlements began to appear, engaged in crafts (furs, beekeeping, etc.) and horse breeding. Probably, these were entirely princely villages, because the fishery products were used for trade in Byzantium, and horses, of course, for campaigns.

Picture 1.

Remark 1

It can definitely be said that special settlements to provide for the princely family and squads began to appear with the growth of the Rurik dynasty and, corresponding to it, an increase in squads. Boyar possessions first appeared as a reward for service. And yet, free communities prevailed until about the $12th century. Therefore, the early feudal nature of society can only be considered as a vector of development.

Varieties of dependent population

In the villages of princes and boyars, dependent people worked, serfs, replenished with prisoners of war or ruined fellow tribesmen. However, slavery for debt was forbidden at that stage. Forced labor was used very widely, from agricultural work to administrative positions - tiuns and firemen.

In the $XII$ century, another category of dependents appeared - purchases, these are people who sold themselves into slavery for a loan. The purchase worked out its debt, but at the same time did not lose the economy. The position of the purchase was protected by law, it could not be turned into a complete slave. Having paid the debt, the purchase could be free.

In general, the society of Ancient Russia is characterized by an abundance of complex forms of freedom and dependence, with a general predominance of the free population. This speaks of the transitional nature of society.

Political organization of Ancient Russia

Researchers for the most part characterize Ancient Russia as early feudal monarchy. At the head of the state was the Grand Duke, who was the protector of the land, as well as the ruler and legislator.

A feature of this form of state system is the preservation of some elements of the pre-state period of society. These elements come from "military democracy" and somewhat limit the power of the prince. Among such moments is the veche, which was especially strongly entrenched in the Novgorod land, as well as the prince's retinue. The warriors were more likely advisers to the prince than subjects. He discussed many issues with them and could not but reckon with them. The most influential warriors were part of the permanent council and were called boyars. Ordinary warriors were called "lads".

The armament of free community members was preserved, their participation in military campaigns is reported in chronicles. In general, the opportunity for a free person to have a weapon greatly strengthened the veche.

Power in Ancient Russia was inherited, but not necessarily from father to son. In the minds of the entire population of that era, the Old Russian state was the possession of the Rurik dynasty. This possession was provided by the "ladder" system of inheritance, which means the transfer of power by seniority. Thus, dynastic suzerainty became the basis of the state system of the Old Russian state.

Remark 2

However, with the adoption of Christianity, the sacred perception of the personality of the prince grows. This allows the prerequisites of sole power to be strengthened. The political form of the state changed along with the events of the history of the country itself. The unity of the dynasty allowed for some time to maintain the unity of the state. In practice, this meant that the lands allocated to the prince after his death were returned to the family. But with the death of Yaroslav the Wise, the unity of the state began to crumble, strife began within the greatly expanded family of Rurikovich.

To preserve the unity of the state and under the influence of external factors, at the suggestion of Vladimir Monomakh, a congress of princes was convened in Lyubech in $1097$. At this congress decisions were fixed that destroyed tribal suzerainty. The princes began to own each of their own land, that is, clan ownership was replaced by family ownership. Seniority in the clan was replaced by political autocracy. Micro-dynasties of the Rurikovichs began to form. New conditions led to the formation of vassal land relations and, as a result, to the final fragmentation of the state.

Elements of folk struggle in the Old Russian state

In Soviet historiography, popular movements were interpreted only in the spirit of the anti-feudal class struggle. At the present stage, science recognizes the ambiguity of these statements.

In $1024, an uprising took place in Suzdal as a result of a famine. The leaders of the rebellious smerds were pagan sorcerers. If Soviet scientists interpreted this uprising as a class rebellion against the local nobility, now some researchers believe that the pagan factor cannot be discarded. According to pagan traditions, the tribal nobility provided the harvest because they possessed certain supernatural powers. Therefore, the Magi believed that this nobility simply delayed the harvest. Therefore, murder here is no longer an act of class hatred, but a ritual.

In $1068$ there was an uprising in Kyiv. It was caused by the defeat of the sons of Yaroslav the Wise from the Polovtsians during the battle on Alta, in addition, the Grand Duke Izyaslav did not agree to arm the Kyivans for protection. In Soviet science, this uprising was considered one of the grandiose urban movements. Froyanov I.Ya. believes that the uprising was directed exclusively against Izyaslav, who did not fulfill his direct duty to protect the state. Having expelled Izyaslav, the people of Kiev plundered his property, since, according to tribal ideas, it was a common good and was at the disposal of the prince only for a while. Returning with the help of his Polish relatives in $1069$, ​​Izyaslav now had to take into account the mood of the city.

The next time the uprising in Kyiv took place in $1113$. Its cause was the economic and social crisis - the dominance of usurers, the deterioration of the financial situation of the population, as well as the continuation of strife and the policy of Svyatopolk that did not enjoy sympathy. Vladimir Monomakh, who replaced Svyatopolk after his death, had to adopt the Charter, which regulated the activities of usurers and, in a sense, protected the common population from enslavement.

Remark 3

Thus, it can be summarized that the popular movements in the $XI-XII$ centuries were multifaceted and combined pagan, political and social elements. This confirms the fact that Russian society was in a transitional stage. At the same time, it must be taken into account that the social issue intensified in the unrest, that is, they were like a mirror reflecting the growth of inequality and the increase in the number of dependent people. It is curious that in the course of solving social issues, the population immediately returned to pre-state methods, using communal and pagan customs.

The Old Russian state developed in terms of culture, economy and politics. Feudal relations began to emerge. But in general, society was still quite primitive. Free cultivators predominated both economically and socially. The power of the prince existed within the framework of the veche system, but still there was a tendency to strengthen the sole rule. The sole power of the prince made it possible to maintain the unity of the state. The adoption of Christianity helped in this, since in this religion the personality of the prince became sacred.

Rus is the common name for the ancient state of the Slavs in Eastern Europe. The creation of Russia determined the development of world history and played a decisive role in the ethnic formation of the Slavic peoples. It was one of the largest states of antiquity. The names of rulers and famous personalities have come down to our days through the centuries. The name "Rus" is derived from the Slavic tribe of the same name. The influence of the state extended to a significant part of Europe and Asia.

Cultural heritage gives the modern generation the opportunity to learn the fundamental processes of the formation of human civilization.

Education

Rus is rather a common name for lands with ethnically identical populations. Various sources defined the borders of Russia in different ways. In Western sources, the name "Roksolania" or "Rusiya" was also found. By the middle of the 5th century, an active expulsion of the entire non-Slavic population begins. And the Slavs themselves are gradually moving to a settled way of life and building the first cities. Mostly along rivers. There is a clear division into tribes. Krivichi, Vyatichi, Northerners, Ilmens and others. In the 9th century, the Vikings landed to the north, who organized their settlements, but at the same time entered Russia. This played an important role in the further development of culture in the northern lands. After some time, the Slavs destroy the Norman settlements, and the Scandinavians assimilate. At the same time, some of their traditions were adopted by the local population.

At the end of the ninth century, many large cities appeared. They are distinguished from ordinary settlements by the presence of defensive structures, including walls. Several cultural and state centers immediately stand out, such as: Kyiv, Rostov, Yaroslavl, Smolensk and others. According to historians, even then, various tribes felt a clear closeness and identity between the entire population of Russia. However, the existence of several centers of power prevented uniting into a single state. Permanent drained resources and hindered development. The approximate date of the unification of the Eastern Slavs into a single state is considered to be 862. Then several tribes allegedly invited the Varangians to reign. At the same time, the famous Russian campaign against Tsargrad takes place.

heyday

Twenty years later, Prince Oleg moves the capital to Kyiv.

He and his retinue kill thus reuniting Russia. These are Novgorod and Kyiv lands, which had previously been de jure divided. Now the development of the state begins. Trade relations are being established with Byzantium and several tribes in the West. In the middle of the tenth century, Prince Svyatoslav organizes a campaign against and smashes it. Later, his son finally determines the development of the state. In 988, a baptism takes place. Since then, the Eastern Slavs have been adopting Christian traditions. Stone churches and buildings are being built. Writing is spreading. In Western sources, a description of the state appears, which is now called ancient Russia. This is a general definition of all Slavic lands in the east. It has fairly close ties with Scandinavia.

Russia is a state of Slavic Christians

After baptism, there is a sharp rise in the political sense. Relations with European states are established, marriages between the elite are made. During the reign of Yaroslav, his famous code of laws, a kind of constitution, Russkaya Pravda, comes out. Strengthening positions in the East.

The centralization of power produces positive results. The raids of the Polovtsy and other nomadic tribes are repulsed. New lands are conquered. A unique culture is developing. However, these processes were greatly inhibited after the death of Yaroslav. A series of bloody civil strife began between his descendants. Endless wars and raids greatly weakened Russia. It began to fragment into small principalities.

The collapse of the ancient Russian state

In this state, Russia was subjected to a terrifying invasion of the Mongol yoke. The princes did not have clear coordination and often refused to help each other. A huge Mongol army made its way deep into the Russian lands. Bloody battles did not leave almost anyone alive. The invaders plundered and burned the Slavic settlements. Kyiv fell in 1240.

Many shrines and buildings were irretrievably destroyed.

After that, for many years, Russia became dependent on the Horde. And only in under the leadership of the Moscow prince, did the Russians repulse the Mongol-Tatars. Ivan III finally put an end to the invasion. This process ended with the formation of the Russian state.

(Old Russian state), the oldest state of the east. Slavs, formed in the IX-X centuries. and stretching from the Baltic coast in the north to the Black Sea steppes in the south, from the Carpathians in the west to Sr. Volga region in the east. Its formation and development were accompanied by intensive processes of interethnic interaction, which led either to the assimilation by the Slavs of the Baltic, Baltic and Volga-Finnish, Iran. tribes that inhabited these territories, or to their stable inclusion in the tributary sphere of Russia. As a result, within the framework of D.R., a single nationality arose, which served as the last. a common basis for Great Russian, Ukrainian. and Belarusian. peoples. The beginning of the formation of the latter on linguistic grounds dates back to the XIV-XV centuries. On the XIV century. there is also an intensive decay of the former Old Russian. unity is not so much after. the general weakening of the principalities under the rule of the Mongols, how many after. loss of dynastic community as a result of the inclusion of app. and south. lands of Russia in the Lithuanian and Polish state-in. Thus, 2nd floor. 13th century should be considered the upper chronological boundary of D. R. In this sense, the often encountered application of the term “Old Russian” to later historical phenomena and cultural phenomena, sometimes up to the 17th century, cannot be considered quite justified. (Old Russian literature, etc.). As a synonym for the name D. R. (Old Russian state), science traditionally uses the term “Kievan Rus” (less often “Kiev State”), however, it seems less successful, because the period of political unity of D. R. with the center in Kyiv or the political dominance of Kyiv extends to the middle. 12th century and later the Old Russian state existed in the form of a set of dynastically united and politically closely interacting, but independent lands-princes.

Ethnic landscape Europe on the eve of the formation of the Old Russian state

The formation of the Old Russian state was preceded by a period of active settlement of Slavs. tribes in East. Europe, restored almost exclusively by means of archeology. The earliest authentically famous. Prague-Korchak and Penkovskaya cultures of the 5th-7th centuries are considered archaeological cultures: the 1st occupied the area south of Pripyat, from the upper reaches of the Dniester and the West. Bug to Wed. Dnieper in the Kyiv region, the 2nd was located south of the first, from N. Podunavia to the Dnieper, several. entering the Dnieper left bank in the space from Sula to Aurélie. Both correlate with those known from written sources of the 6th century. glory. groups, which were called Slavs (Slavens; Σκλαβηνοί, Sklaveni) and Antes (῎Ανται, Antae). At the same time, in the V-VII centuries, in the north-west of the East. Europe, from Lake Peipus. and r. Great in the west to the Msta basin in the east, the culture of the Pskov long mounds took shape, the carriers of which may also have been the Slavs. Between these two areas of original fame. settlements, there was a belt of other ethnic archaeological cultures: Tushemlinsko-Bantserovskaya, Moshchinskaya and Kolochinskaya (upper reaches of the Neman, Western Dvina, Dnieper, Oka, Desna, Posemye), which with more or less reason can be considered Baltic in ethnicity. On vast expanses to the north and east of the described region, from the south. shores of the Gulf of Finland. and Ladoga to the V. Volga region, Finns lived. tribes: Estonians, Vods, Karelians, the whole (Vepsians), Merya, Meshchera, Muroma, Mordvins. In the VIII-IX centuries. glory zone. settlement expanded: the tribes of the Baltic "belt" were assimilated, as a result of which Slavs arose. tribal groups of the Krivichi, who left the culture of the Smolensk-Polotsk long barrows, as well as the Radimichi and Dregovichi; the Dnieper left bank was actively developed up to the upper reaches of the Don, where, in cooperation with the Volyntsev culture, which probably originated from the Penkovsky antiquities, the Romen-Borshevsky culture of the northerners tribal group was formed; the Slavs penetrated into V. Poochye - a tribal group of Vyatichi formed here. In the 8th century Northerners, Radimichi and Vyatichi found themselves in tributary dependence on the Khazar Khaganate - an ethnically mixed state, which included not only the Turks. (Khazars, Bulgars, etc.), but also Iran. (Alans) and other peoples and stretched from the North. Caspian and N. Volga to the Don and Crimea.

The culture of the Pskov long mounds evolved into the culture of the Novgorod hills, correlated with the tribal grouping of the Ilmen Slovenes. On the basis of the Slavs of the Prague-Korchak area, tribal groups of Volhynians (in the interfluve of the Western Bug and Goryn), Drevlyans (between the Sluch and Teterev rivers), glades (Kiev Dnieper region), Vostok Slavs developed. Croats (in V. Podnestrovie). Thus, by the 9th century. in general, there was that tribal structure east. Slavs, which acquired finished features in Old Russian. period and is outlined in the story about the settlement of the Slavs in the introductory part to the one compiled in the beginning. 12th century Old Russian Chronicles - "The Tale of Bygone Years". Mentioned by the chronicler, in addition, the tribes of the Ulichs and Tivertsy do not lend themselves to a certain localization; probably, the latter settled in the Dniester region south of the Croats, and the first - in the Dnieper region south of the glades, in the tenth century. moving west. The development of the Slavs Fin. lands - Belozerye (all), the Rostov-Yaroslavl Volga region (Merya), the Ryazan Territory (murom, meshchera), etc. - already went in parallel with the state-forming processes of the 9th-10th centuries, continuing into the last.

"Norman problem". Northern and southern centers of ancient Russian statehood

Formation of the Old Russian state in the IX-X centuries. was a complex process, in which they interacted, causing each other, both internal (the social evolution of local tribes, primarily Eastern Slavs.), And external factors (active penetration into Eastern Europe of military trading squads of immigrants from Scandinavia - the Varangians, or, as they were called in Western Europe, the Normans). The role of the latter in the construction of ancient Russian. statehood, hotly discussed in science during the 2.5 century, is the "Norman problem". Closely adjacent to it, although in no way predetermining its decision, is the question of the origin of the ethnic (originally, perhaps, socio-ethnic) name "Rus". A common opinion is that the name "Rus" is Scandal. root, faces historical and linguistic difficulties; other hypotheses are even less convincing, so the question should be considered open. At the same time, quite numerous Byzantine, Western European, Arab-Persian. sources leave no doubt that in the IX - 1st floor. 10th century the name "Rus" was applied specifically to the ethnic Scandinavians and that Russia at that time was distinguished from the Slavs. Mobile, close-knit and well-armed groups of the Varangians were the most active element in the organization of international trade along the river routes of the East. Europe, the commercial development of which certainly prepared the political unification of the lands of D.R.

According to ancient tradition, reflected in the "Tale of Bygone Years" and in the annalistic code of con. XI century, the presence of the Varangians in Russia was initially limited to the collection of tribute from the Slavs. tribes of Krivichi and Slovenes and from Fin. Chud tribes (probably Estonians, Vodi and other tribes of the southern coast of the Gulf of Finland), Meri and, perhaps, Vesi. As a result of the uprising, these tribes got rid of tributary dependence, but the internal strife that began forced them to call Rurik and his brothers as princes of the Varangians. The rule of these princes, however, was apparently conditioned by an agreement. Part of the Varangian squad of Rurik, led by Askold and Dir, went south and settled in Kyiv. After the death of Rurik, his relative Prince. Oleg, with the young son of Rurik, Prince. Igor in his arms, captured Kyiv and united the Novgorod north and Kyiv south, creating, thus, the state. the basis of D. R. In general, there is no reason not to trust this legend, but a number of its details (Askold and Dir - Rurik's combatants, etc.), most likely, were constructed by the chronicler. The fruit of the not always successful calculations of the chronicler on the basis of the Greek. The chronology of events also became chronographic sources (852 - the expulsion of the Varangians, the calling of Rurik, the reign of Askold and Dir in Kyiv; 879 - the death of Rurik; 882 - the capture of Kyiv by Oleg). Contract book. Oleg with Byzantium, concluded in the autumn of 911, makes Oleg's appearance in Kyiv approximately at the turn of the 9th and 10th centuries, and the calling of Rurik to the immediately preceding time, i.e. to the last. thurs. 9th century Earlier events are restored according to foreign sources and archeology.

Archeology allows us to attribute the appearance of Scand. ethnic component in Finnish. and (or) fame. surrounded in the north East. Europe to the period from the middle - 2nd half. 8th century (St. Ladoga) to middle - 2nd half. 9th century (Rurik’s settlement in the upper reaches of the Volkhov, Timerevo, Gnezdovo on the upper Dnieper, etc.), which in general (with the exception of Gnezdov) coincides with the original range of the Varangian tribute outlined in the annals. At the same time, the first dated reliable information about Scand. according to the origin of Russia (1st half - middle of the 9th century), they are connected not with the north, but with the south. Vost. Europe. Arabic-Persian. geographers (al-Istakhri, Ibn Haukal) directly speak of 2 groups of Russia in the 9th century: southern, Kievan (“Kuyaba”), and northern, Novgorod-Slovenian (“Slaviya”), each of which has its own ruler (mentioned in these texts, the 3rd group, "Arsaniyya/Artaniya", does not lend itself to precise localization). Thus, independent data confirm the story of Old Russian. annals about 2 centers of Varangian power in Vost. Europe in the ninth century (northern, with a center in Ladoga, then in Novgorod, and southern, with a center in Kyiv), but they are forced to attribute the appearance of Varangian Rus in the south to a time much earlier than the calling of Rurik. Since the archaeological scandal. ninth century antiquity were not found in Kyiv, one has to think that the 1st wave of newcomer Varangians was quickly assimilated here. population.

Most of the written evidence about Russia in the 9th century. refers specifically to southern, Kievan, Rus, the history of which, unlike the northern one, can be outlined in general terms. Geographically, the chronicle connects the South. Russia, first of all, with the region of the tribal reign of the glades. Retrospective historical and geographical information, Ch. arr. XII century., allow us to consider that along with the actual Polyanskaya land Yuzh. Russia included part of the Dnieper left bank with the later cities of Chernigov and Pereyaslavl Russian (modern Pereyaslav-Khmelnitsky) and an indefinite east. border, as well as, obviously, a narrow strip of watershed between the Pripyat basins, on the one hand, and the Dniester and Yuzh. Bug - on the other. Even in the XI-XIII centuries. the outlined territory bore the clearly surviving name "Russian land" (to distinguish it from the Russian land as the name of the Old Russian state as a whole, it is called in science the Russian land in the narrow sense of the word).

South Russia was quite a powerful political entity. She accumulated a significant economic and military potential of the Slavs. Dnieper, organized sea trips to the lands of the Byzantine Empire (besides the trip to K-pol in 860, at least one more, earlier, to the Asia Minor coast of the Black Sea near the city of Amastris) and competed with the Khazar Khaganate, as it says, in particular, the adoption by the ruler of Yuzh. Rus Khazars. (Turk. by origin) the supreme title "kagan", as a relic attached to the Kyiv princes as early as the 11th century. Probably from Russian-Khazar. The embassy of the Khagan of Russia to the Byzantines was also connected with the confrontation. imp. Theophilus in the 2nd half. 30s 9th century with an offer of peace and friendship, and unfolded at the same time with the Byzantine. With the help of active fortification construction of the Khazars: in addition to Sarkel on the Don, more than 10 fortresses were built in the upper reaches of the Seversky Donets and along the river. Quiet Pine (to the right tributary of the Don), which indicates the claims of Yuzh. Russia to a part of the glory. tributary sphere of the Khazars (at least for the northerners). Trade relations were extensive. Russia, merchants from a swarm in the west reached the middle Danube (the territory of modern V. Austria), in the northeast - Volga Bulgaria, in the south - Byzantine. Black Sea markets, from where along the Don, and then along the Volga, they reached the Caspian Sea and even Baghdad. To the 2nd floor. 60s 9th century include the first information about the beginning of the Christianization of the South. Rus, they are associated with the name of the K-Polish Patriarch Photius. However, this “first baptism” of Russia did not have significant consequences, since its results were destroyed after the capture of Kyiv by those who came from the North. Rus squads of the book. Oleg.

Assimilation scand. element in the North. Russia went much more slowly than in the South. This is due to the constant influx of new groups of newcomers, the main occupation of which was also international trade. The mentioned places of concentration of scand. archaeological antiquities (St. Ladoga, Rurik's settlement, etc.) have a pronounced character of trade and craft settlements with an ethnically mixed population. Numerous and sometimes huge treasures of the Arab. coin silver in the territory of the North. Russ, fixed from the turn of the 8th and 9th centuries, allow us to think that it was the desire to secure access to the rich high-quality Arab. a silver coin to the markets of the Volga Bulgaria (to a lesser extent - to the distant Black Sea markets along the Volkhov-Dnieper route “from the Varangians to the Greeks”) attracted the military trading squads of the Varangians to the East. Europe. Another striking fact testifies to the same: it was an Arab. The dirham formed the basis of Old Russian. monetary system. The vocation of Rurik probably entailed the political consolidation of the North. Russia, which made possible its unification under the rule of the sowing. the Varangian dynasty of Rurikovich with a more advantageously located in the trade and military-strategic respect Yuzh. Russia.

Strengthening of the Old Russian state in the tenth century. (from Oleg to Svyatoslav)

Campaigns against the capital of the Byzantine Empire, organized in 907 and 941. the princes of united Russia - Oleg and his successor Igor, as well as the resulting peace treaties of 911 and 944, which provided Russian. merchants significant trading privileges in the Polish market, speak of a sharply increased military-political and economic opportunities D.R. The weakened Khazar Khaganate, which finally lost tribute from the Slavs in favor of Russia. tribes on the left bank of the Dnieper (northerners and Radimichi), could not or did not want (claiming part of the booty) to prevent the massive raids of the Rus. rooks on the rich cities of South. Caspian region (c. 910, under Oleg, and in the 1st half of the 40s of the 10th century, under Igor). Apparently, at this time, Russia acquired strongholds in the key waterway to the Caspian Sea and the Arabs. East of the Kerch Strait area - Tmutarakan and Korchev (modern Kerch). The military-political efforts of Russia were also directed along the overland trade route to the middle Danube: Slavs fell into tributary dependence on Kyiv. tribes of Volhynians and even Lendzians (to the west of the headwaters of the Western Bug).

After the death of Igor during the uprising of the Drevlyans (apparently, not earlier than 944/5), the rule, due to the infancy of Svyatoslav, the son of Igor, was in the hands of the widow of the latter equal to the ap. kng. Olga (Elena). Her main efforts after the appeasement of the Drevlyans were aimed at the internal stabilization of the Old Russian state. With kng. Olga entered a new stage of Christianization of the ruling elite D. R. (“The Tale of Bygone Years” and the treaties of Russia with Byzantium testify that many Varangians from Prince Igor’s squad were Christians, in Kyiv there was a cathedral church in the name of the prophet Elijah) . The ruler was baptized during a trip to K-pol, her plans included the establishment of a church organization in Russia. In 959, for this purpose, kng. Olga sent to german. box An embassy to Otto I, which asked to appoint a "bishop and priests" for Russia. However, this attempt to establish Christianity was not long, and the Kyiv mission of Bishop. Adalbert 961-962 ended unsuccessfully.

The main reason for the failure in the attempt to establish Christianity in Russia was indifference to religions. questions from the Kyiv Prince. Svyatoslav Igorevich (c. 960-972), during whose reign active military expansion resumed. First, the Vyatichi were brought under the rule of Russia, then the Khazar Khaganate suffered a decisive defeat (965), because of which it soon became dependent on Khorezm and left the political arena. 2 bloody Balkan campaigns in 968-971, in which Svyatoslav at first participated in the defeat of the Bulgarian kingdom as an ally of Byzantium, and then, in alliance with conquered Bulgaria, turned against Byzantium, did not lead to the desired goal - the consolidation of Russia on the lower Danube. Defeat from Byzantine troops. imp. John I Tzimiskes forced Svyatoslav in the summer of 971 to sign a peace treaty that limited the influence of Russia in the North. Black Sea region. After the early death of Svyatoslav at the hands of the Pechenegs on the way back to Kyiv (in the spring of 972), the territory of the D.R. was divided between the young Svyatoslavichs: Yaropolk, who reigned in Kyiv (972-978), Oleg, whose inheritance was the tribal territory of the Drevlyans, and Equal to the Ap. Vladimir (Vasily) Svyatoslavich, whose desk was in Novgorod. Vladimir emerged as the winner from the civil strife that had begun between the brothers. In 978 he captured Kyiv. The reign of Vladimir Svyatoslavich (978-1015) opened the era of the rise of the Old Russian state in the end. X - ser. 11th century

Political and economic system D.R.

in the reign of the first Kyiv princes emerges only in general terms. The ruling elite consisted of the princely family (rather numerous) and the prince's retinue, which existed at the expense of princely income. State. the dependence of those who were part of the Old Russian state was mainly slav. tribes was expressed in the payment of regular (probably annual) tribute. Its size was determined by the contract and the obligation to participate in the military enterprises of the Old Russian. princes. In the rest, apparently, the tribal life remained unaffected, the power of the tribal princes was preserved (for example, the prince of the Drevlyans named Mal is known, who tried to marry Igor's widow Olga in about 945). This suggests that the annalistic Eastern Slavs. tribes in the tenth century. were rather complex political formations. The very act of the aforementioned calling to reign on the part of a group of glories. and fin. tribes testifies to their rather high political organization. Whether or not they were part of the Old Russian state that existed in the 70s. 10th century to Eastern Slavic In the lands, political formations were ruled by other (besides the Rurikovich) Varangian dynasties (the dynasty of Prince Rogvolod in Polotsk, Prince Tury in Turov, on Pripyat) and when they arose remains unclear.

The collection of tribute was carried out in the form of the so-called. polyudya - detours of the tributary territory during the autumn-winter season by the prince or other owner of the tribute (the person to whom the prince conceded the collection of tribute) with a squad; at this time, tributaries had to be supported by tributaries. Tribute was levied both in natural products (including goods intended for export to foreign markets - furs, honey, wax), and in coins, ch. arr. Arab. coinage. With the name kng. Olga, the legend reflected in the annals connects the administrative-tributary reform of the middle. X century, which, as one might think, consisted in the fact that tributes, the volume of which was revised, were now brought by tributaries to certain permanent points (graveyards), where representatives of the princely administration stayed. The tribute was subject to division in a certain proportion between the owner of the tribute and the subject of the state. power, i.e., the princely family: the first was 1/3, the last - 2/3 tribute.

One of the most important components of the D. R. economy was the dispatch of annual trade caravans with export goods collected during the polyudya down the Dnieper to the international markets of the Black Sea region, etc. - a procedure described in detail in Ser. 10th century in Op. Byzantium imp. Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus "On the management of the empire". In the K-field of Old Russian. merchants had their own courtyard at the mon-re of St. Mamant and received a salary from the imp. treasury, which also took on the costs of equipping the return voyage. Such a pronounced foreign trade orientation of the economy of D. R. of that time determined the presence of a special social group - the merchants engaged in international trade, a cut back in the middle. 10th century It was, like the princely family, predominantly of Varangian origin. Judging by the fact that numerous representatives of this social group participated in the conclusion of agreements between Russia and Byzantium, it could have an independent voice in state affairs. management. Apparently, the merchant class was the social and property elite in Old Russian. trade and craft settlements of the 9th-10th centuries. like Gnezdov or Timerev.

Reign of Vladimir Svyatoslavich

The 1st decade of Vladimir's reign in Kyiv was a time of restoring the position of the Old Russian state, which had been shaken because of the civil strife of the Svyatoslavichs. One after another, campaigns to the west followed. and east. outside Russia. OK. 980, it included Przemysl, the cities of Cherven (a strategically important region on the western coast of the Western Bug) and Sr. The Bug region, which was inhabited by the Baltic tribes of the Yotvingians. Then, by campaigns against the Radimichi, Vyatichi, Khazars and Volga Bulgars (with the latter a long-term peace treaty was concluded as a result), the successes achieved here by Svyatoslav were consolidated.

Both the international position and the tasks of internal consolidation of D. R., heterogeneous in ethnicity, and hence in religion. relation, urgently demanded ofic. Christianization. Favorable foreign policy circumstances for Russia 2nd half. 80s X century, when the Byzantine. imp. Basil II the Bulgar Slayer was forced to ask for Russian. military assistance to suppress the rebellion of Varda Foki, allowed Vladimir to quickly take a decisive step towards the adoption of Christianity: in 987-989. the personal baptism of Vladimir and his entourage was followed by the marriage of the prince of Kyiv with the sister of the imp. Basil II by Princess Anna, the destruction of pagan temples and the mass baptism of the people of Kiev (see Baptism of Russia). Such a marriage of a purple-born princess was a flagrant violation of the Byzantines. dynastic principles and forced the empire to take active measures to organize the Old Russian Church. The Kyiv Metropolis and several. dioceses in the largest or closest urban centers to Kyiv, probably in Novgorod, Polotsk, Chernigov and Belgorod (near Kyiv, now does not exist), which were headed by the Greek. hierarchies. In Kyiv, the Greek the masters erected the 1st stone temple in Russia - the Tithes Church. (completed in 996), were brought among other shrines from Chersonesos the relics of St. Clement, Pope of Rome. The original wooden church of St. Sophia, the Wisdom of God, became the Metropolitan Cathedral in Kyiv. The princely power took upon itself the material support of the Church, which, at least in the early period, was centralized (see Art. Tithes), and also took a number of other organizational measures: the construction of temples on the ground, the recruitment and education of children of the nobility to provide the Church with cadres of clergy, etc. The influx of liturgical books for church worship. language was carried out to Russia mainly from Bulgaria (see South Slavic influences on ancient Russian culture). The manifestation of the newfound state. The prestige of Russia was the minting of gold and silver coins by Vladimir, iconographically close to Byzantium. samples, but of economic importance, apparently, which did not have and performed political and representative functions; picked up at the beginning 11th century Svyatopolk (Peter) Vladimirovich and Yaroslav (George) Vladimirovich, later this coin had no continuation.

In addition to the tasks of Christianization, the most important moments in the policy of Vladimir after baptism were the defense of the West. frontiers from pressure from the Old Polish state, which sharply increased during the reign of Boleslav I the Brave (992-1025), and the reflection of the Pecheneg threat. In the west of Russia, such an important city as Berestye (modern Brest) was fortified, and a new one was built - Vladimir (modern Vladimir-Volynsky). In the south, with numerous fortresses, as well as earthen ramparts with wooden palisades, Vladimir fortified the banks of the Sula, Stugna and other rivers that covered the approaches to Kyiv from the steppe. An essential sign of Vladimir's time was the completion of the Slavicization of the princely family (which began in the middle of the 10th century) and its Varangian entourage (Vladimir, unlike his father, was half - on his mother - of Slavic origin). The Varangians did not stop coming to Russia, but they no longer replenished the ruling elite of the Old Russian state or the elite of trade and craft centers, but acted mainly as military mercenaries of princes.

Russia in the era of Yaroslav the Wise

After the death of Prince Vladimir on July 15, 1015, the situation of the 70s was repeated. 10th century: Internecine strife immediately broke out between the most influential of his many sons. The Kyiv table was occupied by the eldest of the princes - Svyatopolk, who began with the murder of his younger brothers - Svyatoslav, saints Boris and Gleb. Yaroslav the Wise, who reigned in Novgorod, expelled Svyatopolk in 1016, who returned to Russia in 1018 with the military help of his father-in-law, the Polish. box Boleslav I. However, a year later, Yaroslav Vladimirovich (1019-1054) again established himself in Kyiv, this time finally. In 1024, Mstislav Vladimirovich, who reigned in Tmutarakan, presented his rights to participate in the management of the Old Russian state. The clash between the brothers ended in 1026 with the conclusion of an agreement, under the terms of which Yaroslav retained Kyiv and Novgorod, his brother received all the lands of the Dnieper left bank with the capital in Chernigov.

The most important event of the 10-year joint reign of Yaroslav and Mstislav was their participation in an alliance with the Germans. imp. Conrad II in the beginning. 30s 11th century in the war against the Polish. box Sack II, which led to the temporary disintegration of the Old Polish state and the return of Cherven cities to Russia, which Boleslav I had taken away from it in 1018. The death of Mstislav in 1036 made Yaroslav the Wise the sovereign ruler of the Old Russian state, which, under Yaroslav reached the pinnacle of external power and international influence. The victorious battle of 1036 under the walls of Kyiv put an end to the Pecheneg raids. Continuing the military-political alliance with Germany, Yaroslav, with a number of campaigns in Mazovia, contributed to the restoration of the power of the prince in Poland. Casimir I, son of Sack II. In 1046, with the military help of Yaroslav, the Hungarians. the throne was erected by a friendly Rus cor. András I. In 1043, the last Russian campaign took place. fleet to K-pol (the reasons for the conflict with Byzantium are unclear), which, although it ended not entirely successfully, resulted in an honorable peace for Russia in 1045/46, as can be judged from the then marriage of Prince. Vsevolod (Andrey), one of the younger sons of Yaroslav, with a relative (daughter?) imp. Constantine IX Monomakh. And other marital ties of the princely family clearly testify to the political weight of D.R. in that period. Yaroslav was married to the daughter of a Swede. box Olaf St. Irina (Ingigerd), his son Izyaslav (Dimitry) - on the sister of the Polish. book. Casimir I, who married Yaroslav's sister. Yaroslav's daughters were married to a Norwegian. box Harald Surov, Hung. box Andrew I and French. box Henry I.

The reign of Yaroslav the Wise also became a time of internal strengthening of D. R. List of Rus. dioceses in the patriarchal notitia episcopatuum of the 70s. 12th century allows us to think that most likely under Yaroslav the number of dioceses in Russia was significantly increased (the departments were established in Vladimir-Volynsky, in Pereyaslavl, in Rostov, in Turov). The reign of Yaroslav was characterized by the rapid growth of general Russian. national and state self-awareness. This found expression in church life: in 1051, in the appointment of the Kyiv Metropolis by the Cathedral of Rus. Bishops of Rusyn St. Hilarion, in general Russian. glorification of Saints Boris and Gleb as heavenly patrons of the dynasty and Russia in general and in the first original works of Old Russian. lit-ry (in the Praise of Prince Vladimir in the Word on Law and Grace of St. Hilarion), and in the 30-50s. XI century - in a radical transformation of the architectural appearance of Kyiv according to the Polish metropolitan model (in the city of Yaroslav, which had increased many times over in comparison with the city of Vladimir, the front Golden Gates, the monumental Cathedral of St. Sophia and other stone buildings were erected). Stone cathedrals dedicated to St. Sophia, the Wisdom of God, were also erected during this period in Novgorod and Polotsk (the latter was built, perhaps, shortly after the death of Yaroslav). The reign of Yaroslav is the era of expanding the number of schools and the appearance of the first Old Russian. scriptorium, where the copying of church Slavs was carried out. texts, and also, probably, translations from Greek. language.

The political system of D. R. under Vladimir and Yaroslav

determined in general by the nature of inter-princely relations. According to the concepts inherited from an earlier time, the state. the territory and its resources were considered the collective property of the princely family, and the principles of their ownership and inheritance followed from customary law. The grown-up sons of the prince (usually at the age of 13-15) received certain areas in possession, while remaining under paternal authority. So, during the life of Vladimir, his sons were in Novgorod, in Turov, in Vladimir-Volynsky, in Rostov, in Smolensk, in Polotsk, in Tmutarakan. In Novgorod and Volhynia (or in Turov) Yaroslav planted his eldest sons. Thus, this method of maintaining the princely family was at the same time the mechanism of the state. management of the lands of Russia. After the death of the prince-father of the state. the territory was to be divided among all his adult sons. Although the father's table went to the eldest of the brothers, the relations of subordination of the regions to the Kyiv table disappeared and politically all the brothers turned out to be equal, which entailed the actual fragmentation of the state. authorities: both the Svyatoslavichs and the Vladimirovichs were politically independent of each other. At the same time, after the death of the eldest of the brothers, the Kyiv table did not go to his sons, but to the brother next in seniority, who took upon himself the arrangement of the fate of his nephews by endowing them. This led to constant redistribution of the general public. territories, which was a kind of way to preserve political unity, not excluding potential autocracy. The obvious shortcomings of this system with t. sp. more mature state. consciousness led Yaroslav the Wise to the establishment of a seignorate, i.e., to the eldest of the sons assimilation of a certain amount of political prerogatives inherited from his father in the general public. scale: the status of the guarantor of the dynastic legal order, the guardian of the interests of the Church, etc.

Received development and such an important part of the state. life, like a trial. The existence in D. R. of a fairly differentiated customary law (“Russian law”) is already known from agreements with Byzantium of the 1st half. X century, but the codification of its criminal part (punishments for murder, for insult by action, for crimes against property) first took place under Yaroslav (the ancient Russian Truth). At the same time, certain norms of princely legal proceedings were fixed (“Pokonvirny”, which regulated the content of the peasant line of the princely court official - “virnik”). Vladimir tried to introduce certain Byzants into local law. norms, in particular the death penalty, but they did not take root. With the advent of the institution of the Church, there was a division of the court according to the Byzantines. model for secular (princely) and church. In addition to crimes committed by certain categories of the population (clergy and so-called church people), cases related to marriage, family, inheritance, witchcraft were subject to church jurisdiction (see the articles Church Charter of Prince Vladimir, Church Charter of Prince Yaroslav).

D. R. under the Yaroslavichs (2nd half of the 11th century)

According to the will of Yaroslav the Wise, the territory of the Old Russian state was divided between 5 of his surviving sons by that time: the eldest, Izyaslav, received Kyiv and Novgorod, St. Svyatoslav (Nikolai) - Chernigov (the region then included Ryazan and Murom) and Tmutarakan, Vsevolod - Pereyaslavl and Rostov, the younger ones, Vyacheslav and Igor, got Smolensk and Volyn, respectively. As an additional (along with the seignorate of Izyaslav) political mechanism that stabilized this system of destinies, a specific council was created in the general Russian. questions of 3 senior Yaroslavichs, which was fixed by the division between them of the Middle Dnieper core of D. R. (ancient Russian land in the narrow sense of the word). A special position was occupied by Polotsk, still allocated by Vladimir to his son Izyaslav; after the death of the latter (1001), the Polotsk throne was inherited by his son Bryachislav (1001 or 1003-1044), then his grandson Vseslav (1044-1101, with a break). This is a general Russian. the triarchy acquired complete features after the imminent death of the younger Yaroslavichs (Vyacheslav - in 1057, Igor - in 1060), so that even the metropolis was divided into 3 parts: in Chernigov and Pereyaslavl, their own metropolitan departments were temporarily established (probably, c. 1070); 1st lasted until ser. 80s, 2nd - until the 90s. 11th century After some successful joint actions (a decisive victory over the Torks in 1060/61), the administration of the Yaroslavichs began to experience difficulties. For the first time, the conflict between uncles and nephews, typical for a seigneur, made itself felt: in 1064, Prince. Rostislav, son of the Novgorod prince. St. Vladimir, the eldest of the Yaroslavichs, who died during his father's lifetime, was taken by force from Svyatoslav Yaroslavich by Tmutarakan, which he held until his death in 1067. A clash with another nephew, Prince of Polotsk. Vseslav, who sacked Novgorod in 1066, did not end with the defeat of Vseslav the following year by the combined forces of the Yaroslavichs and captivity.

In the 60s. 11th century to the south the borders of Russia, a new threat arose - from those who migrated to South Russian. the steppes of the Polovtsy, the fight against which became an urgent task for more than a century and a half, right up to the Mong. invasion. In the summer of 1068, the Yaroslavichi troops were defeated by the Polovtsy near Pereyaslavl. Izyaslav's indecisiveness in repulsing the nomads caused an uprising in Kyiv, during which the people of Kiev released Vseslav from prison and proclaimed him a prince of Kyiv, and Izyaslav with his family and retinue was forced to flee to the Polish court. book. Boleslav II. In the spring of 1069, Izyaslav from the Polish. help, but with the demonstrative inactivity of the brothers Svyatoslav and Vsevolod, he regained Kyiv. In Russia, meanwhile, there was a significant redistribution of power to the detriment of Kyiv (for example, Novgorod, which belonged to Izyaslav, ended up in the hands of Svyatoslav), which inevitably had to lead to a conflict between the Yaroslavichs. The solemn transfer of the relics of Saints Boris and Gleb to the new stone church built by Izyaslav, in which 3 brothers took part on May 20, 1072, turned out to be the last joint act of the Yaroslavichs. In 1073, with the support of Vsevolod, Svyatoslav expelled Izyaslav from Kyiv, but died already in 1076. In 1077, he returned to the Kyiv table without much success, seeking support in Poland, Germany and Rome (from Pope Gregory VII) Izyaslav, who , however, in 1078 he died in a battle with the son of Svyatoslav Oleg (Michael) and his other nephew, Boris Vyacheslavich. Vsevolod (1078-1093) became the prince of Kyiv, whose reign was filled with complex internal political maneuvering in order to satisfy the demands of his nephews (Svyatopolk (Mikhail) and Yaropolk (Gavriil) Izyaslavich and David Igorevich), as well as the grown sons of Rostislav Vladimirovich (Rurik, Volodar and Vasily (Cornflower)).

As one of the dioceses of the K-Polish Patriarchate D. R. in the 2nd half. 11th century was affected by the consequences of the division of Zap. and Vost. churches; pl. Old Russian Greek authors and Metropolitans of Kyiv became active participants in the controversy against the "Latins". At the same time, continued contacts with Zap. Europe led to the fact that in Russia during the reign of Vsevolod a common with the West was established. The church celebrates the transfer in 1087 of the relics of St. Nicholas the Wonderworker in Bari (May 9), unknown to the Greek Church.

Lubech Congress of 1097

After the death of Vsevolod in 1093, the Kyiv table, with the consent of the influential Chernigov prince. Vladimir (Vasily) Vsevolodovich Monomakh was occupied by the eldest in the princely family Svyatopolk Izyaslavich (1093-1113). The death of Vsevolod was taken advantage of by the most warlike of the Svyatoslavichs - Oleg (since 1083, with the support of Byzantium, reigned in Tmutarakan), who in 1094, with the help of the Polovtsy, regained his patrimonial Chernigov by force, ousting Vladimir Monomakh from there to Pereyaslavl. In this confusing political situation, in 1097, a general Russian gathered in the Dnieper city of Lyubech. the congress of princes, designed to improve the Kyiv seignorate established by Yaroslav the Wise, adapting it to the changed conditions. The resolution of the Lyubech Congress: "Let everyone keep his fatherland" - meant that the possessions of the princes, according to the will of Yaroslav, were assigned to his grandchildren: for Svyatopolk Izyaslavich - Kyiv, for St. book. David, Oleg and Yaroslav (Pankraty) Svyatoslavichs - Chernigov (Tmutarakan in the 90s of the XI century, apparently, came under the rule of Byzantium), after Vladimir Vsevolodovich - Pereyaslavl and Rostov (in addition to which Novgorod and Smolensk were also in the hands of Monomakh) , after David Igorevich - Volyn, at the expense of the south and south-west of the swarm (bud. Galician principality), however, two Rostislavichs were also endowed.

The effectiveness of the system of collective preservation of the status quo established in Lyubech was immediately demonstrated in the forceful settlement of the conflict in Volhynia, unleashed by David Igorevich and beginning with the blinding of Vasilko Rostislavich: Svyatopolk was forced to abandon attempts to seize the possessions of the Rostislavichs, and David had to lose his desk and be content with secondary Dorogobuzh . Dr. A positive consequence of the princely congresses was the joint actions initiated by Vladimir Monomakh against the nomads, the raids of which sharply intensified in the 90s. XI century, after the death of Vsevolod. As a result of the victories of 1103, 1107, 1111 and 1116. the Polovtsian danger was eliminated for half a century and the Polovtsy took a subordinate place of the allies of one or another Russian. princes in their internecine struggle. The decisions of the Lyubech Congress did not affect traditions. the principle of inheritance of the Kievan table genealogically by the oldest of the princes; they only, as is clear from what follows, excluded the Svyatoslavichs from among his potential heirs - after all, de jure Kyiv was not a fatherland for them, since the Kiev reign of Svyatoslav Yaroslavich was considered usurpation. This led to the actual co-ruling in Russia of Svyatopolk and Vladimir Monomakh, so that after the death of the former in 1113, Kyiv, with the support of local boyars, freely passed into the hands of the latter.

Kiev reign of Vladimir Monomakh and his elder sons (1113-1139)

Board of Prince. Vladimir (1113-1125) and his son St. book. Mstislav (Theodore) the Great (1125-1132) was the time of internal political stabilization of the Old Russian state. Vladimir Monomakh united in his hands dominance over most of Russia, with the exception of Chernigov (St. Prince David Svyatoslavich reigned here), Polotsk (where under the rule of the descendants of Vseslav, along with the old Polotsk, a new center emerged - Minsk), Volhynia (it was the possession of Prince Yaroslav (John) Svyatopolchich) and the South Volyn outskirts of the Rostislavichs. Attempts of armed protest against this domination - by the Minsk prince. Gleb Vseslavich in 1115/16-1119 and Yaroslav Svyatopolchich in 1117-1118 - ended in failure: both lost their tables and died, which further strengthened the position of Vladimir Monomakh, who acquired Volyn. At the same time, at the beginning of his reign, the issue of inheriting the Kyiv table was also resolved in advance: in 1117, the eldest of the Vladimirovichs, Mstislav, who was sitting in Novgorod, was transferred by his father to the Kyiv suburb of Belgorod, and Novgorod gave, which is significant, not to someone from their next in seniority sons (Yaropolk (John), Vyacheslav, Yuri (George) Dolgoruky, Roman, who were sitting respectively in Pereyaslavl, in Smolensk, in Rostov and in Volhynia, or while landless Andrei the Good), and the eldest of the grandchildren - St. book. Vsevolod (Gabriel) Mstislavich. The purpose of this measure became clear when in 1125 Kyiv, after the death of Vladimir Monomakh, was inherited first by Mstislav the Great, and then, in 1132, by the next in seniority Monomashich - Yaropolk. Having radically resolved the "Polotsk issue" by expelling almost all of Vseslav's offspring to Byzantium in 1129, Mstislav the Great left his younger brother a seemingly well-organized inheritance. 1st political step of the Kyiv book. Yaropolk Vladimirovich was the translation of the book. Vsevolod Mstislavich from Novgorod to Pereyaslavl. Thus, the plan of Monomakh, sealed by the agreement of the brothers, Mstislav the Great and Yaropolk, was reduced to a significant adjustment of the seignorate: after the death of Yaropolk, Kyiv was to go not to any of the brothers of the latter, but to his elder nephew Vsevolod; in the future, he had to remain in the Mstislavich family - otherwise, after a generation, the immoderate increase in the number of stepparents of Kyiv would inevitably lead to political chaos. Thus, Vladimir Monomakh strove to save the Lubech principle of Kyiv's ancestry by violating this principle in relation to his younger children.

However, these plans ran into their categorical rejection by the Rostov Prince. Yuri Dolgoruky and Volyn Prince. Andrei Dobry, the sons of Monomakh from his 2nd marriage. Yaropolk was forced to yield to his brothers, but then a conflict broke out between the younger Monomashichs and their nephews (primarily Vsevolod and Izyaslav (Panteleimon) Mstislavichs), which resulted in an open war, in which the Chernigov princes intervened on the side of the latter. In the words of the Novgorod chronicler of that time, "the whole Russian land was infuriated." With great difficulty, Yaropolk managed to appease all parties: Pereyaslavl was given to Andrei the Good, while the center of the Kursk Family, transferred to Chernigov, was separated from it, while Novgorod was in the hands of the Mstislavichs, to which Prince returned. Vsevolod, Volyn, received by Izyaslav, and Smolensk, where St. book. Rostislav (Mikhail) Mstislavich. However, this compromise, established at the beginning. 1136, was extremely shaky. A crisis of Lubech principles has set in. Already at the beginning 1139 occupied, according to the seigneurate, Kyiv Prince. Vyacheslav Vladimirovich was through several. days driven from the table by the Chernigov prince. Vsevolod (Kirill) Olgovich.

The most important changes in the social system and economic structure D.R.

Along with the evolution of the system of inter-princely relations described above, the main innovations of the period under review in the socio-economic field were the manifested political role of the city and the emergence of private patrimonial land ownership. In the beginning. 11th century there were fundamental changes in the economic structure of the Old Russian state, which entailed socio-political consequences. At the turn of the X and XI centuries. the influx of Arabs into Russia stopped. coin silver, only to the north of Novgorod in the XI century. continued to receive silver from the West. Europe. This meant a crisis oriented in the IX-X centuries. to the international markets of the economy D. R. The results of archaeological research indicate that in the beginning. 11th century trade and craft settlements of the proto-urban type quickly and everywhere ceased to exist, next to which new cities grew up - centers of princely power (Novgorod next to the Rurik settlement, Yaroslavl next to Timerev, Smolensk next to Gnezdov, etc.), often also were the centers of the dioceses. The economic basis of the new cities was, in all likelihood, the agrarian production of the volost, which was drawn to the city, as well as handicraft production oriented mainly to the local market. A sufficiently high level of development of commodity-money relations in these local markets can be judged by the fact that usury operations were in the 11th century. common occurrence. In the reign of Prince Svyatopolk Izyaslavich, usury acquired the character of an obvious social evil, against which the princely power under Vladimir Monomakh was forced to take restrictive measures.

The socio-political structure of a large city of a given time can only be judged in general terms. The population of the city was divided into military adm. units - hundreds, headed by sots; The next, highest level of the princely administration in the city was the citywide thousand. At the same time, the city also had a certain self-government in the form of a veche, which, under certain conditions, could come into conflict with the princely power. The earliest of the known independent political actions of the city council was the above-mentioned erection in 1068 of the Polotsk prince on the Kyiv table. Vseslav. In 1102, Novgorod resolutely refused to accept the reign of the son of the Kyiv prince, thereby destroying the agreement between Svyatopolk and Vladimir Monomakh (the son of the latter, St. Prince Mstislav, remained on the Novgorod table). It was in Novgorod that such self-government acquired its most complete forms. Here, after the uprising of 1136 and the expulsion of Prince. Vsevolod Mstislavich (perhaps a few years earlier) there was “liberty in the princes” - the right of Novgorodians to choose and invite a prince to themselves, whose power was limited by an agreement, which became the legal basis for the entire later political system of Novgorod.

The transformation of agricultural production into the most important part of economic life was an inevitable consequence of the transformation in the field of land ownership. The bulk of the lands were lands of rural communities-vervey, cultivated by free farmers-communities - smerds. However, along with communal lands, lands of princes, boyars, church corporations (episcopal departments, mon-rays) appeared, acquired into ownership through the development of previously undeveloped lands, purchase or donation (the latter usually happened with mon-ryami). The persons who cultivated such lands were often in one or another economic or personal dependence on the owner (ryadovichi, purchases, serfs). A number of articles of the Russkaya Pravda of the lengthy edition established under Vladimir Monomakh regulated the status of these particular social groups, while in the short edition codified under the Yaroslavichs (probably in 1072), such norms were still absent. There is no data to judge how great was the income from this kind of princely lands in comparison with the income from the state. taxes - direct taxes and court fees, but it is clear that it was the suburban princely villages that formed the basis of the palace economy, not only rural, but also handicraft. The lands of the palace complex did not belong to one or another specific prince, but to the princely table as such. In the 2nd floor. XI - 1st floor. 12th century the church tithe became more differentiated (with tribute, bargaining, court fines, etc.), it was collected locally, although in some cases it could still be replaced by a fixed amount, which was paid from the prince's treasury.

The emergence and development of land ownership on private law also changed the nature of relations within the ruling elite of the Old Russian state. If earlier the squad in property terms was inextricably linked with the prince, who allocated part of the state for its maintenance. income, now wealthy combatants, acquiring land, have the opportunity to become private owners. This predetermined the constant weakening of the dependence of the senior squad (boyars) on the prince, which over time was fraught with an open conflict of their interests (for example, in the Galician and Rostov-Suzdal lands in the 2nd half of the 12th century). There is not enough data to give a definite answer to the question to what extent land grants from the prince played a role in shaping the economic and socio-political status of the boyars. This circumstance, as well as the presence in science of various interpretations of the essence of feudalism (state-political, socio-economic, etc.), makes conditional the widespread characterization of the social system of D. R. in the 10th-12th centuries. as (early) feudal and brings to the fore the problem of the specifics of Old Russian. feudalism in comparison with the classical Western European.

The struggle for Kyiv in the middle. 12th century

The Kievan reign of Vsevolod Olgovich (1139-1146) opened an era of practically unceasing struggle for Kyiv, which inevitably led to the gradual degradation of the political role of the general Russian. capital Cities. Vsevolod was in every respect a destroyer of traditions. dynastic rules. In 1127, he seized the Chernigov table by force by forcibly removing his uncle Yaroslav Svyatoslavich and bypassing the genealogically oldest cousins ​​- the sons of the Chernigov prince. St. David Svyatoslavich. Vsevolod could not offer anything else as a device of power, how to pick up the idea of ​​Monomakh, only replacing one dynasty (Mstislavichs) with another (Olgovichi). As a result, the entire complex system of inter-princely relations, which Vsevolod built through military pressure and political compromises, and whose success was based solely on the lack of unity between the descendants of Monomakh, collapsed immediately after his death in 1146. The transfer of Kyiv planned by Vsevolod to his siblings - first St. book. Igor (George), then Prince. Svyatoslav (Nikolai), despite the kissing oath of the people of Kiev and Izyaslav Mstislavich, then Prince of Pereyaslav (the eldest of the Mstislavichs after the death of St. Prince Vsevolod in 1138), did not take place. During the rebellion that broke out in Kyiv, Prince. Igor was captured, tonsured a monk and soon died, and the people of Kiev invited Izyaslav to reign. As a result, the struggle immediately resumed between the Mstislavichs (in their hands were also Smolensk and Novgorod, where the younger brothers of Izyaslav, princes Rostislav and Svyatopolk, were sitting) and their uncle, the Rostov-Suzdal prince. Yuri Vladimirovich Dolgoruky.

The internecine struggle between Yuri and Izyaslav occupied the entire ser. 12th century Yuri relied on an alliance with the extremely strong Galician principality of Vladimir Volodarevich; on the side of Izyaslav were the sympathies of the people of Kiev and the military support of the Hungarians. box Geza II, married to Izyaslav's sister. A split occurred among the Chernigov Svyatoslavichs: Svyatoslav Olgovich was loyal to Yuri, and Vladimir and Izyaslav Davidovichi united with Izyaslav. The struggle went on with varying success, and Kyiv several. once passed from hand to hand: Izyaslav occupied it three times - in 1146-1149, 1150 and 1151-1154, also Yuri three times - in 1149-1150, 1150-1151, 1155-1157, and in the winter of 1154/55 g., after the death of Izyaslav, the brother of the latter Smolensk Prince tried unsuccessfully to gain a foothold here. Rostislav Mstislavich, then Prince of Chernigov. Izyaslav Davidovich.

All-Russian the scale of the upheavals was aggravated by the fact that the Church was also captured by them. Back in 1147, under pressure from Prince. Izyaslav Mstislavich to the metropolis without the sanction of the K-Polish Patriarch part of the Russian. hierarchs (mainly from South Russia) Clement Smolyatich was erected. This was an attempt on the part of the prince to break the usual order of placing the Kyiv metropolitans in the K-field and to get in the person of the metropolitan an instrument for the fulfillment of his political plans. However, Clement was not recognized not only by Bishop of Rostov. Nestor (which would be understandable), but also the bishops of Novgorod, St. Nifont and Smolensk St. Manuel. The split lasted until 1156, when a new Met. Constantine I. He not only canceled all the consecrations of Clement, but also subjected him, as well as (posthumously) his patron Izyaslav, to a church curse, which once again emphasized the extreme bitterness of the conflict. It ended only after the death of Yuri Dolgoruky in 1157, when, after the short reigns of Izyaslav Davidovich (1157-1158) and Mstislav (1158-1159), the eldest son of Izyaslav Mstislavich, St. book. Rostislav Mstislavich (1159-1167, with a brief break), at the request of whom a new metropolitan, Theodore, arrived in Kyiv. However, Rostislav could no longer return the former importance to the Kievan principality.

Old and new in relation to Kyiv on the part of the princes and the formation of the political predominance of the Vladimir-Suzdal principality (last third of the 12th - early 13th centuries).

Shortly after his death in 1167, Prince. Rostislav, it seemed that the conflict situation of the times of Izyaslav and Yuri Dolgoruky resumed in the next generation: Mstislav Izyaslavich (1167-1169), who had reigned in Kyiv again, was knocked out of him as a result of a campaign of princes, which he organized led. book. St. Andrey Yuryevich Bogolyubsky, and even his cousins ​​​​who had departed from their previous alliance with Mstislav (Prince of Smolensk Roman and David, Rurik and Mstislav Rostislavich who were sitting in various cities of the Kiev region), who were dissatisfied with the fact that Mstislav Izyaslavich sent his son Roman as prince to Novgorod, from where one of the Rostislavichs, Svyatoslav, was expelled. In March 1169, Kyiv was taken and plundered, including its churches and mon-ri, which had never happened before in the course of princely civil strife, and Mstislav fled to Volhynia, to his fatherland. Andrei Bogolyubsky (who did not personally participate in the campaign) used his success not for his own reign in Kyiv, like his father, but for planting his younger brother here, Prince Pereyaslavl. Gleb Yurievich. And although a similar trip to Novgorod in the beginning. 1170 was not crowned with success (see “The Sign”, the icon of the Mother of God), the Novgorodians soon also had to submit and, having sent Mstislavich, to accept Prince. Rurik Rostislavich, who in 1172 was replaced by Andrei's son Yuri. In 1170 Volyn Prince died. Mstislav, at the beginning 1171 - Kyiv prince. Gleb, after which the eldership of Andrei was again clearly indicated: he once again ordered the fate of Kyiv, planting Roman Rostislavich there. Thus, the fears of Vladimir Monomakh came true: the somehow sustained order of the legacy of the Kyiv table was lost, the connection between the capital's reign and the recognized eldership in the princely family was severely undermined, and with it one of the most important institutions that ensured the unity of the Old Russian state . The dominance of the Rostov-Suzdal prince did not last long. In 1173, the Rostislavichi, outraged by his too straightforward autocracy, refused to submit to him, the punitive campaign against Kyiv in 1174 ended unsuccessfully, and in the summer of that year, as a result of a conspiracy, Andrei Bogolyubsky was killed. The battle for Kyiv immediately began, in which 3 sides now took part: in addition to the Rostislavichs, the younger brother of the late Mstislav Izyaslavich Yaroslav (who reigned in Volyn Lutsk) and Chernihiv Prince. Svyatoslav (Mikhail) Vsevolodovich. As a result, in 1181 for a long period (until the death of Svyatoslav in 1194), an unprecedented order of a kind of dual power was established in Kyiv, when the capital itself was in the power of Svyatoslav, and the entire Kiev principality was in the hands of his co-ruler Rurik Rostislavich.

At this time, one no longer hears about the eldership of this or that prince in all of Russia, it is only about a separate eldership in the "Monomakh tribe" and especially among the Chernigov Olgoviches. The real political influence was increasingly taken into the hands of the Vladimir-Suzdal Prince, recognized as the oldest among all the Monomashichs (including the Volyn descendants of Izyaslav Mstislavich). Vsevolod (Dimitry) Yurievich Big Nest, younger brother of Andrei Bogolyubsky. From the time of the Treaty of Kyiv in 1181, he steadily, with a short break, until his death in 1212, held suzerainty over Novgorod, anticipating the later connection of the Novgorod table with the Grand Duchy of Vladimir. In 1188-1198/99. the supreme power of Vsevolod was also recognized by the last Galician prince from the Rostislavich family, Vladimir Yaroslavich. Even earlier, at the very beginning of Vsevolod's reign (in 1177), the Ryazan and Murom princes turned out to be dependent on him. Thus, the nominal supremacy of the Vladimir-Suzdal prince extended to the whole of Russia, except for Chernigov. This position was reflected in his title: it was to Vsevolod the Big Nest from ser. 80s 12th century for the first time in ancient Russia. practice, the definition of “Grand Duke” began to be systematically applied, which has since become official. the title of Vladimir-Suzdal, and then Moscow princes. It is all the more significant that, despite the favorable situation for himself, Vsevolod, like Andrey Bogolyubsky, never made attempts to establish himself in Kyiv.

Formation of the polycentric status of D. R. (2nd half of the 12th - 1st third of the 13th century).

The decline of the political significance of Kyiv, its transformation into a subject of claims from the princes from various princely groups, became the result of the development of the Old Russian state, outlined by the Lyubech Congress. To the 2nd floor. 12th century clearly showed a tendency to form several. territorially stable large lands-princes, politically little dependent both on each other and on changes in Kyiv. This development was facilitated by the above-mentioned growth in the political influence of local elites and the urban population, who preferred to have "their own" princes - a dynasty, the interests of which would be closely connected with the fate of one or another regional center. This phenomenon is often characterized as "feudal fragmentation", which puts it on a par with political particularism in the countries of classical feudalism (France, Germany). However, the legitimacy of such a definition remains in question due to the origin of the principality lands not from feudal grants, but from dynastic divisions. The main obstacle to the separation of lands was the constant redistribution of tables and volosts, which usually accompanied the appearance of a new prince in Kyiv. The lands were the first to separate, the princes of which were excluded from the number of heirs of the Kyiv table: Polotsk, Galicia and Muromo-Ryazan.

Polotsk land

Having expelled the princes of Polotsk in 1129, the Kyiv prince. Mstislav the Great first annexed the land of Polotsk to Kyiv, ruling it through his son Izyaslav, but after the death of Mstislav, the Polotsk people planted Vseslav's grandson Vasilk Svyatoslavich (obviously one of the few who escaped exile) on their table, although the Minsk volost remained under the rule of Kyiv for a while . Immediately after the reign of Vsevolod Olgovich in Kyiv, the Polotsk princes returned to their homeland, and the history of the land in the 40-50s. 12th century took place under the sign of the struggle for Polotsk between the Minsk prince. Rostislav, son of Gleb Vseslavich, and Rogvolod (Vasily), son of Prince Polotsk. Rogvolod (Boris) Vseslavich. In the 60-80s. 12th century Vseslav Vasilkovich was held in Polotsk with some interruptions. In the course of this struggle, far from all the stages of which are quite clear, the Polotsk land was divided into separate principalities (in addition to the mentioned Minsk, also Drutsk, Izyaslavl, Logozhsk, Borisov, etc.), princes to-rykh, as well as Polotsk proper, entered into a relationship of dependence either from Svyatoslav Olgovich (from the princes of the Chernigov branch, to whom in the 50s of the XII century the Dregovichi lands belonged to the south of the Polotsk land), then from the east. neighbors - the Smolensk Rostislavichs, who even for some time owned the Vitebsk volost. The further history of the Polotsk land looms vaguely. Political and economic dependence on Smolensk continued to grow stronger, while in the 1st third of the XIII century. in the north-west, Polotsk was under pressure from Riga and the Livonian Order, and by 1207 and 1214. lost its important strategic and commercial vassal principalities in the lower reaches of the West. Dvina - Koknese (Kukenois) and Jersike (Gercike). At the same time, the weakening Polotsk land suffered from the litas. raids.

Galician and Volyn lands

The situation was similar Pereyaslav principality, located on the left bank of the Dnieper, south of the Ostra (the left tributary of the Desna), with the difference, however, that here in the 2nd half. 12th century unable to form their own princely dynasty. Gleb Yuryevich, after leaving for Kyiv, transferred Pereyaslavl to his son Vladimir in 1169, who held him (with a short break) until his death in 1187. Subsequently, the Pereyaslavl table was replaced either by the Kyiv princes, or by the closest relatives or sons of Vsevolod the Big Nest. Data for the 1st third of the 13th century. sketchy; it seems that after 1213 to ser. 50s 13th century Pereyaslavl was under the supreme authority of the led. Prince Vladimir. Pereyaslav principality played a key role in the defense of the south. borders of Russia from the Polovtsy.

Chernihiv land

was one of the most important parts of D. R. Its territorial basis was the lands received in 1054 by the son of Yaroslav the Wise Svyatoslav. They extended to the east from the Dnieper, including all of the Desenye, up to Wed. Poochya with Murom. Deprived, apparently, at the Lyubech congress of 1097 of the right to participate in the inheritance of the Kyiv table, the Chernigov Svyatoslavichs (David, Oleg and Yaroslav), apparently, it was then that they received the Kursk Estate (separated from Pereyaslavl) as compensation, as well as the Dregovichi lands ceded by Kyiv north of Pripyat with the cities of Klechesk, Sluchesk and Rogachev. These areas were lost by Chernigov in 1127 - the price of non-intervention of the Kyiv prince. Mstislav the Great in the conflict between Vsevolod Olgovich, who seized the Chernigov table, and his uncle Yaroslav Svyatoslavich; but soon both Kursk (in 1136) and the mentioned Dregovichi volosts (in the middle of the 12th century) again became part of the Chernigov land. Despite the fact that after the capture of Kyiv by Vsevolod Olgovich in 1139, the Chernigov princes more than once successfully intervened in the struggle for it, they, as a rule, did not seek to obtain tables outside the Chernigov land, which indicates the well-known isolation of their dynastic consciousness, which was formed in 1 th generation of Svyatoslavichs.

The division of the Chernigov land between the Svyatoslavichs (the eldest, David, got Chernigov, Oleg - the middle Podesene with the cities of Starodub, Snovsk and Novgorod-Seversky, the youngest, Yaroslav - Mur) marked the beginning of the development of independent volosts. The most important of them in the middle - 2nd floor. 12th century there were volosts Gomiy (modern Gomel) on the lower Sozh, Novgorod-Seversky, Starodub, Vshchizh in Podesene, Kursk, Rylsk and Putivl in Posemye. Vyatichi Poochie for a long time remained a peripheral forest region, where even at the turn of the 11th and 12th centuries. tribal princes were preserved; information about the specific table here (in Kozelsk) first appears in the beginning. 13th century Davidovichi quickly left the historical arena. The involvement of Izyaslav Davidovich in the struggle for Kyiv at the turn of the 50s and 60s. 12th century ended with the fact that the entire Chernihiv land was in the power of Svyatoslav Olgovich and his nephew Svyatoslav Vsevolodovich, and the only grandson of David Svyatoslav Vladimirovich died in 1167 on the Vshchizh table. After the death in 1164 of the Chernigov prince. Svyatoslav Olgovich, the Chernigov throne was inherited according to genealogical seniority: from his nephews Svyatoslav (1164-1176; in 1176 Svyatoslav became the prince of Kyiv) and Yaroslav Vsevolodovich (1176-1198) to his son Igor (1198-1202), the hero of an unsuccessful campaign against the Polovtsy in 1185 g., sung in the "Tale of Igor's Campaign". Following. this Chernigov reign in the next generation of Olgovichi, in the 1st quarter. XIII century, concentrated in the hands of the sons of Svyatoslav Vsevolodovich (Vsevolod Chermny, Oleg, Gleb, Mstislav), and then his grandchildren (St. Prince Mikhail Vsevolodovich and Mstislav Glebovich). The offspring of Svyatoslav Olgovich was forced in general (excluding the brief reign in Chernigov of Igor Svyatoslavich) to be content with Novgorod-Seversky, Putivl, Kursk and Rylsky. The sons of Igor, who were the grandchildren of the Galician prince by their mother. Yaroslav Osmomysl, were in the beginning. XIII century, after the death in 1199 of a childless Galician prince. Vladimir Yaroslavich, were drawn into the political struggle in the Galician land, but they could not gain a foothold on the Galician tables (with the exception of Kamenets): three of them in 1211, when Galich was once again captured by the Hungarians, were hanged at the insistence of their opponents from among the influential Galician boyars (an exceptional case for Russia).

Smolensk land

In the 2nd floor. XI - 1st third of the XII century. Smolensk, like Volyn, was considered a volost belonging to Kyiv. Since 1078, the beginning of the Kyiv reign of Vsevolod Yaroslavich, Smolensk was assigned (excluding a short break in the 90s of the 11th century) to Vladimir Monomakh, in 1125 it went to the grandson of the latter, St. book. Rostislav Mstislavich, with the reign of whom in 1125-1159. the political isolation of Smolensk from Kyiv, the emergence of the Smolensk diocese in its possessions (see Smolensk and Kaliningrad diocese) and the final territorial design of the Smolensk land, which stretched from the upper reaches of the Sozh and the Dnieper in the south to the interfluve of the West. Dvina and Lovat (Toropetsk volost) in the north, capturing the "Vyatichi wedge" in the east between the upper reaches of the Moscow River and the Oka. Thus, the core of the Smolensk land was the area of ​​portages between Lovat, Zap. Dvina and Dnieper - a key section on the "path from the Varangians to the Greeks." On the territory and tax centers of the Smolensk land in the 1st half. 12th century a visual representation is given by a unique document - the Charter of the book. Rostislav of the Smolensk diocese in 1136

Rostislav did not take an active part in the struggle for Kyiv, which unfolded between his older brother Izyaslav and Yuri Dolgoruky in 1149-1154, but 2 years after the death of Yuri, in 1159, becoming the genealogical oldest among the Monomashichs, he left for Kyiv, leaving in Smolensk, the eldest son of Roman. Dr. The Rostislavichi (Rurik, David, Mstislav; Svyatoslav Rostislavich held Novgorod at that time) during the reign of Kiev of their father received tables in the Kyiv land, which they retained even after the death of Rostislav in 1167. A stable and monolithic complex of possessions of the princes of the Smolensk house was formed to the west and northwest of Kyiv with tables in Belgorod, Vyshgorod, Torchesk and Ovruch. Its stability was explained, obviously, by the fact that the older Rostislavichs, and later their descendants, if they did not occupy the Kyiv table, then always were one of the main contenders for it. The tendency of the Rostislavichs to occupy tables outside the Smolensk land, which so distinguished them from representatives of other branches of Old Russian. princely family, manifested itself in temporary possession in the 2nd half. 12th century Polotsk volosts bordering Smolensk - Drutsk and Vitebsk. Shortly after his death, ca. 1210 Kyiv prince. Rurik Rostislavich, the Smolensk princes again and for a long time took possession of the Kyiv table, on which in 1214-1223. sat the grandson of Rostislav Prince. Mstislav (Boris) Romanovich the Old, and in 1223-1235 - cousin of the last prince. Vladimir (Dimitry) Rurikovich. It was the period of the highest power of Smolensk. No later than the 20s. 13th century under his suzerainty was the capital of Polotsk, and in the Kiev reign of Mstislav Romanovich also Novgorod.

Following. In contrast to other lands of D. R. (with the exception of Novgorod), the formation of politically isolated volosts is practically not traced in Smolensk land. Occasionally, only the princely table in Toropets was occupied. Even when he was already the prince of Smolensk (1180-1197), David Rostislavich planted his son, prince, who had been expelled from Novgorod in 1187. Mstislav is not in Smolensk land, but in Kiev Vyshgorod. According to indirect data, it can be assumed that all the Rostislavichi had some kind of possessions in the Smolensk land (for example, in 1172 Rurik allocated the Smolensk city of Luchin to his newborn son Rostislav), but they preferred to reign outside it. This trend also affected the inheritance of the Smolensk table itself. Twice, in 1171 and 1174, leaving for Kyiv, Roman Rostislavich handed him over not to the next oldest brother, but to his son Yaropolk, and only the indignant Smolensk veche for the 2nd time insisted on replacing Yaropolk with the youngest of the Rostislavichs - Mstislav the Brave (to -ry, however, was forced to cede Smolensk to Roman, who left the Kyiv table in 1176). In the future, Smolensk was already inherited according to tradition. paternal seniority among the closest descendants of Roman († 1180) and David († 1197), of which the latter finally settled here in the 2nd half. 13th century

Vladimir-Suzdal land

(see also Art. Vladimir Grand Duchy) was formed on the basis of the Rostov fatherland of Vladimir Monomakh. The last at the turn of the XI and XII centuries. embraced the lands of the Volga-Klyazma interfluve with the cities of Rostov, Suzdal and Yaroslavl, as well as Beloozero located to the north. OK. In 1110/15, it went to one of the younger Monomashichs (the eldest son from Vladimir's 2nd marriage) - Yuri Dolgoruky, who during almost half a century of reign took shape as an independent land. The rapid rise of the Rostov-Suzdal Territory under Yuri was the result of the convenient location of these lands: thanks to the Volga, they were directly involved in trade with the rich East, the fertile Suzdal opole served as a reliable agricultural base, and the Vyatichi forests blocked the path of the Polovtsian raids. Yuri made Suzdal his capital city (apparently, like his successors, burdened by the tutelage of the old Rostov boyars) and expanded the territory of the principality through the development of the Tver Volga region and the Moskva River basin, also starting the promotion of Rostov-Suzdal tributes for the Volga, to Bud. Galich-Kostroma region.

Entering in 1149 in the struggle for Kyiv, Yuri took steps that were very reminiscent of a slightly later practice of the Smolensk prince. Rostislav Mstislavich: he began to distribute volosts in the south of Russia to his sons, primarily in the Kyiv land (Andrey - Vyshgorod, Boris - Belgorod, Rostislav, and then Gleb - Pereyaslavl, Vasilko - Porosye with Torchesky), but none of them, except for the Pereyaslav prince . Gleb Yurievich, after. did not stay there. Moreover, in 1155 Andrei left Vyshgorod without permission and returned to his fiefdom in his homeland (probably Vladimir), anticipating the main trend of the future Kyiv policy of the Vladimir-Suzdal princes. It was precisely in order to provide his offspring with a decisive influence in the Kyiv land that Yuri bequeathed the Suzdal table to his younger sons from his 2nd marriage - Mikhalk (Mikhail) and Vsevolod. But his plans were shattered by the willfulness of the Rostov and Suzdal vech, who invited Prince. Andrei Bogolyubsky (1157-1174). Andrei dealt with the princely opposition, sending three younger brothers (Vasilko, Mikhalka, Vsevolod) and nephews - the sons of his elder brother Rostislav, who died during the life of Yuri Dolgoruky, as well as part of his father's senior squad into exile for a while. Having received the reign thanks to the veche, Andrei did not tolerate any dependence on him and therefore made Vladimir the main table, because of which a deep conflict arose between the old Rostov and Suzdal and the new Vladimir, which was sharply revealed after the murder of Prince. Andrei in 1174. Rostov and Suzdal called Mstislav and Yaropolk, the sons of Rostislav Yuryevich, to the table, while the people of Vladimir stood for the younger Yuryevichs - Mikhalk and Vsevolod. The confrontation ended in favor of the latter, and on the Vladimir table (after the imminent death of Mikhalok) Vsevolod the Big Nest (1176-1212) reigned for a long time. After a protracted civil strife between the Vsevolodovichs in 1212-1216, Novgorod was also drawn into the swarm, and St. book. Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir. 1158-1160, 1185-1189 Photo. Con. 20th century

Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir. 1158-1160, 1185-1189 Photo. Con. 20th century

The reign of Vsevolod Yurievich the Big Nest became the era of the political and economic prosperity of the Vladimir-Suzdal land, the prince of which was an authority for all of Russia. At the same time, if Andrei Bogolyubsky, while remaining in Vladimir, still tried to dictate his will to the South Russian. princes, then Vsevolod already preferred to confine himself to a simple recognition on their part of his seniority. This policy of the Yurievichs had 2 important consequences. The first was the most dramatic (compared with other lands) separation of the Vladimir-Suzdal land within the Old Russian state, expressed, in particular, in Andrei's attempts, albeit unsuccessful, to establish in the 60s. 12th century in Vladimir, a metropolitanate separate from Kyiv (after the death in 1167 of the Kyiv prince Rostislav Mstislavich, Andrei became the oldest genealogically and the plans to create the Vladimir metropolis were abandoned). The second consequence was the intensive formation of the possessions of numerous Vsevolodoviches and their descendants. On the eve of the Mongol invasion, there were already at least 5 such specific tables (Rostov, Yaroslavl, Uglich, Pereyaslavl Zalessky, Yuryev Polsky), despite the fact that the main territory remained in the hands of the leaders. Prince Vladimir. These possessions quickly turned into fatherlands (Rostov became the fatherland of the descendants of Prince Vasilko Konstantinovich, the eldest grandson of Vsevolod, Pereyaslavl became the fatherland of the descendants of Yaroslav (Theodore) Vsevolodovich, etc.). In the future, this fragmentation progressed rapidly.

With a restrained interest in affairs in the south of D. R., the princes of Vladimir and Suzdal, pursuing, probably, the strategic goal of securing their interests in international trade, directed great efforts to control Novgorod and to fight the Volga Bulgaria. Already to the last thurs. 12th century co-ownership of Vladimir and Novgorod took shape at a key point in the south of Novgorod land - Torzhok, which gave Vladimir a powerful lever of influence on Novgorod, since it was through Torzhok that the bread that was so necessary for Novgorod came from the south. Campaigns were directed against Volga Bulgaria: in 1120 under Yuri Dolgoruky (after which a peace treaty was concluded, which, as far as one can judge, was observed almost until the end of Yuri's reign), in 1164 and in the winter of 1171/72 under Andrei Bogolyubsky, a grandiose campaign 1183 under Vsevolod the Big Nest (which also ended in a long-term peace treaty), in 1220 under Yuri Vsevolodovich. These hostilities were accompanied by the expansion of the territory of the Vladimir-Suzdal principality down the Volga (not later than the 60s of the XII century, Gorodets Radilov was founded, in 1221 - Nizhny Novgorod), as well as bringing the Mordovs into vassal dependence. tribes previously subordinate to the Bulgars.

Novgorod land

occupied a special place among the lands-princes of D. R. Until the end. 11th century the Novgorod table was replaced by princes and posadniks, who were appointed from Kyiv, and, consequently, Novgorod was politically subordinate to the Kyiv princes. However, it seems to be ok. In 1090, a posadnik from the local boyars appeared in Novgorod, with whom the prince had to somehow share power. The institute of posadnichestvo was strengthened when, in 1117, the grandson of St. Monomakhov entered the Novgorod table. book. Vsevolod Mstislavich, who, as there is reason to believe, was for the first time forced to condition his reign on an agreement with Novgorod. In 1136, the Novgorodians expelled Vsevolod, motivating this, among other things, by the violation of the contract by the prince, and since then the election of the Novgorod prince has finally become the prerogative of the city council. At the same time, the bishops of Novgorod also became elected, who then went to Kyiv to be appointed to the metropolitan. Novgorod "freedom in the princes" was not unlimited. Political and economic interests forced Novgorod to look for a place in the general Russian. politics, maneuvering between the strongest princes and, depending on the situation, trying to get a prince from them: either from the Vladimir-Suzdal Yuryeviches, or from the Smolensk Rostislavichs, or (less often) from the Chernigov Olgoviches.

In the 2nd floor. XII - 1st quarter. 13th century the management structure of Novgorod took on the form that was generally preserved in the last. at the time of independence: along with the prince, whose competence was limited to military issues and a joint court with the posadnik, and whose property rights were significantly constrained, the veche elected the posadnik and the archbishop, with con. XII century - thousandth. The influential layer was the merchants, organized into self-governing corporations headed by elders. This influence of the merchants was explained primarily by the active participation of Novgorod in international trade in the Baltic. Novgorod trading boats went to Danish, Norwegian, Swedish, German. ports. In Novgorod, there were farmsteads of the Gotland (Gotsky yard; apparently, from the turn of the 11th and 12th centuries) and German. merchants (German court; most likely from the end of the 12th century), on the territory of which there were Catholic. churches (there were also in Kyiv and Smolensk). This international trade was regulated by special treaties, the oldest of which (from among the surviving ones) dates, most likely, to 1191/92. In addition to the usual for large Old Russian. cities divided into 10 hundreds Novgorod was divided into 5 ends. The same adm. the organization was also characteristic of the Novgorod land as a whole, in addition to hundreds, it was also subdivided into 5 quintuples. The relationship between the centenary and Konchan-Pyatinka structures remains controversial.

General state issues were often resolved at the veche, in which, along with the Novgorodians, representatives of other cities of the Novgorod land - Pskov, Ladoga, Rusa, took part, which reflected the territorial scope of the Novgorod region of the 11th century - from Pskov to the Msta basin, from Ladoga to Lovat. Already in the XI century. began the penetration of Novgorod tributes to the northeast - to the area of ​​​​Lake Onega. and Podvinya (Zavolochye). Not later than the 1st quarter. 12th century these lands were tightly covered by the system of Novgorod churchyards, as the Charter of Prince. Svyatoslav of the Novgorod bishopric in 1137. It is difficult to determine the mobile border of Novgorod possessions in the west and north, just as it is not easy to separate the territories of Novgorod tributaries from the lands directly included in the political structure of Novgorod land. In the 1st floor. 11th century the power of Novgorod was established in the region of Estonians to the west of Lake Peipus, where in 1030 Yaroslav the Wise founded the city of Yuryev Livonsky (modern Tartu), but these possessions were lost after the start in the 90s. 12th century expansion of the Livonian Order and Denmark in the East. the Baltic States, although later. protests of Estonians against Livonian and dates. dominations often enjoyed the military support of Novgorod. Probably, simultaneously with the lands of the Estonians, the regions of the Vodi and Izhora to the south were developed. shore of the Gulf of Finland., as well as Karelians around Lake Ladoga. Later, tributary dependence on Novgorod extended to Finns. Emi tribes in the north. coast of the Gulf of Finland, no later than the turn of the 12th and 13th centuries - to the Finns of the Tersky coast (the White Sea coast of the Kola Peninsula). Emi lands were lost to Novgorod in the middle. XII century., When they were captured by Sweden. Novgorod-Swedish. the conflict was long, sometimes taking the form of long-distance campaigns: the Swedes to Ladoga in 1164, the Karelians subject to Novgorod to the Swedish capital Sigtuna (the region was taken and plundered) in 1187.

The fate of the Kyiv land and the mechanisms of all-Russian unity

Kyiv land, like Novgorod, stood apart in the system of lands-princes of D. R.. Traditional the idea of ​​Kyiv as the possession of a princely family, expressed in the successive replacement of the Kyiv table by princes from different branches in accordance with the principles of genealogical seniority and ancestry (a prince could not claim Kyiv, whose father had never reigned in it), did not allow the capital D R. become the property of some separate dynasty, as was the case in all other lands except Novgorod. Elder, made with the middle - 2nd floor. 12th century unobvious and increasingly becoming the subject of an inter-princely agreement, could not prevent the fact that Kyiv turned into a bone of contention between the opposing factions of princes and its possession was achieved at the cost of more or less significant territorial compromises. As a result, in the 70s. 12th century Kyiv land lost in favor of Volhynia such important volosts as Beresteyskaya, inherited by the sons of the Vladimir-Volyn prince. Mstislav Izyaslavich, and Pogorin (in the upper reaches of the Goryn with the center in Dorogobuzh), where the sons of Mstislav's brother, Prince of Lutsk, reigned. Yaroslav Izyaslavich. All R. 12th century Turov also left the Kyiv reign.

However, even in such a truncated form, Kyiv and the Kyiv land were a political organism, in relation to which, in one way or another, the interests of almost all the lands of D.R. were intertwined and thus united; general Russian the importance of Kyiv was to a large extent due to the fact that here was the chair of the primate of the Russian Church. In the conditions of state polycentricity, the idea of ​​D. R. unity, which continued to live as the core idea of ​​Old Russian. public consciousness and the dynastic idea consecrated by antiquity, was embodied primarily in the church unity of Old Russian. lands that made up the Kyiv Metropolis, the primates of the swarm constantly acted as peacekeepers in inter-princely conflicts. The tradition of tribal ownership of D. R. was reflected in the belief that the protection of the South. Russia, i.e., primarily the Kiev and Pereyaslav regions, from the Polovtsian threat was the common cause of the princes of all lands (which was supported by the memory of the ancient Russian land in the narrow sense of the word). In order to more effectively "observe the Russian land", the princes of the lands had the right to claim possessions ("parts", or "communions") in this Russian land. Although it remains unclear how systematically the practice of "participles" was carried out, its significance as an institution that embodied the idea of ​​a common Russian. unity is evident. Campaigns in the Polovtsian steppe were, as a rule, more or less collective enterprises. So, in the campaign of 1183, in response to the renewed Polovtsian raids, in addition to Kyiv, Smolensk, Volyn and Galician regiments took part. The call of the Tale of Igor's Campaign for joint defense against the Polovtsians (at the same time, the Chernigov author of the Lay ... refers by name to the princes of all the most important ancient Russian lands in the 80s of the XII century) is not just a patriotic slogan, but an appeal to the prevailing political practice. In fact, the campaign against the Mongols that ended in a complete defeat on the Kalka in 1223 with the participation of the princes of Kyiv Mstislav Romanovich, Chernigov Mstislav Svyatoslavich, Galician Mstislav Mstislavich, Volyn Daniil Romanovich (the regiment sent by Vladimir Grand Duke Yuri Vsevolodovich did not have time to battle) was actually all-Russian. A vivid evidence of a living sense of the unity of great Russia - from "Ugor" (Hungary) to the "Breathing Sea" (Northern Arctic Ocean), the memory of the time of its heyday - the reign of Vladimir Monomakh - as a public and state. The ideal can serve as the “Word about the destruction of the Russian land”, created immediately after mong. invasions (until 1246).

The Mongol invasion and the decline of the Old Russian state (middle - 2nd half of the 13th century)

Mong. invasion of 1237-1240 and the establishment in the future of the supreme power of the Mongols over almost all Old Russian. principalities led to a general upheaval of the Old Russian state. Mong. the khans did not seek to destroy the political structures that existed in Russia, trying to rely on them for their administrative and economic (tax collection) and military purposes (the use of Russian troops). The most important domong established in domong continued to exist. the time of the reigning land: Vladimir-Suzdal (under the rule of the descendants of Vsevolod the Big Nest), Galicia-Volyn (under the rule of the Romanovichs), Smolensk (where the Rostislavichi still ruled), Chernigov-Severskaya, the center of which temporarily moved to Bryansk (here the Olgovichi retained power, but Bryansk at the end of the 13th century was in the hands of the princes of the Smolensk branch), Ryazan (which also retained its dynasty); Novgorod, as before, recognized the suzerainty of the Vladimir provinces. princes. The fate of Kyiv and the Kyiv land of that time is extremely sparingly reflected in the sources, but it is known that the power of the Vladimir leds was probably kept there. princes - at least under Yaroslav Vsevolodovich (1238-1246) and St. Alexander Yaroslavich Nevsky (1252-1263), who received Kyiv at the will of the leader. Khan back in 1249. In this sense, the loss of political sovereignty of Old Russian. princes in the middle 13th century did not yet mean the immediate destruction of the Old Russian state.

However, the radical military-political and economic weakening of the Old Russian. principalities with a sharp increase in external threats led to the fact that the trend towards regionalization of the political interests of the principal princes, persistently manifested already in the domong. period have become irreversible. The utopian attempt to organize a collective rebuff to the Mongols through a military-political alliance between led. book. Vladimirsky Andrey Yaroslavich (1249-1252) and Daniil Galitsky. The only realistic politics prevailed. book. Alexander Nevsky, loyal to the Mong. khanam, formed, of course, at the time of his Novgorod reign from the experience of repelling the offensive of Sweden and the Livonian Order on the lands vassal to Novgorod, and then on Novgorod. All this disabled one of the main mechanisms of the general Russian. unity - joint defense against the "nasty" (steppe dwellers). In parallel, there was a process of political fragmentation of the Old Russian. principalities and lands. So, in ser. 13th century in the Vladimir-Suzdal land, in addition to the Rostov, Yaroslavl, Uglich, Pereyaslavl, Suzdal, Starodub and Yuriev principalities that already existed by that time, 6 more princely tables were formed: Belozersky, Galicia-Dmitrovsky, Moscow, Tver, Kostroma and Gorodetsky, in almost every -ryh entrenched his own princely branch. The situation was similar in the Chernihiv-Seversk land, where the Vorgol, Lipovech, Bryansk, Karachev, Glukhov and Tarusa principalities appeared at that time, and in other lands. The consequence of the political fragmentation of Old Russian. principalities and lands was the devaluation of the political role of the great reign, which became simply a territorial addition to the possessions of one or another "oldest" prince of his kind. The exception was the Galicia-Volyn principality, which from the 70s. 13th century consolidated under the rule of the Galician prince. Lev I Danilovich and Volyn prince. Vladimir Vasilkovich with the leading role of the first. However, the political interests of Leo I and Vladimir, as well as their successors, were Catholic-oriented. the west (Hungary and Poland) and the pagan north (repelling the Lithuanian and Yatvingian threat).

In the current conditions, there is no any stable coordination of the efforts of the Old Russian. principalities (Volyn, Smolensk, Bryansk, Novgorod, etc.), suffering from litas. raids, which gradually developed into territorial seizures, are not observed (with the exception of campaigns organized by order and with the participation of the troops of the Horde khans). In this sense, the crisis of the Old Russian. statehood as a result of the establishment of the Horde yoke predetermined the success of the expansion of Lithuania in the XIV century, catastrophic for ancient Russian. unity, for he deprived the fragments of the Old Russian state of the last political bond - the community of the dynasty. All these events significantly weakened the unifying role of the Church in relation to Old Russian. lands. In con. 13th century center of general Russian the metropolis moved from Kyiv, devastated by the Mongols, to the northeast - first to Vladimir, then to Moscow. To the southwest. lands, from ser. 14th century turned out to be dependent on the litas. and Polish. rulers, from the beginning of this century, attempts were made, which had temporary success, to establish independent metropolitan sees (see the articles Galician diocese, Lithuanian metropolis). As a result, to ser. 15th century Russian Church on several centuries was divided into Moscow and West Russian parts. Old Russian idea. unity continued to live in the field of culture and writing, primarily in church circles, turning into an ideology that was waiting for the time when it would be adopted by the Moscow sovereigns and the Russians. emperors.

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A. V. Nazarenko