The historical fate of England after the accession of William the Conqueror was intertwined for a long time with the fate of France. William continued to be the ruler of Normandy, a region in northern France, and his great-grandson Henry II Plantagenet, King of England (1153-1189), owned almost half of the French lands (albeit on the terms of vassal possession: the French king was considered his overlord). Henry implemented several important reforms. Among them, reforming the judiciary by involving “worthy people” from among the subjects in addition to the judge to make court decisions; it was from here that the jury trial subsequently developed.
After Henry, the English throne was inherited by his eldest son, Richard I the Lionheart (1189-1199), who became famous for his participation in the Crusades. His younger brother John the Landless (1199-1216), who became king after the death of Richard, had to defend English possessions in France from the claims of the French king Philip Augustus. In this struggle, the English monarch was defeated (Battle of Bouvine, 1214), and England lost almost all French regions, including Normandy, from which everything had once begun. In 1215, King John the Landless signed a guarantee of rights providing for the rule of law, the Magna Carta, sometimes referred to as the first constitution in history. And under the son of John Landless Henry III (1216-1272), the world's first parliament arose in England. King Edward I (1272-1307) used the growing power of his state to conquer Wales, and after a hard struggle, he was annexed to England.
The northern regions of Britain were little affected by the Norman conquest. In the IX-XI centuries. here a separate state was formed - Scotland, where the formation of the Scottish ethnic community was going on. This community developed on the basis of ancient tribes - the Angles, Saxons and Jutes, who settled in the southern regions of Scotland. The composition of the Welsh people formed at that time included mainly the Celtic tribes of the Britons. The mountains here protected the Celts from the hostile Anglo-Saxons, and later the Normans. The conquerors settled mainly in the south and valleys of central Wales, while the north of the peninsula remained in the possession of the indigenous population.
The British also tried to conquer Scotland, but as a result of the national liberation war, the Scots managed to defend their independence for several centuries.
Centralization of the country in the XII-XIII centuries. contributed to the further development of the economy and the growth of cities. Also, centralization was accompanied by population consolidation: by merging the ancient Anglo-Saxon population with the Normans who came from France, a new, English ethnic community was thus formed. If earlier the common people in the mass spoke Anglo-Saxon, and the royal nobility - in French, now there was a transition from bilingualism to a new single language that developed on the basis of the London dialect of the Anglo-Saxon language under the very strong influence of French.
The feudal system was gradually destroyed by commodity-money relations penetrating the English countryside. The development of the woolen industry, which needed raw materials, had a significant impact on this process. In turn, sheep breeding began to develop rapidly in the country's agriculture. The seizure of communal lands by feudal lords for the establishment of sheep farms on them, the intensification of the process of differentiation in the countryside sharply aggravated the class struggle and caused a number of anti-feudal uprisings. In the first half of the 15th century, the majority of English peasants had already freed themselves from the bonds of serfdom, their duties began to be limited to cash payments.
Taking advantage of the dynastic crisis in France, Edward III (1327-1377) laid claim to the throne there (he was the grandson of the late French king on his mother's side). Strengthened England wanted to return its former possessions on the continent, and in 1337 the so-called Hundred Years War began, which lasted until 1453. The first period of the war passed with an overwhelming advantage of the British. In 1340 they sank the French fleet, in 1346 they utterly defeated the French army at the battle of Crecy, and in 1356 at the battle of Poitiers, where the French king himself was captured.
England took possession of a significant part of the French lands, and hostilities entered a protracted stage and were interrupted by lengthy truces. It was at this time in England - in response to the introduction of a new tax to cover military expenses - that a powerful peasant uprising (1381) led by Wat Tyler broke out. The authorities suppressed it with great difficulty. King Henry V inflicted a heavy defeat on the French at Agincourt in 1415. The defeated French monarch agreed to cede the rule of France to the English king, recognize him as his heir and marry his daughter to him. The threat of losing national independence raised the French people to resist the invaders. The legendary Joan of Arc appeared among the French military leaders, and a turning point came in the seemingly endless war. By 1453, the British were expelled from almost all French territory, except for the city of Calais. For England, exhausted by the war, with the weak-willed monarch Henry VI at the head a dark time has come.
In 1455, the War of the Scarlet and White Roses began - two rival dynasties of Lancaster and York. In this struggle, both dynasties perished, many of the old feudal nobility, and power went to the new king - Henry VII (1485-1509), the ancestor of the Tudor dynasty. A relative of the Lancasters, he married a girl from the York family and thus, as it were, reconciled both dynasties, symbolically combining both scarlet and white roses in his coat of arms.
Henry VII laid the foundations of absolutism - the unlimited power of the monarch. During the reign of Henry VIII (1491-1547) the church was reformed: the king broke with the Roman Catholic Church and proclaimed himself the head of the Anglican (Protestant) church. Protestantism was declared the official religion in England under the reign of Edward VI (1537–1553). In 1536 the Act of Union of England and Wales was signed. In the 16th century the process of primitive accumulation of capital unfolded, the basis of which was the dispossession of the peasantry (fencing). The place of the old nobility is gradually occupied by the new nobility - the gentry, associated with trade and in their interests close to the emerging bourgeoisie. Landlords and gentry increasingly began to seize the lands of their peasants, turning them into sheep farms. Enclosures were a prerequisite for the development of capitalism in England: they were a form of primitive accumulation of capital.
The last of the Tudor line was Elizabeth I (1533-1603). Without her own heirs, in 1603 she handed over the throne to the King of Scotland, James I Stuart, the son of Mary Stuart, who became the first king of England and Scotland.
James I was not particularly popular with the English, who were skeptical of him because of his Scottish heritage. Anglicanism remained the state religion, but the new king immediately showed himself to be the patron of Catholic groups within the country and the persecutor of local Puritans (consistent Calvinist Protestants). Tens of thousands of English Puritans were forced to move to the North American colonies, the future USA.
At the same time, James I began rapprochement with Catholic Spain and France, thereby breaking the tradition that had developed under the Tudors. Also, the new king came into conflict with the parliament, which turned into a real opposition to the powerful claims of the monarch, who imposed his will, regardless of the real state of affairs. Under the son of Jacob, Charles I (1625-1649), the confrontation between the monarch and his opponents only escalated. In 1629 the king dissolved Parliament and ruled England alone for 11 years. All manifestations of discontent were brutally suppressed. However, an attempt by force, contrary to the rights of Scotland, to introduce Anglican worship there instead of traditional Presbyterianism caused an armed uprising in that country. Defeats in battles with the Scots forced Charles to convene Parliament. As a result, the struggle between the king and representative power resulted in a civil war, in which the "roundheads" (supporters of parliament), with their leader Oliver Cromwell, defeated the royalists. The civil war ended with the execution in 1649 of King Charles I.
In 1653-1658. Oliver Cromwell ruled the country as Lord Protector. He led campaigns of conquest in Scotland and Ireland, and by 1652 completely conquered them, while Ireland was brutally robbed and lost a third of its population. Similarly ended the wars against Holland and Spain, which further strengthened the superiority of England on the sea routes.
The order established by Cromwell collapsed with the death of the dictator in 1658. The opposing forces of society managed to agree among themselves, and in 1660 the son of the executed king, who had previously lived in exile, arrived in London and was proclaimed King Charles II (1660-1685 .). The monarchy was restored. His accession was accompanied by repressions against the "regicides", even Cromwell's body was dug out of the grave and hung. Meanwhile, the political confrontation between the supporters of the king (the Tories) and his opponents (the Whigs) escalated again in the country, in which the monarch gained the upper hand through brute force.
Thus, at the end of the 17th century. political parties took shape - the Tories and the Whigs (in the middle of the 19th century they were transformed into the conservative and liberal parties, respectively). At sea there were wars with Holland. To all the trials was added the plague of 1665, which claimed many lives, and a year later, almost all of London perished in a terrible fire.
In 1688, as a result of the "bloodless", as it is also called the Slavic Revolution, the Stuarts were deposed, and William of Orange became the English king. The power of the king was limited, and the rights and privileges of the new ruling class - the bourgeoisie - were strengthened. And if Scotland recognizes the completed coup, then in Ireland the confrontation between Catholics and Protestants has intensified, and repressions from the British have also intensified. William III of Orange resolves internal and external conflicts skillfully and diplomatically. William carried out changes that were of great importance for the future of England: they contributed to the birth of political parties and the flourishing of the press. In 1694 forty merchants set up the Bank of England.
Anna Stewart, second daughter of James II, succeeds William III on the throne. Her reign was marked mainly by the final union of England and Scotland: in 1707 the United Kingdom of Great Britain was born.
The bourgeois revolution consolidated the victory of capitalism in England and created favorable conditions for its economic development. It became an important stage in the completion of the process of formation of the English nation.
The revolution led to the rapid development of agriculture, capitalist relations quickly penetrated into the countryside. The agrarian revolution, in particular the ever-increasing process of enclosures, led to the mass dispossession of peasants, and by the end of the 18th century. the peasantry virtually disappeared as a class. The capitalist economy could not absorb the entire mass of the former peasants, therefore a large surplus of labor power appeared, which is so necessary for the developing industry.
The bourgeois revolution brought England to the arena of struggle for colonial, commercial and maritime dominance. To achieve these goals, England, like many European states, in the XVII-XVIII centuries. waged numerous trade wars. Dutch power was the main obstacle. But it was broken in three bloody Anglo-Dutch wars in the second half of the 17th century.
Trade wars between England and France began at the end of the 17th century, and continued with increasing scope into the 18th century. right up to the French Revolution of 1789, to then flare up again with renewed vigor.
The colonial interests of England and France clashed all over the world - in the West Indies, where the British owned Jamaica, Barbados and a number of other islands, and the French owned St. Domingo, Martinique and Guadeloupe; in North America, where the eastern coast of the Atlantic Ocean was in English hands as far as the Allegheny Mountains, and Canada and Louisiana were colonies of France; in India, where the British strongholds were Madras, Bombay and Calcutta, and the French had such bases as Pondicherry and Chandernagor; in the Levant, where the Anglo-French rivalry for influence in the Ottoman Empire developed; finally, both the British and the French took the most active part in the slave trade, trying to monopolize this profitable business in their hands.
England in the trade wars with France had a number of advantages. The main thing was that in England the bourgeois revolution had already taken place, while France was only moving towards it. Also in the War of the Spanish Succession (1701-1713) England did not allow the unification of the Spanish and French colonies under the actual supremacy of France. Then England took possession of Gibraltar and some territories in North America.
Participation in the Seven Years' War (1756-1763) was an important stage in the creation of the colonial empire of England, as it emerged from the war as a more powerful power. The most important result for England was the acquisition of new territories. So the British troops captured Canada, France lost several islands in the West Indies. With the French predominance in India was over, France retained only five acquired cities and could not claim dominance over India.
In 1763, a peace was signed at Versailles between England, France and Spain, which secured Canada and predominance in India for England. Spain ceded Florida and Menorca to England. England became the ruler of India. The use of India's natural resources hastened the industrial revolution in England and made it easier for the English bourgeoisie to transform their country into the "industrial workshop" of the world.
But in North America the British colonial policy suffered a complete collapse. During the War of the North American Colonies, a strong coalition of France, Holland and Spain opposed British domination. In the end, the British were forced to recognize the independence of the United States, but they kept Canada and even expanded their colonial possessions in India. France regained Senegal in Africa, Spain - Menorca and Florida, but these minor losses did not deprive England of the position of a leading maritime, commercial and colonial power.
The immediate cause of the English colonization of the Australian continent was the loss of 13 North American colonies by England. The British ruling circles wanted to compensate for their losses in North America by capturing new territories. It also mattered that the English government was no longer able to send exiles from England there, and English prisons were overcrowded. In search of a way out, the British government turned its attention to the “Southern Land” (1768-1771) recently discovered by J. Cook for the second time. Parliament passed legislation establishing a convict settlement in Australia. The first transport of exiles was sent in May 1787 and arrived in Australia in January 1788. The first convict settlement, Sydney, was founded. In 1793, the first group of free settlers from England arrived in Australia. The population grew slowly and mainly due to the exiles.
The ruthless extermination of the indigenous population was accompanied by the colonization of Australia. The remnants of the indigenous population of continental Australia were pushed into the interior barren areas.
The ruling circles of England had more than enough reason to promote the colonization of Australia and other migrant colonies in every possible way. These territories solved several problems at once: firstly, they were an excellent market for English goods, secondly, they made it possible to get rid of the “surplus” population, and, thirdly, they made it possible to maintain a fairly high standard of living for the bulk of the population in the metropolis itself.
Rich in events of the 18th century. brought changes in the state and political relations. During the reign of the three Georges of the Hanoverian dynasty, England is increasingly inclined towards a parliamentary type of government, which will henceforth determine political life: compared to the House of Lords, the House of Commons plays a more active role, in particular when voting on issues related to taxes.
New weaving and printing machines appear at the end of the 18th century. The first steel bridge is under construction. Revolutionary was Watt's invention of the first steam engine; coal, rich deposits of which were available in England, becomes the main source of energy. Communication routes are also developing, while workers' quarters are being built around manufactories. In 1811 the population of England reaches 10 million people. By this time, the state of the British economy is quite satisfactory, but in the social sphere the situation is bleak: wages for workers are low, and the constant threat of unemployment does not contribute to improving living conditions.
In 1837, a young eighteen-year-old Queen Victoria takes the throne; she is destined to rule the country for sixty-four years. Victoria strengthens the monarchy and strengthens the role of Parliament. The beginning of her reign is associated with the success of the free trade movement. The trade union movement is born. Minister Disraeli in 1867 votes in Parliament on the "Act of Reform", which grants suffrage to the middle classes and highly paid workers. In 1868, several democratic reforms were carried out. Prime Minister Gladstone is transforming the legal system, the education system, the army. Social injustice is gradually mitigated. Women's work in the mining industry is prohibited, the working day for women is limited to 10 hours. More humane laws are being passed for workers. The Victorian era is marked by prosperity such as England has never known before. The country becomes the first world power.
With regard to economic development, the following should be noted. In the 1830s the factory system of production was established. Heavy industry, especially metallurgy, is growing rapidly. In 1825, the world's first railway (for the transport of coal) was opened between Stockten and Darmegton. In the middle of the XIX century. Great Britain retained its leading position in the world economy, becoming the most powerful industrial country in the world, its "workshop". In the 1830s-50s. the first mass movement of the proletariat, Chartism, unfolded. In 1868, the British Congress of Trade Unions was created.
During this period, the dominance of the bourgeoisie was established, whose interests began to be expressed by the liberal party, formed on the basis of the Whig party. Tory - a conservative party, represented the interests of large landowners, closely associated with financial magnates, was in crisis. In turn, the growing labor movement created in 1900 its own workers' party - the Labor Party, which, however, from the very beginning fell under the influence of the reformist leaders of the trade unions.
The intensive export of capital in the colony gave large profits, but at the same time hindered the industrial development of the country. Great Britain began to increasingly acquire the features of a state - a rentier and concede technical superiority in industry to the new industrial powers - the USA and Germany.
Conditionally UK history is divided into 2 stages: before 1707 and after. Stage 1 is characterized by the fact that all 4 kingdoms had their own line of history. From 43 AD and for 4 centuries, these lands were ruled by the Romans. In the 11th century, the lands passed to the Normans, and at that time feudalism appeared here. At the beginning of the 17th century, they were already united by one monarch, he was James I.
And in 1707, an agreement was signed, as a result of which the Kingdom of Great Britain appeared, uniting England and Scotland. During this period, the heyday of the power of the kingdom falls. It becomes a strong maritime power, culture, art and science develop. Ireland joined the United Kingdom in 1800. Of course story this country is more like a fairy tale and we will return to this topic more than once ...
The capital of Great Britain
London is a unique city. He not only the capital of Great Britain, but also the Kingdom of England, and it is also the largest English city, where all the most important economic, political and historical sites are concentrated. By the way, it has been serving as the capital for more than 200 years, since the time of Roman Britain.
UK population
Every 10 years the UK conducts a population census. The last one was 4 years ago. Based on it, UK population has over 63 million people. The most densely populated part of the territory is in England. More than 80% of the UK population prefers to live in cities.
The ethnic composition here is very diverse, which is not typical for European states. The largest ethnic group is the English, followed by the Scots and the Welsh, with a slightly smaller number among the Welsh. Relationships among ethnic groups throughout history are quite complex. This is due not only to different customs, but also to UK geography different throughout.
State of Great Britain
unitary State of Great Britain is a parliamentary monarchy. This means that the head of state is Queen Elizabeth II. All branches of power are in her hands, she is also the supreme commander in chief. It can dissolve parliament and appoint ministers. The UK government has legislative power and consists of 2 chambers: the House of Commons and the House of Lords.
UK politics
Active external UK politics lies in its cooperation with other countries and its participation in international programs. Great Britain is a member of NATO, OSCE, Council of Europe and European Union.
UK language
English is official UK language. Due to the numerous colonies that this state held around the world, this language gained immense popularity. Each kingdom has its own dialects. At school, each student is required to learn an additional second language, usually either German or French.
HISTORY OF THE GREAT BRITAIN FROM ANCIENT TIMES TO THE MIDDLE AGES
The special geographical position of the UK has always distinguished it from other European countries.
Great Britain has not always been an island. She became it only after the end of the last ice age, when the ice melted and flooded the lowlands that were on the site of today's English Channel and the North Sea.
Of course, the Ice Age was not one long continuous winter. Ice either came to the islands or retreated to the north, enabling the first person to settle in new places. The earliest evidence of human presence in the British Isles - flint tools - date back to approximately 250,000 BC. However, the noble undertakings of these people were interrupted by another cold snap, and did not resume until about 50,000 BC, when the ice receded and a new generation of people arrived on the islands, the ancestors of the modern inhabitants of Great Britain.
By 5000 B.C. Britain finally turned into an island inhabited by small tribes of hunters and fishermen.
Around 3000 BC the first wave of settlers arrived on the island, who grew grain, kept livestock and knew how to make pottery. Perhaps they came from Spain or even North Africa.
Following them around 2400 BC. other people arrived who spoke an Indo-European language and knew how to make bronze tools.
celts
Around 700 BC Celts began to arrive on the islands, who were tall, blue-eyed people with blond or red hair. Perhaps they moved from central Europe or even from the south of Russia. The Celts knew how to process iron and make better weapons from it, which convinced the earlier inhabitants of the island to move west to Wales, Scotland and Ireland. To build on their success, groups of Celts continued to move to the island in search of permanent residence for the next seven centuries.
The Celts lived as separate tribes ruled by a warrior class. Of these warriors, the most powerful were the priests, the druids, who could not read and write, and therefore memorized all the necessary knowledge of history, medicine, etc.
ROMANS
Julius Caesar made an unofficial visit to the British Isles in 55 BC, but the Romans took over Britain only a century later, in 43 AD. Under the Romans, Britain began to export food, hunting dogs and slaves to the continent. They also brought writing to the island. While the Celtic peasants remained illiterate, the educated city dwellers could easily communicate in Latin and Greek.
The Romans never took over Scotland, although they tried to do so for a good hundred years. They eventually built a wall along the northern border with the unconquered lands, which subsequently defined the border between England and Scotland. The wall was named after the Emperor Hadrian, during whose reign it was erected.
With the collapse of the great Roman Empire came the end of Roman control over the British. In 409, the last Roman soldier left the island, leaving the "Romanized" Celts to be torn to pieces by the Scots, Irish and Saxons, who periodically make raids from Germany.
ANGLO-SAXONS
The wealth of Britain by the fifth century, accumulated during the years of peace and tranquility, did not give rest to the hungry Germanic tribes. At first they raided the island, and after 430 they returned to Germany less and less, gradually settling in British lands. Illiterate and warlike people were representatives of three Germanic tribes - Angles, Saxons and Jutes. The Angles captured the northern and eastern territories of modern England, the Saxons - the southern territories, and the Jutes - the lands around Kent. However, the Jutes soon completely merged with the Angles and Saxons and ceased to be a separate tribe.
The British Celts were reluctant to cede land to England, but under pressure from the better armed Anglo-Saxons they retreated into the mountains to the west, which the Saxons called "Wales" (land of strangers). Some Celts went to Scotland, while others became slaves of the Saxons.
The Anglo-Saxons created several kingdoms, the names of some of which are still in the names of counties and districts, for example, Essex, Sussex, Wessex. A hundred years later, the king of one of the kingdoms proclaimed himself the ruler of England. King Offa was rich and powerful enough to dig a huge ditch along the entire length of the border with Wales. However, he did not control the lands of all of England, and with his death his power came to an end.
The Anglo-Saxons developed a good system of government, in which the king had a council, then called Witan, which consisted of warriors and church officials and made decisions on difficult issues. The king could ignore the advice, but it was dangerous. The Saxons also divided the territory of England into districts and changed the way the land was plowed. Now the inhabitants plowed long narrow strips of land with a heavier plow and used a three-field system of farming, which, incidentally, survived into the eighteenth century.
CHRISTIANITY
It is not known how Christianity was brought to Great Britain, but it is certain that it happened before the beginning of the 4th century. AD In 597, Pope Gregory the Great sent the monk Augustine to officially bring Christianity to Great Britain. He went to Canterbury and became the first Archbishop of Canterbury in 601. By the way, he converted only a few families of noble and wealthy people to Christianity, and Celtic priests brought Christianity to the people, who went from village to village and taught the new faith. The two churches were very different, but the Celtic Church had to back down when Rome took control of the lands of Britain. Also, the kings of the Saxons preferred the Roman church for economic reasons: villages and cities grew around the monasteries, trade and relations with continental Europe developed. Anglo-Saxon England became famous in Europe for the export of wool, cheese, hunting dogs, utensils and metal products. She imported wine, fish, peppers and ornaments.
VIKINGS
By the end of the eighth century, new hungry tribes began to arrive, driven by the hunt for the wealth of Britain. They were Vikings, like the Angles, Saxons and Jutes, Germanic tribes, but they came from Norway and Denmark and spoke North Germanic. Like the Anglo-Saxons, at first they only glimpsed the islands. In the end, they got tired of sea travel, and they decided to settle on the islands, having previously destroyed as many villages, churches and monasteries as possible.
In 865, the Vikings captured the north and east of the island and, having converted to Christianity, settled down and did not disturb the locals. King Alfred fought them for more than ten years, and only after he won the decisive battle in 878 and captured London eight years later did he make peace with them. The Vikings controlled the north and east of England, and King Alfred controlled everything else.
DISPUTE ABOUT THE THRONE
By 590, England was back to the peaceful state it had been in before the Viking invasion. Soon the Danish Vikings began to control the western part of England, and after the death of another Saxon king, the Danish Vikings began to control most of England. After the death of the Viking king and his son, Edward, one of the sons of the Saxon king, ascended the throne. Edward devoted more time to the church than to government. By the time of his death, almost every village had a church, and a huge number of monasteries had also been built. King Edward died without an heir, so there was no one to lead the country. The dispute for the throne flared up between the representative of the powerful Saxon family Harold Godwinson and the Norman Duke William. In addition, the Danish Vikings also had their eyes on the enticing English throne. In 1066, Harold was forced to fight off persistent Vikings in the north of Yorkshire. As soon as Harold defeated the Danes, news came that William, along with his army, had arrived in England. The tired soldiers of Harold could not defeat the fresh army of William, whose soldiers were better armed and trained. Harold was killed in battle, and William marched with the army to London, where he was crowned on Christmas Day in 1066.
AND THIS TIME IN... WALES.
By the beginning of the eighth century, most of the Celts were pushed back into Wales. Due to the fact that Wales is a mountainous country, the Celts were forced to settle in cramped valleys. The rest of the land was barren and inaccessible, and it was only possible to graze domestic animals on it. That is why the number of Welsh remained small until the eighteenth century, when it finally exceeded half a million people.
People lived in clans, forming villages and small clusters of farms. The leaders of such clans, or tribes, proclaimed themselves kings, gradually capturing neighboring villages and expanding their possessions. In the 10th and 11th centuries, there were six kingdoms in Wales. Kings mostly died not by their own death, and the life of ordinary residents was no less dangerous when the king's people approached their villages. in 1039, Wales effectively ceased to be independent after the Welsh kings swore allegiance to Edward, King of England.
... IRELAND.
Ireland was not invaded by either the Anglo-Saxons or the Romans. Celtic culture flourished. As in Wales, people lived in clans on which they were completely dependent. The kings in these tribes were chosen according to a system in which the strongest should rule. Ireland had four kingdoms.
Christianity was brought to Ireland around 430 AD. It was brought by a British slave, Patrick, who later became the patron saint of Ireland. Christianity brought with it writing, which allowed history to be written and weakened the position of the Druids, who relied on memory rather than the written word. But the Vikings came, and the relatively peaceful period in the life of Ireland ended. The Vikings took everything they could, paying special attention to the valuables in the monasteries. The Viking raids forced the Irish kings to unite. In 859, Ireland elected its first king, but this did not lead to the actual unification of Ireland.
Brief history of Great Britain
Great Britain is a country with an ancient and rich history. The earliest evidence of human presence in the British Isles comes from 250000 BC However, due to the onset of the ice age, this civilization did not develop. In the 1st millennium BC. The territory of modern Britain was inhabited by the Celts. They lived in separate tribes and were engaged in agriculture, cattle breeding, weaving and even trade.
The ancient Greek traveler Pytheas, who lived in the 4th century BC, called these lands Brettania, and the Celts - Prettanoi. After the conquest of the island by Rome in the 1st century BC, the locals began to be called in the Latin manner - the Britons. Actually, the history of Great Britain is being conducted from this period, since with the advent of the Romans, the first cities and writing appeared. For a long time, the Romans tried to capture Scotland, but they could not. In the end, they built a wall, fencing off the conquered lands.
In the 5th century AD the Anglo-Saxon era began. In honor of this North Germanic tribe, the country began to be called England. It is believed that the Christianization of this nation occurred twice. For the first time during the reign of the Romans, and the second time around the 6th century, when Christian missionaries led by Augustine arrived on the island. AT 865 The Vikings took over the island and gradually took control of the whole of England. This period includes the formation of the English language, which included many borrowed words from French and German.
AT 1066 The Anglo-Saxon dynasty was replaced by the Norman one. Duke William not only conquered England, but also united small kingdoms into one single state. During his reign, the growth of cities (Bristol, York, Gloucester, Cambridge, etc.) was outlined, as well as crafts and trade were rapidly developing. AT 1388 The Hundred Years' War with France began, followed by a war for the throne. As a result, the Tudor dynasty won. The country reached its peak during the reign of Elizabeth I (Queen Bess). It significantly expanded its territories, developed its navy, and acquired extensive colonies on other continents.
At the beginning of the 17th century, thanks to the Scottish king James VI (Jacob I), Scotland and England finally united. However, the United Kingdom Act was signed only in 1707 year. Then London was chosen as the capital of the state. The accession of Ireland refers to 1801 year. In the middle of the 17th century there was a fierce struggle between the ruling Stuart dynasty and Parliament. As a result, the rights of the monarchy were significantly curtailed, and a republic reigned in England under the rule of O. Cromwell. During the 18th century, Britain lost a number of colonies in North America, but significantly strengthened its position in India.
The role of England in the defeat of the Napoleonic army is great. After that, it strengthened its position as a leading European power. The XIX century was held under the slogan of peace and the expansion of the British colonies. Queen Victoria had a particularly favorable influence on the development of the country. (1837-1901). The economic crisis swept the country during the First World War, which immediately took advantage of the Irish Liberation Movement. AT 1921 Ireland declared itself an independent state. The struggle for independence from the United Kingdom continued throughout the 20th century, and national problems periodically erupted in Scotland and Northern Ireland. Today the UK is a member of the EU and one of the largest countries in Europe.
When it was invaded by the troops of Julius Caesar, it was inhabited by Celtic tribes who called themselves the Britons. As a result of the invasion, the entire southern part of the island became part of the Roman Empire. The entire area that is now present-day England and Wales was called Roman Britain. Further, the history of England is already connected with the Germanic tribes. In the 5th century AD, it collapsed, and then the Britons turned to the barbarian Germans in order to protect them from the invasions of the Celtic tribes from the north - the Scots and Picts.
The Germanic tribes that arrived consisted of three groups: Saxons, Angles and Jutes. The Germans quickly mastered the territory of the Britons and gradually began to push them into the territory of Wales and Cornwall. On the lands occupied by Germanic aliens, separate kingdoms gradually formed. Subsequently, these kingdoms formed a union of seven kingdoms, which was called the "Anglo-Saxon Heptarchy". One of these seven Anglo-Saxon kings gained control over much of England from time to time. This king was called "Britwalda", which in translation is close in meaning to the title "Ruler of Britain".
This went on for quite a long time, so the history of England cannot accurately determine the date when the final unification of the state took place. Some historians believe that the unification came at a time when the Danish Vikings during their invasion captured the eastern part of England, which forced all the English kingdoms to join forces for protection. King Egbert of Wessex, who died in 839, is often referred to as the first king of all England. However, the history of England says that the title "King of England" did not arise until two generations later - during the period when Alfred the Great ruled the islands (871-899).
Some historians conduct their calculations, paying attention to the wars of England. For example, the rulers of the state are counted from the Norman conquest in 1066. This date is usually used in the numbering of English monarchs as a zero point. For example, Edward I, who was crowned in the 13th century, was not actually the first king to bear that name, but he was the first Edward, counting from 1066. In this year, the Duke of Normandy, William the Conqueror, captured England and became king, thereby founding the Anglo-Norman dynasty. However, William the Conqueror is not the founder of England and he did not unite the country, he only captured the already existing England, introducing Franco-Norman rule in it.
Then a dynasty came to power, called the Plantagenets (1154-1485). At this time, the history of England is significant for the longest Hundred Years War with France (1337-1453). From 1485 to 1603 the Tudor dynasty ruled in England. It was the era of centralized power and the strengthening of English absolutism, the period of the Reformation. The Tudor dynasty ended with a reign that established the Church of England. In 1603, the Stuart dynasty came to power in England, which was a dynasty of Scottish and English kings. I succeeded Elizabeth I on the state throne. This period of reign was marked by a civil war that arose as a result of a revolutionary crisis led by
Despite the fact that later the restoration of the Stuart dynasty took place, Hanover came to power in 1714. During their reign, the British army won on June 18, 1815 at the Battle of Waterloo over the troops of Napoleon. From 1837 to 1901, the reign passed to Queen Victoria. This period is considered to be the pinnacle of the heyday of Britain. Since 1917, the ruling dynasty in the kingdom has been the Windsor dynasty.
