The basic principle of Russian spelling is morphological. This means that all significant parts of a word (roots, prefixes, suffixes, inflections), repeated in different words and forms, are always written in the same way, regardless of pronunciation. For example, the root house is in all cases determined by these three letters, although in the words home and house the sound [o] of the root is pronounced differently: [yes] domestic, [d] movoy. The same is observed in prefixes: the prefix will unsubscribe with the letter t, despite its pronunciation: leave - [from] leave, end - [hell] fight. The morphological principle is also implemented in suffixes: the suffix -sk- in the words pol [sk] y and de [ts] ki (children) is pronounced differently, but always written -sk-. Unstressed endings in writing are transmitted in the same way as stressed ones, although unstressed vowels are pronounced differently: in the ground and in the gallery, underground and under the gallery.
It is easy to see that the unity of the spelling appearance of morphemes is achieved by the fact that the letter indicates not their pronunciation, but the phonemic composition of the morpheme, formed by strong phonemes.
Therefore, the basic principle of Russian spelling is also called phonemic or morphophonematic, meaning by this the principle of transferring the phonemic composition of morphemes in writing.
In addition to morphological, in Russian orthography it is customary to single out phonetic and traditional principles.
Phonetic spellings in Russian orthography are associated with the spelling z or s in the prefixes bez-, voz-, iz-, raz-, ros-, niz-, through-, through-.
In these prefixes, the letter z is written if a voiced consonant follows, and it is written with if a deaf consonant follows: homeless - barren, repay - sing, beat - drink, smash - stretch, overthrow - send down, extremely - striped.
Similar phonetic spellings are found in relation to the prefixes ros- (ros-) and raz- (ras-): roses- (ros-) are stressed, and raz- (ras-) are unstressed: rbzliv - spill, rbspis - receipt.
Along with morphological (phonemic) and phonetic spellings, Russian orthography also has traditional or etymological spellings: these are spellings that no longer have support in modern word-building and form-building relations or a phonetic system, but are preserved only by tradition. Such, for example, is the spelling of the letter g in the endings of the genitive singular of adjectives, participles and non-personal pronouns of the masculine and neuter gender: young, mine. This spelling has been preserved since those distant eras when these forms were pronounced with [g]. Etymological are also spellings with the so-called unverifiable unstressed vowels a and o in the words: fence, care, boot, ram, dog, cow, ax, carrot, sorcerer, giant, noodles, drum, etc. There are many borrowed words among the words with traditional spelling: color, component, intellectual, terrace, neat, opponent, etc.
Differentiating spellings occupy a special place in the Russian spelling system. These are different spellings of words that sound the same or similar, but have different meanings. There are few cases of differentiated spelling in Russian: a company (a group of people) and a campaign (event), cry (noun) and cry (verb), burn (noun) and burn (verb), Eagle (city) and eagle (bird), etc. .
The use of capital letters is also based on the semantics of words. For example, unlike common nouns, venerable (person), (warm) fur coat, proper names are capitalized: Honorable (surname), Fur coat (surname).
In addition to these principles, the Russian spelling system uses the principle of continuous, separate and hyphenated (semi-continuous) spelling.
Russian spelling is built in such a way that each independent word is written separately. However, the process of formation of new words is constantly going on in the language, and this formation may be associated with the loss of independence by two lexical units and their transformation into one word.
This process proceeds gradually and slowly and is reflected in orthography in the form of semi-continuous and continuous spellings.
Semi-fused (hyphenated) spellings reflect the incompleteness of the transformation of two lexical units into one word, while fused spellings reflect the completion of this process.
In spelling, those continuous spellings are fixed in which the semantic unity of the combined lexical units finds its structural expression: the presence of connecting vowels, one stress, one system of inflections, etc.
Modern rules about fused and especially semi-fused spellings are quite complex and contradictory in some points (for example, the spelling of compound adjectives). However, it is still possible to single out a number of rules relating to different parts of speech and clearly regulating semi-continuous or continuous spelling.
So, with a hyphen they write:
- compound words formed by repeating the same word with different prefixes or a root with different suffixes: slightly, barely, small-small, live-live, big-big.
- words with foreign prefixes ex-, vice-, ober-idr.: ex-champion, vice-president, chief conductor;
- special terms, which include individual letters of the alphabet and a number or number: ZIL-150, TU-134, IL-62 and some other formations.
- compound words: kolkhoz, selkor, supply manager, etc.;
- words, the first part of which are numerals: seven-day, six-hour, twenty-volume, etc.
As for taking into account the word-formation structure of the word, here we must bear in mind the undesirability of breaking down when transferring prefixes or suffixes: we need to stretch, not pa-stretch, we need Russian, not Russian, since chaotic breakdown makes reading difficult.
The phonetic principle of orthography is traditionally understood as one in which successive chains of sounds in word forms are designated on the basis of a direct connection "sound - letter", without taking into account any other criteria.
Briefly, this principle is defined by the motto "write as you hear."
But a very important question is what sounds should be designated with the phonetic principle, with what detail.
In practical writing, which is any letter-sound writing, and with the phonetic principle of spelling, only phonemes can and should be indicated.
The phonetic principle of spelling with the advent of the concept and the term "phoneme" could be called the phonemic principle of spelling, but since the latter term in modern linguistic literature (by scientists of the IMF) is used in a different sense (see below, p. 145 et seq.), it is more convenient to leave the former name for it1.
The phonetic principle as a certain orthographic beginning is proclaimed when positional alternations of phonemes (if any) are specifically reflected in the letter. The phonetic principle is such a principle of designating phonemes when the phonemes of weak positions, with which the phonemes of strong positions alternate, are denoted by letters adequate to the phonemes of weak positions on the basis of a direct connection "phoneme - letter adequate to it"2.
But the designation of certain phonemes of strong positions also falls into the sphere of the phonetic principle. This is the designation of the stressed vowel /o/ after sibilants (as is the case with the morphological principle), which is associated with the "transition" /e/ to /o/ and the peculiarity of the letter row e - e - o, for example: galchonok, cap, etc. .
The phonetic principle is the antagonist of the morphological principle. Orthograms written according to the phonetic principle may, if deemed appropriate, be written according to the morphological principle; that is why they are considered to be violations of the morphological principle.
There are few orthograms that correspond to the phonetic principle in Russian spelling. Let's consider them.
1. Writing prefixes with a final s: without-, voz-, vz-, out-, bottom-, times-, roses-, through- (through-).
Morphologically, these prefixes should always be written with z, i.e. it would be necessary to write not only painless, but also "non-party", not only escaped, but also "dirty", etc. This is how, without changing the graphical form, all the other prefixes are written: sang and passed, repaid and thanked, got hooked and ran up, etc.
Meanwhile, prefixes on -z we write based on the phonetic principle: they are written either with the letter z or with the letter c, depending on the pronunciation (see "Rules ...", § 50). According to the law of alternations, the sound /z/ before the next voiceless consonant is replaced by /s/, and this sound alternation, contrary to the morphological principle, is reflected in the letter:
It should be noted that the -z prefixes are not written completely phonetically. So, in the words ruthless and reckless, in place of the final spelling s in the prefix, /zh/ sounds silent, and in the place of the final spelling s in the prefix, /sh/ sounds silent. In these words, there is an alternation of a different nature - alternation at the place of formation.
Thus, the phonetics of writing prefixes on -z has a limit: it is limited to showing on the letter either the voicedness or the deafness of the final consonant sound of the prefix before subsequent voiced (before which it is written z) and deaf (before which it is written with) consonants. There is one peculiar exception here. The word tasteless is spelled with the spelling variant bez-, although a deaf sound /s/ is pronounced in the prefix: be/s/tasty (before the subsequent deaf sound /f/ pronounced in place of the letter c). But since in writing we see the sign of a voiced consonant, namely the letter v, and not f, then we write the prefix without writing with the letter z (i.e., with the sign of a voiced consonant) in relation to the subsequent letter v (the sign of a voiced consonant), and not to the deaf sound denoted by it /f/. Here, the real sound recedes in our minds before the force of the impact of the letter1.
2. Writing the prefix rose-.
In writing this prefix, in addition to reflecting the alternation /z/ with /s/ - distributed, but painted, - the positional alternation of the stressed /o/ with the unstressed /a/ is also reflected. The "Rules ..." says: "... the prefix raz- (ras-) is always written not under stress, for example: distribute? )".
Thus, the prefix rose- has four written variants: rose-, rose-, times-, race-.
Withdrawal of unstressed variants of times- (ras-), i.e. the ability to write "give out" instead of the now accepted hand out (since there is a hand out); "Rescribing" instead of the currently accepted signature (since there is a signature), etc., interfere with some cases of stress on /a/: developed, developed, developed - from developed; developed (along with developed), developed (along with developed), developed (along with developed) - developed1.
But the phonetics of writing the vowel in the prefix roz- for a long time was limited to one exception: the word search?y with unstressed /a/ was written with o (since search). The latest edition of the Spelling Dictionary of the Russian Language (M., 1991) gives the spelling of this word with a - detective, detective (see p. 305).
3. Writing s instead of the initial and (according to pronunciation) in the root after prefixes 2 ending in a solid consonant: artless, refined, unprincipled, pre-July, etc. 3
These spellings are phonetic. After prefixes ending in a solid consonant, it is pronounced in accordance with the phonetic laws of the Russian language /ы/.
Before the publication in 1956 of the "Rules of Russian Spelling and Punctuation", instead of the etymological and after the prefixes, it was written only in Russian words (play, search, etc.), in foreign roots, according to the rules, it was written and ("unprincipled", " uninteresting", etc.). Since in modern language such words as idea, interest, history and many others. etc., are no longer perceived as foreign, in 1956 it was considered expedient to give a single rule for both Russian and borrowed words. Indeed, writing is not always easy.
can determine if the root part of a word is a loanword. It is no accident, therefore, that there were also hesitations: unprincipled and unprincipled, uninterested and uninterested, which took place in the practice of the press before the publication of the "Rules ..." in 1956.
The spelling of the initial and root after solid consonants is preserved at the present time after Russian prefixes inter- and super-, as well as after foreign prefixes and particles. After the prefix inter- and it is written by virtue of the general rule, according to which after w it is not written s, and after super- - because the combinations of gy, ky, hy are not characteristic of the Russian language. After foreign prefixes, and is stored so that the writer can quickly see and understand the root, for example, in the word sub-inspector, etc., and thanks to this, understand the word faster. The rule is set forth in § 7 of the Rules of Russian Spelling and Punctuation.
4. Writing o in suffixes -onok, -onk(a) after hissing: galchonok, cap, etc. (cf .: owlet, hut, etc.). The morphological principle would correspond to writing with e.
Traditionally, it was considered phonetic to write е/о after sibilants and ц in the endings of nouns and adjectives, as well as to write е/о in the suffix -ok- (-ek-) after sibilants1. But these spellings can be regarded as morphological (see above, p. 109).
In the general system of Russian spelling, built on the morphological principle, spellings based on the phonetic principle, as falling out of the system, make writing more difficult than morphological ones, and therefore they should be given special attention.
It must be emphasized again that such spellings as house, hold, floor, etc., are not within the scope of the phonetic principle (as they are not within the scope of any other orthographic principle). There are no spellings here.
Do not correspond to the phonetic principle and such spellings as country, bough, etc.3 The letters a and k are written not on the basis of a direct connection "phoneme - letter", but on the basis of morphological comparisons (country?, since countries; bough , since bitches?), i.e. on a morphological basis.
1 Phonemography called this way of writing Baudouin de Courtenay: "... phonemography means a one-sided, exclusively phonetic way of writing, which does not take into account the division of the sentence into syntagmas or syntactic elements and the drain - into morphemes, i.e. morphological elements. On the contrary , in morphemography, attention is drawn to mental relationship, i.e. associations by the similarity of a sentence with other sentences and words with other words "(Baudouin de Courtenay I.A. Influence of language on worldview and mood; the same in the book: Selected Works on General Linguistics, Moscow, 1963, vol. 2, p. 332.
2 The name "phonemic" (and not "phonetic") principle is used for these cases: Maslov Yu.S. (Introduction to linguistics. M., 1987. P. 259); Zinder L.R. (Essay on the general theory of writing. L., 1987. P. 91); Selezneva L.B. (Modern Russian letter ... Tomsk, 1981. P. 56).
1 The literal aspect of the rule about prefixes on -z was noted by Moiseev A.I. (Russian language: Phonetics. Morphology. Spelling. M., 1980. P. 233); Kuzmina S.M. (Theory of Russian spelling. M., 1981. P. 251).
1 See: Russian literary pronunciation and stress: Dictionary-reference book / Ed. R.I. Avanesov and S.I. Ozhegov. M., 1959. S. 484; Orthoepic dictionary of the Russian language. M., 1983. S. 480.
2 S instead of and (according to pronunciation) is also written in the prefix from-, if it follows another prefix: from the beginning, from childhood.
Spelling issues are primarily related to the written form of speech. Before characterizing the basic principles of Russian spelling, it is necessary to note its connections with such sections of the science of language as graphics, word formation, and morphology.
The spelling system of the Russian language is most closely connected with graphics - a section of linguistics that studies the letter system. graphics is a system of carved, drawn, written or printed signs used as a means of communication. Graphics of alphabetic writing, currently accepted by most peoples of the world. You can call the method of designating sounds with letters.
The basis of modern Russian graphics is Cyrillic - the alphabet of the Old Slavonic language. The Cyrillic alphabet was invented by the Greek missionary Cyril (Konstantin) in order to facilitate the preaching of Christianity in the South Slavic countries. The Cyrillic alphabet was based on Greek graphics, supplemented by some letters taken from other languages and adapted to the sounds of the ancient Bulgarian language. Cyrillic began to be used in manuscripts written in Russian, and then in printed books.
At the beginning of the 18th century, by order of Peter the Great, the so-called civil alphabet. Compared to Cyrillic, it is characterized by a simpler style of letters and the absence of a number of letters that had doublets in Cyrillic, for example, there were no big and small yus, Izhitsa, but doublet letters remained: e and yat, f and fita, octal and, and decimal, denoted as i. These doublets were eliminated as a result of the 1917 reform, which was largely a graphic reform.
Russian graphics developed on the basis of the Old Slavonic spelling and therefore, from the very beginning, diverged from the sound system of the Russian language. As a system, it begins to take shape in the 18th century, in the works of Trediakovsky, Sumarokov, Lomonosov. The development of the system continued in the 19th century in numerous works on Russian grammar (Vostokova, Buslaeva). It was finally brought into the system only in the works of Academician Grot, in particular in his work "Controversial Issues of Russian Spelling". In 1917, the first reform of Russian orthography was carried out. To a certain extent, as already mentioned, it was a reform of graphics. In 1956, a new code was compiled - "Rules of Russian Spelling and Punctuation".
In 1996, in the journal Rusistika Segodnya, No. 1, an article by members of the Spelling Commission "On the Linguistic Substantiation of the Code of Russian Spelling Rules" was published, in which it was reported that the Institute of the Russian Language of the Russian Academy of Sciences had completed work on a new "Code of Russian Spelling Rules" .
The need for a new Code was caused, according to the authors, by the fact that the text of the rules of 1956 is outdated and in many respects does not correspond to the modern scientific understanding of a number of phenomena. In 2000, the Draft Code of Rules for Russian Spelling was published. Although the authors argued that the new edition of the Rules did not contain any changes affecting the foundations of Russian writing, and would significantly simplify it, public opinion and the opinion of many authoritative Russianists was different. Spelling reform did not receive support. Premature and even illegal, according to many experts, was the new edition in 1999 of a new spelling dictionary edited by V.V. Lopatin, in which the proposed changes were fixed and took the form of a norm.
Thus, modern Russian spelling is governed by the Rules of Russian Spelling and Punctuation of 1956. The word orthography consists of two Greek words: orthos (correct, straight) and grapho (I write), which means correct spelling. Spelling is a system of rules that establishes a uniform spelling of words and their forms. The leading principle of Russian spelling is morphological. It is based on the same display of morphemes in writing - significant parts of a word (roots, prefixes, suffixes, endings). For example, the root house- in all cases is indicated by these three letters, although in words home and brownie sound about roots are pronounced differently :d a machine, d b movoy. The same is observed in the attachment from-, spelled with a letter t despite her pronunciation: from start - from from combat is hell. The morphological principle is also implemented in suffixes: for example, adjectives linden ov oy and oak ov th have the same suffix ov- although he is unstressed in the first case.
Unstressed endings are marked in the same way as stressed endings, although unstressed vowels are pronounced differently: cf. . into the ground e, in the gallery e, underground her and under the gallery her, about hands e, about epochs e etc. The morphological principle of spelling is a valuable quality of Russian spelling: it helps to find related words, to establish the origin of certain words.
There are many deviations from the morphological principle in the language. These include phonetic and traditional spelling. For example, words house, poppy, ball, cat, mine, table, horse, heat, scrap, volume, yard etc. are spelled as they are pronounced. The phonetic principle is based on the spelling of prefixes ending in a consonant s-, without-, air-, from-, bottom-, through-, (through-). End sound [ h] of these prefixes before the deaf consonants of the root in oral speech is stunned, which is reflected in the letter. For example, be h toothy, but With cordial; in h strike, but With supply; and h drive, but With drink; neither h reject, but With walk; ra h beat but ra With to saw; chere h dimensional With stripe.
The traditional principle is based on the tradition of writing, that is, words are written as they were written in the old days: roots with alternation a/o, e/i . The traditional spelling is not justified either phonetically or morphologically. By tradition, words are written cow, dog, raspberry, carrot, sorcerer, giant, noodles, drum, feeling, holiday, viburnum etc. The spelling of such words has to be memorized. There are many borrowed words among the words with traditional spelling: acidophilus, color, component, intellectual, terrace, neat, opponent.
In the system of Russian spelling, a special place is occupied by differentiating writing. These are different spellings of similar-sounding words like score, score. The difference in spellings is due to the difference in meanings: score- grade, ball- evening. There are few cases of differentiated spelling in Russian: company(a group of people) and campaign(event), cry(noun) and cry(verb), burn(noun) and burn(verb) and some others.
Capitalization is also based on the meaning of the word. For example, unlike common nouns venerable(human), (warm) fur coat proper names are capitalized: Venerable ( surname), Fur coat(surname). In addition to these principles, the Russian spelling system uses the principle of continuous and separate spelling: words are written together, for example, garden, separately - phrases, for example, blindingly bright.
However, there are many cases in the language that are difficult to write. This is explained by the fact that, turning into words, some phrases are at different stages of lexicalization or fusion. Some of them have already become words and therefore are written together, for example, unused, unimportant, others are at an intermediate stage of lexicalization and therefore have semi-continuous spellings, for example, Prime Minister, chamber junker, others have recently embarked on the path of fusion and, therefore, are still subject to the rule of separate spelling of combinations, for example, to no avail, to failure, squatting, on the fly. Word hyphenation rules are not directly related to spelling, as they are caused by the need to place words on a line. But the chaotic breakdown of words during transfer makes reading difficult, and therefore it is recommended to transfer words by morphemes and syllables, for example, pre-reverent, for-no-ma-y, management.
covers a large group of words grammatical principle writing. It occurs where different spellings distinguish parts of speech, word forms. For example, b after hissing at the end of different parts of speech: cry(2 fold.), speech(3 fold.), creaky(cr. adj.), back(adverb), cherish(initial form of the verb), take(2 l., singular h., n. vr. verb), smear(imperative mood of the verb).
Thus, several principles can be traced in Russian orthography: phonetic, traditional, differentiating, grammatical, uppercase or lowercase, together or separately. The main principle of Russian orthography is morphological. You can check the spelling of a word using reference books or dictionaries, spelling, together, separately, hyphen, uppercase or lowercase. Besides spelling, the morphological principle has its own way of checking and applying the rule. It consists in determining what part of the word the letter is in, what part of speech the word belongs to, what rule this spelling is guided by.
Thus, the path of logical reasoning is as follows: letter - part of the word - part of speech - rule.
For example, enterprise and n and matel, highlighted letters, are questionable in spelling and can lead to errors. You should answer all the questions of the logical chain of reasoning and come to the correct answer. Letter and stands in a box at- meaning proximity, attachment, second letter and is at the root him-, this is the root of traditional spelling, it has an alternation him- / nya- at him at-at nya th.
Literate spelling of words consists of the ability to explain the spelling of a word using its composition, relation to the part of speech and the spelling rule, or to consult in a dictionary, reference book. Improving spelling skills is an integral part of a person's written speech culture, which is necessary in business and professional communication.
Morphological principle .
Spelling principles are the guiding ideas for the choice of letters by a native speaker where the sound can be designated variably. The nature and system of Russian spelling is revealed using its principles: morphological, phonemic, traditional-historical, phonetic and the principle of differentiation of meanings.
The morphological principle requires that the spelling check be focused on the morphemic composition of the word, it assumes uniformity, the same spelling of morphemes: root, prefix, suffix, ending, regardless of positional alternations (phonetic changes) in the sounding word that occur during the formation of related words or word forms. These inconsistencies in writing and pronunciation include: unstressed vowels in different morphemes - in the root, prefix, suffix, ending; stunning voiced and voicing deaf consonants in weak positions; unpronounceable consonants; orthoepic, traditional pronunciation of many words and combinations: [siniev] - blue, [kan`eshn] - of course and many others. etc. Spelling, based on the morphological principle, outwardly diverges from pronunciation, but not sharply and only in certain parts of speech. At the same time, the discrepancy between spelling and pronunciation is carried out with morphological writing on the basis of strictly defined relationships with pronunciation. Morphological writing is a consequence of the understanding by the seeker of the structural division of the word into its significant parts (morphemes) and results in the most uniform transmission of these parts in writing. The way of writing with a uniform graphic transmission of significant parts of words makes it easier to “grasp” the meaning when reading. The preservation of the graphic unity of the same morphemes in writing, where possible, is a characteristic feature of Russian orthography. The uniformity of the spellings of significant parts of words is achieved by the fact that positional alternations of vowels and consonants are not reflected in Russian writing.
Checking spelling, written according to the morphological principle, includes:
a) understanding the meaning of the word or combination of words being checked, without which it is impossible to select a related test word, determine the grammatical form of the word, etc.;
b) analysis of the morphemic composition of the word, the ability to determine the place of the spelling - in the root, in the prefix, in the suffix, in the ending, which is necessary for choosing and applying the rule;
c) phonetic analysis, determination of stressed and unstressed syllables, selection of vowels and consonants, understanding of strong and weak phonemes, positional alternations and their causes. Next - the solution of the spelling problem according to the algorithm.
It should be noted that the assimilation of spellings corresponding to the morphological principle cannot be effective without strong speech skills of students: the choice of words, the formation of their forms, the construction of phrases, sentences.
Since ancient times, the morphological principle in spelling has been considered the main, leading one, because it ensures the leading role of semantics in language teaching. But in recent decades, a new, phonemic principle claims to be the leading principle.
phonemic principle.
In modern phonology, it is generally accepted that if two or more sounds alternate positionally, then in the language system they are an identity. This is a phoneme - a linguistic unit, represented by a number of positionally alternating sounds. So, the phoneme [o] can be represented by the following sounds, regularly reproduced in the speech of native speakers of the Russian language: strong position - under stress [house]; weak position - unstressed [lady]; weak position - reduced [málako], [cloud].
The phonemic principle of spelling says: the same letter denotes a phoneme (not a sound!) In strong and weak positions. Russian graphics are phonemic: the letter denotes in its strong version and in a weak position also in the same morpheme, of course. The phoneme is a semantic distinction. The letter, fixing the phoneme, provides a unified understanding of the meaning of the morpheme (for example, the root) regardless of the variants of its sound.
The phonemic principle explains basically the same orthograms as the morphological principle, but from a different point of view, and this allows a deeper understanding of the nature of orthography. He more specifically explains why, when checking an unstressed vowel, one should focus on the stressed variant, on the strong position of the morpheme.
The phonemic principle allows you to combine many disparate rules: checking unstressed vowels, voiced and voiceless consonants, unpronounceable consonants; contributes to the understanding of consistency in spelling; introduces teachers and students to a new linguistic doctrine - phonology.
Morphological and phonemic principles do not contradict each other, but deepen each other. Checking vowels and consonants in a weak position through a strong one - from phonemic; reliance on the morphemic composition of the word, on parts of speech and their forms - from the morphological (morphematic) principle.
Some modern programs and textbooks of the Russian language (for example, the school of V.V. Repkin) provide elementary information on phonology, and in those schools where the textbook by V.V. Repkin is used, the interaction of the two considered principles and practical methods is already being implemented.
There is also a phonetic principle, that is, one in which successive chains of sounds in words are indicated on the basis of a direct connection “sound - letter”, without taking into account any other criteria. Briefly, this principle is defined by the motto "write as you hear." But a very important question is what sounds should be designated with the phonetic principle, with what detail. In practical writing, which is any letter-sound writing, and with the phonetic principle of spelling, only phonemes can and should be designated.
The phonetic principle of spelling with the advent of the concept and the term "phoneme" could be called the phonemic principle of spelling, but since the latter term is used in modern linguistic literature in a different sense, it is more convenient to leave the former name for it.
The phonetic principle as a certain orthographic beginning is proclaimed when positional alternations of phonemes (if any) are specifically reflected in the letter. The phonetic principle is such a principle of designating phonemes when the phonemes of weak positions, with which the phonemes of strong positions alternate, are denoted by letters that are adequate to the phonemes of weak positions on the basis of a direct connection “a phoneme is an adequate letter to it.
In addition, there are many words in Russian that are impossible (or difficult) to check with the rules, and they are written in the usual way, as usual, i.e. traditionally.
Traditional principle - this is such a principle in which phonemes that are in weak positions are indicated by one of a number of letters that are phonologically possible to designate a given phoneme. Phonologically, letters are possible that are adequate to the phonemes that head the phonemic series of the morphological system of the language, which could include one or another phoneme of a weak position to be designated. The traditional principle is, as it were, a morphological principle intended for implementation, but not having the opportunity to pass into it. Since phonemic oppositions in word forms are not violated when designating phonemes of weak positions on the basis of the traditional principle, this principle could be called phonemic-traditional.
In this principle, the final choice of a letter is based on tradition (based on etymology, transliteration, transcription, or simply convention). But the set of letters to choose from is also limited and quite specific. Only phonemic sequences that can be called potential are presented here.
Unverifiable words are acquired on the basis of memorizing the literal composition, the whole "image" of the word, comparison and opposition, i.e. visually, by pronunciation, based on kinesthesia, speech-motor memory, through use in speech in writing and orally, etc.
So, knowledge of the basic principles of Russian spelling allows us to generalize the studied rules, to find a single pattern in them. Spelling is necessary to ensure full-fledged communication, and it is natural that each of its principles is communicatively expedient.
differentiating principle is used where two words or two forms that have the same phonemic structure are conditionally distinguished using spelling (burn - burn, ink - ink). Consolidated, separate and hyphenated spellings using three graphic characters (continuous spelling, space and hyphen) include different grammatical categories of words: compound nouns, adjectives, pronouns, numerals, adverbs, as well as writing a particle with different parts of speech. The principles on which the spelling rules of this section are built are called: - lexical-syntactic - to distinguish between a word and a phrase (long-playing record - a child playing in the yard for a long time; finally, I did all the work - we are planning a trip for the end of summer);
Word-building and grammatical - for writing complex adjectives and nouns: automobile-road and road, gas-oil and gas-oil; forest park and diesel engine.
The separate spelling of words is based on the principle: to write all the words of the Russian language, independent and official, separately, for example: “A month looks from the middle of the sky.” In the course of the life of a language, prepositions and particles sometimes merge with the words they refer to, forming new words, for example: on the right, for the first time, not bad. In this case, there are transitional cases, for example: on the go, for memory. A capital letter is used to highlight the beginning of a sentence and to highlight proper names, for example: “Our great poet Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin lived at that time in the Pskov province.”
Transfer rules are based on the division of words into syllables, taking into account the composition of words: smell, swim.
Spelling, reflecting a complex and lively language process, is constantly being improved on the basis of spelling practice and theoretical linguistic research.
The nature and system of Russian spelling is revealed with the help of its principles: morphological, phonemic, traditional-historical, phonetic and the principle of differentiation of meanings. The modern method of teaching spelling is focused on these principles. They help to understand the meaning of each rule, each method of checking spelling, to comprehend each spelling as a link in the overall system, as a derivative of the laws of the language.
Younger students are not introduced to the principles themselves, only to the rules and their application, but the teacher needs knowledge of the principles and the ability to apply them both in the practice of testing and in the methodology of teaching this to children.
The morphological principle requires that the spelling checker be focused on the morphemic composition of the word, it assumes a uniform, identical spelling of morphemes: root, prefix, suffix, ending, regardless of positional alternations (phonetic changes ) in a sounding word, occurring during the formation of related words or word forms. Among such inconsistencies in writing and pronunciation are: unstressed vowels in different morphemes - in the root, prefix, suffix, ending; stunning voiced and voicing deaf consonants in weak positions; unpronounceable consonants; orthoepic, traditional pronunciation of many words and combinations: [siniev] - blue, [kan'eshn] - of course and many others. others
The letter, according to the morphological principle, outwardly diverges from the pronunciation: we pronounce [hort], [vada], [back], - we write the city, water, passed, pull up. According to the morphological principle, spellings preserve in the literal composition of the word, its morphemes the original sound, which is revealed through the strong positions of phonemes within the morpheme - root, prefix, suffix, ending: for the root - year - in the words year, new year, anniversary; for the root -water- in the words watery, anhydrous, flood, high water; for the prefix s- in words moved out, copied, drove, collected; for the prefix under- in words he planted, approached. In the word pull up, the morphemic approach allows you to “highlight” both the root -tyan-, the first sound of which in pronunciation merges with the prefix pod- [sweat], and the postfix -s. The constant, systematic work of students on checking spelling in the described way (based on checking morphemes) contributes to the assimilation of the composition of the word, word formation, the simplest cases of etymology, enrichment and mobility of the dictionary. The morphological principle also provides for checking endings, i.e., writing morphological forms of a word - unstressed case endings for nouns and adjectives: the ending is checked for the stressed ending in the same word form of the same type of declension. The same approach applies to other parts of speech.
Checking spelling, written according to the morphological principle, includes:
a) firstly, understanding the meaning of the word or combination of words being checked (sometimes
the whole sentence or even the text), without which it is impossible to select a related test
new word, determine the grammatical form of the word, etc.;
b) secondly, the analysis of the morphemic composition of the word, the ability to determine the place of the spelling - in the root, in the prefix, in the suffix, in the ending, which is necessary for choosing and applying the rule;
c) thirdly, phonetic analysis, determination of stressed and unstressed syllables, identification of vowels and consonants, understanding of the strong and weak positions of phonemes, positional alternations and their causes; for example, the alternation of o / a, o / b, etc., the alternation of a voiced consonant with its paired deaf one, the alternation of a consonant with zero sound: [l'esn'its] - stairs.
The assimilation of spellings corresponding to the morphological principle cannot be effective without strong speech skills of students: the choice of words, the formation of their forms, the construction of phrases, sentences. So, in the word stand ("what is substituted under something, on which they put") the root -stav-, the prefix is pronounced as [sweat], but the letter retains the same kind of morpheme that is observed in a strong position [pydyskát '] . But each time it is not necessary to perform such a complex check, since schoolchildren memorize morphemes, especially prefixes: there are not many of them. Mixed prefixes - pre- and pre-, but they are not studied in elementary grades; there is a prefix pa- (stepson, pasture, flood), but it is always, as a rule, under stress, and besides, it is unproductive.
It should not be forgotten that the memorization of a word, its spelling often precedes verification and proof.
In the word form along the street [paulits] the ending sounds like a vowel [ы], but in another word of the same grammatical class (noun of the 1st cl.) voda in the same dative case, the ending is under stress - on water [pv'adeʹ] . A morpheme, in this case an ending, retains its uniform spelling regardless of positional alternations.
Spell checking is often hampered by historical alternations of sounds.
kov, which, unlike positional alternations, are reflected in the letter: run - run, drag - drag, growth - grow, end - finish. Sometimes, during alternations, the root takes on an unrecognizable appearance: hearing - hearing, burning - burning - burning. Historical alternations are not studied in elementary grades, the authors of textbooks try to avoid words with them. But it is impossible to completely get away from them, since these are commonly used words, they are often found both in read texts and in the speech of children. The teacher, willy-nilly, has to explain to the children that baking and baking are forms of one word, running and running are related words.
Since ancient times, the morphological principle in spelling has been considered the main, leading one, because it ensures the leading role of semantics in language teaching. But in recent decades, a new, phonemic principle claims to be the leading principle of orthography.
Phonemic principle
In modern phonology, it is generally accepted that if two or more sounds alternate positionally, then in the language system they are an identity. This is a phoneme - a linguistic unit, represented by a number of positionally alternating sounds. So, the phoneme [o] can be represented by the following sounds, regularly reproduced in the speech of native speakers of the Russian language:
strong position - stressed [house];
weak position, unstressed [lady];
weak position, reduced [málako], [oblak].
The phonemic principle of spelling (more precisely, graphics) says: the same letter denotes a phoneme (not a sound!) in strong and weak positions. Russian graphics are phonemic: a letter denotes a phoneme in its strong version and in a weak position also in the same morpheme, of course. The phoneme is the discriminator. The letter, fixing the phoneme, provides a unified understanding of the meaning of the morpheme (for example, the root) regardless of the variants of its sound.
The phonemic principle explains basically the same orthograms as the morphological principle, but from a different point of view, and this allows a deeper understanding of the nature of orthography. He more specifically explains why, when checking an unstressed vowel, one should focus on the stressed variant, on the strong position of the phoneme.
The phonemic principle allows you to combine many disparate rules: checking unstressed vowels, voiced and voiceless consonants, unpronounceable consonants; contributes to the understanding of consistency in spelling; introduces teachers and students to a new linguistic doctrine - phonology.
Morphological and phonemic principles do not contradict each other, but deepen each other. Checking vowels and consonants in a weak position through a strong one - from phonemic; reliance on the morphemic composition of the word, on parts of speech and their forms - from the morphological (morphematic) principle. Some modern programs and textbooks of the Russian language (for example, the school of V.V. Repkin) provide elementary information on phonology, and in those schools where V.V. Repkin's textbook is used, the interaction of the two considered principles and practical methods is already being implemented.
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