Like the ancient Romans. A Brief History of the Roman Empire

As is usually the case, it all started with stones

The inhabitants of the Paleolithic and Neolithic eras, with the end of the last ice age, left behind a traditional set of rock paintings inherent in the culture of the Stone Age. They did their best in the Val Camonica valley (Lombardy): 8,000 years ago, the Kamun tribe carved more than 140,000 petroglyphs on stone. Along with typical images of hunting and gathering scenes, the kamuns also left cosmological symbols, sketches of ritual scenes and scenes of bestiality. After 4000 years, in the Bronze Age, tribes began to arrive on the peninsula from everywhere, leaving behind not only rock art and stone buildings (the best preserved nuraghe on the island of Sardinia). Ligures (Liguria), Veneti (Venice), Latins (Lazio), Sardis (Sardinia), Umbras (Umbria) and others laid the foundations for the future regions of Italy.

Temples and tombs: the hot days of Etruria and Magna Graecia

By the 7th century BC e. dominated by two cultures. Greek trading posts and colonies in the south formed Magna Graecia. In the north, the enigmatic Etruscans, who lived between the rivers Arno and Tiber, set the tone; they controlled trade and tribes throughout the territory, as far as the Alps.

Both cultures were dominated by powerful city-states. In Magna Graecia, these are Taras (now Taranto), located on the mainland, and Syracuse, on the island of Sicily. With the proceeds from trade, both cities erected majestic temples, some of which have adorned Italy for two and a half thousand years. The cities of Etruria (the so-called land of the Etruscans), such as Tarquinius (now the city of Tarquinia in Lazio), had their own kings, their own ruling elite and were relatively self-sufficient. They traded (and sometimes fought) among themselves and with other states. Little remains of the Etruscan cities. Excavations suggest that the Etruscans held lavish funeral rites: the frescoes found depict such activities as dances, feasts and games during burial ceremonies. The arrangement of Etruscan tombs and the tradition of priority inheritance through the female line indicate that the Etruscans probably had gender equality. Alas, for both the Greeks and the Etruscans, the prosperous times did not last long. Wars with northern tribes and mainland Greeks weakened the Etruscan states, and Greater Greece was destroyed by internal strife. By the 4th century BC. e. both cultures gave way to the rising star of Italy - Rome.

Republican Rome: the era of prosperity ... for some

According to Titus Livy, the twin brothers Romulus and Remus were born from Mars, thrown into the Tiber and suckled by a she-wolf. In 753 B.C. e. Romulus founded Rome, but first dealt with his brother. An interesting story, and perhaps only partially fictional: it is possible that the dynasty of the Etruscan kings of Ancient Rome is descended from a certain Romulus.

In 509 B.C. e. this dynasty suddenly ceased to exist; on the advice of the ancient senate, power was transferred to the hands of two elected consuls from the Latins - this is how the Roman Republic arose. Rome, wedged in relative obscurity between the fiefdoms of the Etruscans and the Latins, was rapidly gaining strength. However, by the beginning of the 4th century BC. e. he was already conquering his opponents with might and main - the remnants of independent tribes in the territory of Central and Northern Italy: he smashed and taxed the Etruscans (Tuscany), the Volscians (south of Lazio) and the Samnites (Southern Apennines). Magna Graecia surrendered next. Its fall was accelerated by the annexation of Sicily to Rome during the 1st Punic War. After the victory of Rome over the Celts in the Po Valley (c. 200 BC), virtually all of Italy was under the rule of the Romans. After some time, the Romans established their dominance in Macedonia, Corinth, regions of Asia Minor, Spain and Africa. The conquered lands helped feed the new Roman aristocracy (formed from among the patricians - the titled nobility), as well as the plebeians (commoners), the richest of whom owned slaves, large country estates and were no strangers to hedonism. The impoverished Italian peasants, who could not compete with the import of cheap foreign grain, abandoned their lands and rushed to Rome, where they settled in insulae (insulae - apartment buildings).

Roman matchmaking

One event that took place during the early history of Rome is of particular interest to people of art. In the VIII century BC. e. The Romans kidnapped the women of the Sabines, invited to the city for the festivities in honor of Neptune. Apparently, there were few women of childbearing age in Rome. According to Titus Livy, the captive Sabine women resigned themselves to their fate, being subdued by the beautiful courtship of male Romans.

Life in the Roman Empire

The aristocracy more and more plunged into the abyss of moral decay, and among the poor people grew dissatisfied with the behavior of the nobility. Many politicians in different periods of Roman history tried to suppress popular unrest - but all was in vain. This continued until, in 83 B.C. e. military leader Lucius Cornelius Sulla, declaring himself a dictator, did not destroy any resistance of the people to the oligarchy. The people were avenged, to some extent, by Gaius Julius Caesar, a reforming consul who at first shared power with the triumvirs: Gnaeus Pompey and Marcus Licinius Crassus. Ultimately, after the death of Crassus and the victory over Gnaeus Pompey at Pharsalus in 48 BC. e., Caesar became the sole ruler. Gaius Julius Caesar is often called a "dictator for life", but this is a misconception: he carried out long-awaited reforms in Rome, strengthened the economy and reined in the aristocracy. With his "new broom" Caesar, however, made enemies for himself and was killed by Brutus, Cassius and other conspirators on the Ides of March 44 BC. e. As several claimants strove to rule Rome, civil war broke out. The struggle for power ended in 31 BC. BC, when Caesar's great-nephew (and his adopted son) Octavian defeated Mark Antony, who, as you know, committed suicide along with the Egyptian queen Cleopatra. Octavian received the title Augustus, which was awarded to him by the now obedient senate. Augustus became a good emperor. The Julio-Claudian dynasty founded by him gave its branches. The last Roman imperial dynasty withered away only five centuries later.

At the beginning of the II century, the Roman Empire reached its peak. Its territories, stretching from the north of Britain, covered the entire Mediterranean and stretched east to Mesopotamia (modern Iraq). Outlying provinces became the basis of Rome's prosperity, a source of tax revenues, precious metals, cultural property, slaves and food. Over time, they looked less and less like oppressed dominions (only the fate of the slaves did not change). The provinces were allowed to retain their cultural identity, but at the same time they were forced to adopt the mechanisms of the functioning of the Roman state.

Tuscans - descendants of the Turks

Recent DNA studies have confirmed the assumption made in the 5th century by the Greek scientist Herodotus that the Etruscan civilization came to Italy from across the sea, from Turkey. Scientists have established this connection by examining the DNA of modern Tuscans living in cities once founded by the Etruscans.

The Good, the Bad, the Killers: The Five Roman Emperors

Caligula (reigned 37-41).

If you believe the biography of Caligula as presented by Suetonius (perhaps the historian was biased), the first six months of his reign, the emperor was downright wildly popular (he lowered taxes, etc.), but then he still ruined his reputation, turning into a cruel a tyrant who killed his relatives, slept with half-sisters, and at dinner, as a form of entertainment, watched people being tortured and killed. Caligula was in power for less than four years: he was killed when he was only 28 years old.

Nero (reigned 54-68).

The fifth Roman emperor ascended the throne at the age of 17. After five years of relatively merciful rule, he had his mother killed; he also killed his first wife and possibly a pregnant mistress. Nero showed interest in religious sects, liked to play the part, amusing the audience, and, contrary to legend, did not compose poetry when Rome burned (in fact, he helped rebuild the city). After losing power in a coup, he committed suicide. In the years of chaos that followed his death, four different emperors ruled.

Vespasian (reigned 69-79).

Coming from the middle classes (his father was a tax collector), Vespasian received the title of emperor due to his military merit. Having received power, he stabilized the situation on the borders of the empire, replenished the state treasury, pacified Judea and the German tribe of the Batavians and built the Colosseum (since then called the Flavian Amphitheater - in honor of the dynasty founded by Vespasian).

Diocletian (reigned 284-305).

By the time the former soldier Diocletian became emperor, Rome had already lost its former power. From all sides, the empire was attacked by barbarian tribes, but Diocletian still managed to strengthen the state for several years: he divided the empire into Eastern and Western, which were ruled by emperors in Milan and Nicomedia (now the city of Izmit). Diocletian is also remembered for his cruelty towards Christians (who were burned, beheaded and even simmered on his orders) and for being the first of the emperors to voluntarily "abdicate".

All good…

After Diocletian, Christians did not have to wait long for deliverance from persecution. In 325, Constantine Flavius Valerius, son of Emperor Constantius Chlorus, abandoned the polytheism traditional for Rome and declared Christianity the state religion. He also united the two halves of the empire (Eastern and Western) and moved the capital from Rome to Byzantium on the banks of the Bosphorus; in 330 this city was renamed Constantinople. Be that as it may, the former division into eastern and western parts was soon restored, and for the next century the Western Roman Empire withered, tormented from the north by the onset of barbarians and from within by social strife, a swollen bureaucracy and a shortage of resources. Competing factions continued to struggle for power, and civil war became commonplace.

The drain of talent and capital from Rome (usually to the north, which contributed to the formation of a gulf between the northern and southern regions, which persists in Italy to this day) led to the fact that the great city fell into disrepair. The army now consisted of foreign mercenaries, including barbarians. In 476, the German commander Odoacer overthrew the last Roman emperor, Romulus Augustulus, and declared himself king of Italy; after that, the Western Roman Empire effectively ceased to exist. Justinian, ruler of the Eastern Roman Empire, briefly recaptured the peninsula in 536, but the Germanic tribes, led by the Lombards, soon regained power.

Honoring Caesar

Modern Romans are loyal to Caesar. Every year on March 15, they lay wreaths at the foot of his statue near Via dei Fori Imperiali (Imperial Forum Street) and bring flowers to the place where his body was burned (now it is a pile of stones) in the Roman Forum.

What do we owe the Romans?

Perhaps the most important thing that the Romans left us as a legacy, "besides plumbing and sewage, medicine, education, wine, social organization, irrigation systems, roads, drinking water systems and health care" (as Reg said in Terry Jones' film "The Life of Brian according to Monty Python"), is Catholicism. By declaring Christianity the state religion, Constantine thereby protected the Latin language from extinction and preserved Rome's role as the center of world culture.

Punic Wars

The Punic Wars of the Republican era were fought against Carthage, a North African city that controlled trade in the Mediterranean. The name "Punic" comes from the word Poeni - the Punians, by which the Romans denoted the Carthaginians - the Phoenicians.

1st Punic War (264-241 BC)

Rome conquers its first overseas territory, Sicily, and becomes a maritime power.

2nd Punic War (218-201 BC)

Having lost superiority at sea, Carthage sends the commander Hannibal through Spain and the Alps to the gates of Rome. As a result of his defeat, control of the western Mediterranean passes from Carthage to Rome.

3rd Punic War (149-146 BC)

Carthage is destroyed.

Important dates

X-XV centuries BC e. - domination of the Etruscans and Magna Graecia on the Italian peninsula.
753 BC e. - Romulus (according to the legend) founded Rome and became its first king.
510-27 BC e. - the power of republican Rome in Italy and the Mediterranean.
44 BC e. - The death of the "lifelong dictator" Gaius Julius Caesar.
27 BC e. - Augustus (born Gaius Julius Caesar Octavian) becomes the first emperor of Rome.
Beginning of the 2nd century - The Roman Empire reaches the peak of its power, its territory - the maximum size.
325 - Emperor Constantine declares Christianity the official state religion.
476 - Western Roman Empire ceases to exist; German commander Odoacer proclaims himself king of Italy.
568 - the invasion of the Lombards into the territory of Italy. Some residents began to seek salvation on the islands of the Venetian lagoon, where they founded Venice.

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The Great Roman Empire is rightfully considered one of the greatest civilizations of the Ancient World. Before its heyday and for a long time after the collapse, the Western world did not know a more powerful state than Ancient Rome. In a short period of time, this power was able to conquer vast territories, and its culture continues to influence humanity to this day.

History of Ancient Rome

The history of one of the most influential states of Antiquity began with small settlements located on the hills along the banks of the Tiber. In 753 B.C. e. these settlements merged into a city called Rome. It was founded on seven hills, in a swampy area, in the very epicenter of the constantly conflicting peoples - Latins, Etruscans and ancient Greeks. From this date began the chronology in ancient Rome.

According to ancient legend, the founders of Rome were two brothers - Romulus and Remus, who were the children of the god Mars and the vestal Remy Sylvia. Once at the center of the conspiracy, they were on the verge of death. From certain death, the brothers were saved by a she-wolf, who fed them with her milk. Growing up, they founded a beautiful city, which was named after one of the brothers.

Rice. 1. Romulus and Rem.

Over time, perfectly trained warriors emerged from ordinary farmers who managed to conquer not only all of Italy, but also many neighboring countries. The management system, language, achievements of the culture and art of Rome spread far beyond its borders. The decline of the Roman Empire came in 476 BC.

Periodization of the history of ancient Rome

The formation and development of the Eternal City is usually divided into three important periods:

Royal . The most ancient period of Rome, when the local population consisted mostly of fugitive criminals. With the development of crafts and the formation of the political system, Rome began to develop rapidly. During this period, the power in the city belonged to the kings, the first of which was Romulus, and the last - Lucius Tarquinius. Rulers received power not by inheritance, but were appointed by the Senate. When manipulation and bribery began to be used to obtain the coveted throne, the Senate decided to change the political structure in Rome and proclaimed a republic.

Slavery was widespread in ancient Greek society. The slaves who served the masters in the house enjoyed the greatest privileges. The slaves had the hardest time, whose activities were once associated with exhausting work in the fields and the development of mineral deposits.

Republican . During this period, all power belonged to the Senate. The boundaries of Ancient Rome began to expand due to the conquest and annexation of the lands of Italy, Sardinia, Sicily, Corsica, Macedonia, the Mediterranean. The Republic was headed by representatives of the nobility, who were elected at the people's assembly.
The Roman Empire . Power still belonged to the Senate, but a single ruler appeared on the political arena - the Emperor. For that period of time, Ancient Rome increased its territories so much that it became more and more difficult to manage empires. Over time, there was a split of the state into the Western Roman Empire and the Eastern, which was later renamed Byzantium.

Urban planning and architecture

The construction of cities in ancient Rome was approached with great responsibility. Each major settlement was built in such a way that two roads perpendicular to each other intersected in its center. At their intersection there was a central square, a market and all the most important buildings.

Culture of Ancient Rome

The deeds worthy of a true Roman were philosophy, politics, agriculture, war, civil law. This was the basis of the early culture of Ancient Rome. Particular importance was given to the development of sciences and various kinds of research.

Ancient Roman art, in particular painting and sculpture, had much in common with the art of Ancient Greece. A single ancient culture gave rise to many excellent writers, poets, playwrights.

The Romans were very fond of entertainment, among which gladiatorial fights, chariot races and hunting wild animals were in the greatest demand. Roman spectacles have become an alternative to the incredibly popular Olympic Games in ancient Greece.

Rice. 3. Gladiator fights.

What have we learned?

When studying the topic “Ancient Rome”, we briefly learned the most important thing about Ancient Rome: the history of its emergence, the features of the formation of the state, the main stages of development. We got acquainted with ancient Roman art, culture, architecture.

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Tribes from North Asia began to settle in Italy between 2000 and 1000 BC. One of the tribes who spoke a language called Latin settled along the banks of the Tiber River, over time this settlement became the city of Rome.

The Romans had several kings, but they caused discontent among the people. The people decided to establish a republic, at the head of which was a leader, elected for a certain time. If the leader did not suit the Romans, after a set period they chose another.

Rome was a republic for about 500 years, during which the Roman army conquered many new lands. However, in 27 BC, after the Roman conquest of Egypt and the death of Antony and Cleopatra , the dictator again became the head of the state. It was Augustus, the first Roman emperor. By the beginning of his reign, the population of the Roman Empire was 60 million people.

Initially, the Roman army consisted of ordinary citizens, but at the height of the empire's power, well-trained professionals served as soldiers. The army was divided into legions, each of which had about 6,000 foot soldiers, or legionnaires. The legion consisted of ten cohorts, a cohort of six centuries of 100 men each. Each legion had its own cavalry of 700 horsemen.

Foot Roman soldiers were called legionnaires. The legionary wore an iron helmet and armor over a woolen tunic and leather skirt. He had to carry a sword, a dagger, a shield, a spear and all his supplies.

The army often traveled more than 30 km a day. Nothing could resist him. If there was a deep river in front of the army, the soldiers built a floating bridge by tying wooden rafts together.

Britain was one of the Roman colonies. Queen Boudica and her Iceni tribe rebelled against Roman rule and recaptured many British cities captured by the Romans, but were eventually defeated.

Rule in Rome

When Rome became a republic, its people were convinced that no one should have too much power. Therefore, the Romans elected officials, called masters, who carried out the government. The most powerful masters were the two consuls, elected for a term of one year; they were to rule in harmony with each other. After the completion of this term, most of the masters became members of the senate.

Julius Caesar was a brilliant military leader and absolute ruler of Rome. He subjugated many lands, ruled over the lands of Southern and Northern Gaul (now it is France). Returning in 46 BC. in Rome as a triumphant, he began to rule as a dictator (a ruler with absolute power). However, some senators envied Caesar and wanted to return the Senate to its former power. In 44 BC several senators stabbed Julius Caesar right in the Senate in Rome.

After Caesar's death, a struggle for power unfolded between two prominent Romans. One was the consul Mark Antony, beloved of Cleopatra, queen of Egypt. The second was Caesar's great-nephew Octavian. In 31 BC Octavian declared war on Antony and Cleopatra and defeated them at the Battle of Actium. In 27, Octavian became the first Roman emperor and took the name Augustus.

Emperors ruled Rome for over 400 years. They were not kings, but they had absolute power. The imperial "crown" was a laurel crown, a symbol of military victory.

The first emperor, Augustus, reigned from 27 BC. to 14 AD He returned peace to the empire, but before his death he appointed a successor to himself. Since that time, the Romans could no longer choose their leaders.

During its heyday, the Roman Empire included France, Spain, Germany, and most of the former Greek Empire. Julius Caesar conquered Gaul, the main part of Spain and lands in Eastern Europe and North Africa. Under the Roman emperors, new territorial acquisitions followed: Britain, the western part of North Africa and lands in the Middle East.

urban life

Roman house arrangement

Conquering new lands and expanding the empire, the ancient Romans instilled their way of life in the conquered peoples. Many signs of their former presence can be seen today.

The Romans borrowed a lot from the ancient Greeks, but their civilization was significantly different. They were excellent engineers and builders and preferred to feel at home everywhere.

The first houses of the Romans were built of brick or stone, but they also used materials such as concrete. Later buildings were built of concrete and faced with brick or stone.

The streets in the cities were straight and intersected at right angles. Many cities were built for Roman citizens who moved to conquered lands. The settlers brought with them the seeds of plants in order to grow familiar crops. Today, some fruits and vegetables of Italian origin are considered native in the lands where they were once brought by the Romans.

Peasants from the countryside delivered their products to the cities and sold them in the markets. The main market place, as well as the place where the authorities were located, was the forum. The Romans minted coins, and people bought the things they needed with money, rather than exchanging natural goods.

Ancient Roman city in France. The local way of life and the architecture of the houses were Roman.

The main information about Roman houses and cities is given to us by the ruins of two ancient cities, Pompeii and Herculaneum, destroyed in 79 AD. eruption of Mount Vesuvius. Pompeii was buried under red-hot ash, and Herculaneum was overwhelmed by mud flows of volcanic origin. Thousands of people died. In both cities, archaeologists have unearthed entire streets with houses and shops.

A few hours before the eruption of Vesuvius, people in Herculaneum were busy with everyday worries.

Wealthy Romans lived in large villas with several rooms. In the center of the villa was arranged "atrium", the main hall, over which there was no roof, so that enough light could get inside. When it rained, the water from the hole in the roof collected in a pool called the impluvium. All rooms in the villa were located around the atrium.

The rich, who had city houses, bathed in luxury. Their inhabitants ate their food lying on couches in front of a low table, where the servants served food. Women and guests of honor could sit in armchairs, but everyone else was content with chairs. The houses had bedrooms, living rooms and libraries. The inhabitants could walk in the courtyard and pray at the altar dedicated to the patron god of the hearth.

The dwellings of the poor were completely different. Some people lived in apartments above shops, others in houses divided into separate rooms or apartments.

Roman builders

Roads and aqueducts. Roman baths

The Romans were great builders and engineers. They built 85,000 km of roads throughout the empire and many aqueducts to supply the cities with water. Some aqueducts were huge stone structures built over valleys.

Roman roads were planned by surveyors accompanying the army on a campaign. The roads were made as straight as possible, and they followed the shortest path. When they decided to build a road, the soldiers, along with the slaves, dug a wide trench. Then the roadbed was built, laying layer after layer of stones, sand and concrete in the trench.

Construction of an aqueduct and a road in ancient Rome.

Roman baths

Wealthy Romans had baths and central heating in their homes. The heating system was located under the floor of the house, from where hot air entered the premises through channels in the walls.

Most cities had public baths where anyone could come. In addition to hygienic needs, baths served as a place of meetings and conversations. Bathers successively moved from one room to another. In the main room, the "caldaria", a slave rubbed oil into the visitor's body. The bather first basked in a bath of warm water, and then entered the next room, the “sudatorium” (from the Latin word “sudor”, meaning “sweat”), where there was a pool of very hot water, and steam filled the air. The bather washed away oil and dirt from himself with the help of a device called "strigil". The bather then entered the "tepidarium" where he cooled off slightly before entering the "frigidarium" and plunging into a pool of cold water.

In between washing steps, people sat down to chat with friends. Many were engaged in strength physical exercises in the gym, "spheristery".

The ruins of some baths have been preserved, for example, in the "Great Baths" in the English resort town of Wat, water still flows through the canals laid by the Romans.

Men went to the bathhouse after work. Women could use the baths only at certain times.

Water for baths and other needs came through aqueducts. The word "aqueduct" comes from the Latin words "water" and "pull". An aqueduct is a conduit for supplying cities with clean river or lake water, usually carried out at ground level or in a pipe underground. The aqueducts thrown through the valleys were arched. On the territory of the former Roman Empire, about 200 aqueducts have survived to this day.

This is what the Pont du Gard Roman aqueduct in Nimes (France) looks like today, built almost 2000 years ago. The Romans looked for a river or lake that lay above the city, and then built an inclined aqueduct so that the water itself could flow to the city.

sports

Chariot racing. gladiators. Emperor

In a year, the Romans had about 120 national holidays. During these days, the Romans visited theaters, went to chariot races or to gladiator fights.

Chariot races and gladiator fights were held in the so-called city "circuses" in large oval arenas.

Chariot racing was a very dangerous sport. The charioteers drove their teams around the arena at top speed. The rules allowed ramming other chariots and colliding with each other, so it was not uncommon for chariots to overturn. Although the charioteers wore protective clothing, they often died. However, the crowd loved the chariot races. This sight attracted thousands of people who screamed with delight as the chariots raced around.

The circus arena was oval with a stone barrier in the middle. The audience sat or stood in the stands. 4 chariots competed at the same time, and the public bet on which chariot would come first. The chariots had to run around the arena 7 times.

After death, the emperors of ancient Rome were worshiped as gods. The Christians refused it. Around 250 AD thousands of Christians were thrown into prison or given to the lions in the circus ring.

In fear for their lives, Christians met secretly in the catacombs (underground graves) to pray together.

In 313 AD Emperor Constantine legalized Christianity.

gladiators

Gladiators were slaves or criminals who were trained to fight to the death in front of a crowd. They were armed with shields and swords or nets and tridents.

The emperor himself often attended gladiator fights. If the gladiator was wounded and asked for mercy, it depended on the emperor whether he would live or die. If a fighter fought selflessly, he was left alive. Otherwise, the emperor gave the winner a sign to finish off the vanquished.

Emperors

Some Roman emperors were good rulers, like the first emperor Augustus. The long years of his reign brought peace to the people. Other emperors were distinguished by cruelty. Tiberius strengthened the Roman Empire, but turned into a hated tyrant. Under his successor, Caligula, fear still reigned. Probably Caligula was crazy; one day he appointed his horse as consul and built a palace for him!

One of the most cruel emperors was Nero. In 64 AD part of Rome was destroyed by fire. Nero blamed Christians for the arson and executed many. It is possible that he himself was the arsonist.

It is said that Nero, who was distinguished by vanity and considered himself a great musician, played music on the lyre, watching a huge fire.

Notes:

Alexander the Great

The Great Campaign of Alexander. Science in the Hellenistic Age

Alexander the Great was born in Macedonia, a mountainous region near the northern borders of Greece. His father Philip became king of Macedon in 359 BC. and united all of Greece. When in 336 BC. he died, Alexander became the new king. He was then 20 years old.

Alexander's teacher was the Greek writer and philosopher Aristotle, who instilled in the young man a love of art and poetry. But Alexander was still a brave and brilliant warrior, and he wanted to create a mighty empire.

Alexander the Great was a fearless leader and sought to conquer new lands. Going on his great campaign, he had an army in which there were 30,000 foot soldiers and 5,000 horsemen.

Alexander took his first battle with Persia, an old enemy of Greece. In 334 BC he went on a military campaign to Asia, where he defeated the army of the Persian king Darius III. After that, Alexander decided to subjugate the entire Persian Empire to the Greeks.

First, he stormed the Phoenician city of Tyre, and then conquered Egypt. Continuing his conquests, he took possession of the three palaces of the Persian kings in Babylon, Susa and Persepolis. It took Alexander the Great 3 years to conquer the eastern part of the Persian Empire, after which in 326 BC. he went to North India.

By this time, Alexander's army had already been on the campaign for 11 years. He wanted to conquer all of India, but the army was tired and wanted to return home. Alexander agreed, but did not have time to return to Greece. At the age of only 32, he died in Babylon of a fever in 323 BC.

The conquest campaign of Alexander the Great passed through the Middle East, Egypt, Asia and ended in Northern India.

For Alexander, India was on the edge of the known world, and he wanted to continue the campaign, but the army began to grumble. His favorite horse named Bucephalus (or Bukefal), who carried Alexander all this time, fell in a battle with the Indian king Por in 326 BC.

When Alexander conquered any country, he founded a Greek colony in it in order to prevent possible rebellions. These colonies, among which were 16 cities with the name of Alexandria, were ruled by his soldiers. However, Alexander died without leaving behind plans for managing such a huge empire. As a result, the empire was divided into three parts - Macedonia, Persia and Egypt, and at the head of each of them was a Greek commander. The period between the death of Alexander and the fall of the Greek Empire to the Romans in 30 B.C. known as the Hellenistic era.

The Hellenistic era is known for its scientific achievements, and the city of Alexandria in Egypt was the main center of knowledge. Many poets and scientists came to Alexandria. There, the mathematicians Pythagoras and Euclid developed their laws of geometry, while others studied medicine and the movement of stars.

In the II century AD. in Alexandria (Egypt) lived Claudius Ptolemy, who studied astronomy.

He mistakenly believed that the Earth is the center of the universe, and the Sun and other planets revolve around it.

Without a single ruler, Alexander's empire was gradually taken over by the Romans. Egypt lasted longer than the rest of the empire, but in 30 BC. the Roman emperor Augustus captured it too. Queen Cleopatra of Alexandria committed suicide along with her Roman lover Mark Antony.

The cultural heritage of ancient Greece, its philosophical thought and art in Europe were again turned to in the 15th century, during the Renaissance, or Renaissance, and since then it has continued to influence our culture.

The rock city of Petra in Jordan was inhabited by a people who called themselves the Nabataeans. The Nabataeans were heavily influenced by Hellenic architecture.

Ancient Rome(lat. Roma antiqua) - one of the leading civilizations of the Ancient World and antiquity, got its name from the main city (Roma - Rome), in turn named after the legendary founder - Romulus. The center of Rome developed within the swampy plain, bounded by the Capitol, the Palatine and the Quirinal. The culture of the Etruscans and the ancient Greeks had a certain influence on the formation of the ancient Roman civilization. Ancient Rome reached its peak of power in the 2nd century AD. e., when under his control was the area from modern Scotland in the north to Ethiopia in the south and from Persia in the east to Portugal in the west. Ancient Rome gave the modern world Roman law, some architectural forms and solutions (for example, an arch and a dome) and many other innovations (for example, wheeled water mills). Christianity, as a religion, was born on the territory of the Roman Empire. The official language of the ancient Roman state was Latin. Religion for most of the period of existence was polytheistic, the unofficial coat of arms of the empire was the Golden Eagle (aquila), after the adoption of Christianity, labarums (a banner established by Emperor Constantine for his troops) with a chrism (pectoral cross) appeared.

Story

The periodization of the history of Ancient Rome is based on the forms of government, which in turn reflected the socio-political situation: from royal rule at the beginning of history to an empire-dominance at its end.

Royal period (754/753 - 510/509 BC).

Republic (510/509 - 30/27 BC)

Early Roman Republic (509-265 BC)

Late Roman Republic (264-27 BC)

Sometimes the period of the Middle (classical) Republic 287-133 is also distinguished. BC e.)

Empire (30/27 BC - 476 AD)

Early Roman Empire. Principate (27/30 BC - 235 AD)

Crisis of the 3rd century (235-284)

Late Roman Empire. Dominate (284-476)

During the tsarist period, Rome was a small state that occupied only part of the territory of Latium - the region inhabited by the tribe of the Latins. During the period of the Early Republic, Rome significantly expanded its territory during numerous wars. After the Pyrrhic War, Rome began to reign supreme over the Apennine Peninsula, although the vertical system of control of subordinate territories had not yet developed at that time. After the conquest of Italy, Rome became a prominent player in the Mediterranean, which soon brought it into conflict with Carthage, a large state founded by the Phoenicians. In a series of three Punic Wars, the Carthaginian state was completely defeated, and the city itself was destroyed. At this time, Rome also began to expand to the East, subjugating Illyria, Greece, and then Asia Minor and Syria. In the 1st century BC e. Rome was rocked by a series of civil wars, in which the eventual winner, Octavian Augustus, formed the foundations of the principate system and founded the Julio-Claudian dynasty, which, however, did not last a century. The heyday of the Roman Empire fell on a relatively calm time of the 2nd century, but already the 3rd century was filled with a struggle for power and, as a result, political instability, and the foreign policy situation of the empire was complicated. The establishment of a system of dominance by Diocletian stabilized the situation for some time with the help of the concentration of power in the hands of the emperor and his bureaucratic apparatus. In the 4th century, the division of the empire into two parts was finalized, and Christianity became the state religion of the entire empire. In the 5th century, the Western Roman Empire became the object of active resettlement of Germanic tribes, which finally undermined the unity of the state. The overthrow of the last emperor of the Western Roman Empire, Romulus Augustus, by the German leader Odoacer on September 4, 476 is considered the traditional date for the fall of the Roman Empire.

A number of researchers (S. L. Utchenko worked in this direction in Soviet historiography) believe that Rome created its own original civilization based on a special system of values that developed in the Roman civil community in connection with the peculiarities of its historical development. These features included the establishment of a republican form of government as a result of the struggle of patricians and plebeians and the almost continuous wars of Rome, which turned it from a small Italian town into the capital of a huge power. Under the influence of these factors, the ideology and value system of Roman citizens took shape.

It was determined, first of all, by patriotism - the idea of the special God's chosen people of the Roman people and the very fate of the victories intended for them, of Rome as the highest value, of the duty of a citizen to serve him with all his might. To do this, a citizen had to have courage, stamina, honesty, loyalty, dignity, moderation in lifestyle, the ability to obey iron discipline in war, the approved law and the custom established by the ancestors in peacetime, to honor the patron gods of their families, rural communities and Rome itself. .

At the heart of the life of the ancient Romans lay the spirit of complete obedience. In the family, a person depended on the power of his father, in the country - on the state, in the community - on the gods. He was bound by conventions, so he did not develop in a creative direction. The Roman spirit was distinguished by rationality and earthiness. The Romans judged the actions of people by their practical significance. However, this also allowed the state to exist for many centuries without falling apart.

The characterization of Ancient Rome usually begins with the geographical conditions of the Apennine Peninsula. It is surrounded by four seas on three sides, so the state was formed as a semi-marine and semi-continental. The climate and natural resources are varied. The most favorable living conditions are in the south of the peninsula. The name "Italy" is associated precisely with these lands, it means "country of calves."

Latins and Etruscans

The history of Ancient Rome began with the founding of the city near the Tiber River. It is believed that it was founded at the intersection of trade routes in the 9th century BC by the Latins and Sabines. According to legend, it was founded by Romulus in 753 BC.

Latins appeared on the peninsula more than three thousand years ago. Researchers believe that they came from the Danube lands. Latins and Sabines at first lived separately, but over time they began to unite. As a result, they built a common fortress - Rome. The Etruscans also inhabited the Apennine Peninsula. They lived between the rivers Tiber and Arno. It was these tribes that had a significant impact on the culture of the emerging state.

Beginning of Rome

There is a legend according to which Romulus arranged a holiday. He invited the Sabines to join him. They came with their women and daughters. In the midst of the spectacle, Romulus gave a prearranged signal, and the women began to be kidnapped. The war began, but the women reconciled the warring men. They stood between them with children in their arms.

Such a history of ancient Rome testifies to the merger of the two peoples. It took some time. This tradition is associated with the ritual of kidnapping the bride, which was adopted by the Romans.

royal period

In all sources on the history of ancient Rome, the names of the first seven kings are clearly indicated. They are written in the same order:

Romulus - in the first years after reconciliation with the Sabines, he ruled together with Tatius. But the king of the Sabines was killed by the citizens of one of the colonies, then Romulus began to rule the two nations. He is credited with the creation of the Senate, the division of the inhabitants of Rome into plebeians and patricians.
Numa Pompilius - he was elected king by the Senate. Numa himself was a Sabin. He is credited with establishing the twelve-month calendar.
Tullus Gostilius - known as the most warlike king.
Ankh Marcius - the grandson of Num, did not conduct wars, but expanded the territory of the state. During his reign, relations with the Etruscans began.
Tarquinius the Ancient - originally from an Etruscan settlement, was distinguished by wealth and courteous disposition. Made a number of changes. During his reign, Etruscan culture penetrated deeply into Roman life.
Servius Tullius - seized power after the murder of Tarquinius by the sons of Ancus. The Senate supported him.
Tarquinius the Proud - an Etruscan by origin, came to power through the murder of Servius, who was his father-in-law. He ruled arbitrarily, disregarding the Senate. Was expelled from Rome.

After the flight of Tarquinius with his family to Etruria, two consuls were chosen in Rome - Brutus and Collatinus. Thus the republic was born.

Republic

After the establishment of the Republic, the history of Ancient Rome continued. At this time, patricians dominated the city. They are considered the descendants of the first inhabitants of Rome. They were wealthy landowners who had the right to sit in the Senate, enjoy all civil rights. They were opposed by the plebeians, who are considered the descendants of the defeated people. They did not have the right to carry weapons, create legal marriages. Everything was done so that they did not have their own tribal organization.

The struggle of the plebeians for equal rights, the abolition of debt bondage and other points began. The Senate did not want to negotiate with the dissatisfied. The plebeians decided to leave Rome, going to the Sacred Mountain. The patricians made concessions. People's tribunes were created, which had power and immunity. They were chosen from the plebeians. Gradually, their rights expanded, until in 287 BC the class was on a par with the patricians. When the hostility within the Roman Republic subsided, the conquest of neighboring territories began.

Republic Wars

After the creation of the republic, Rome began to seize the lands of neighboring tribes. Foreign policy strengthening was prevented by the Gauls, who at the end of the 4th century BC defeated the Roman army and burned the city. Soon they left Rome. The inhabitants had to start all over again, including the struggle with neighboring tribes.

This time, the Roman troops defeated their opponents. By the middle of the 3rd century BC, they managed to capture all of Italy, up to the borders with Gaul. The wars of Ancient Rome did not stop there.

The Republic began to expand in the Mediterranean. On her way there was one worthy opponent - Carthage. As a result of three wars, called Punic, Carthage was destroyed. The winners got Spain and made the Mediterranean Sea their inland water. Between the second and third Punic Wars, the republic survived the Macedonian War, destroying the enemy.

Fall of the Republic

While the Roman Republic was conducting successful military campaigns, the following events took place in Rome itself:

Activities of the Gracchi brothers. The eldest of the brothers, Tiberius, was elected tribune. He proposed a land reform to limit the holdings of wealthy landowners and divide the surplus among landless citizens. Although the law was adopted, Gracchus was killed. His brother Guy also became a tribune. His bills led to riots and he committed suicide.
Allied war. Italics who served in the Roman army demanded equal rights.
Sulla's dictatorship. Sulla came to power, who decided to rule until order was strengthened in the state. To stay in power, he paid and gave gifts to anyone who killed his enemy.
Rise of Spartacus. The number of slaves in the republic was huge. Their situation was terrible. After the death of Sulla, an uprising began, led by the fugitive gladiator slave Spartacus. He didn't have a clear plan of action. Roman troops managed to crush the uprising, and about six thousand captives were crucified on crosses along the Appian Way. Spartacus himself died in battle.

First Triumvirate. The strengthening of the power of Gnaeus Pompey, who returned from Spain, began. The Senate and Mark Crassus opposed him. At the same time, Gaius Julius Caesar was gaining popularity. But because of a conspiracy to change the republican order, the Senate denied Caesar a triumph. Dissatisfied with the state of affairs, Gnaeus Pompey, Gaius Caesar, Mark Crassus organized a political union. He controlled the political life of Rome for several years.
Civil War. Representatives of the triumvirate did not get along very well, and after the death of Pompey's wife, who was the daughter of Caesar, everything got worse. Crassus died on the campaign, and the triumvirate fell apart. Gaius Julius was in Gaul when Pompey enlisted the support of the Senate and became consul. Caesar returned to Rome as a private citizen. A struggle for power began, during which the victory went to Gaius Julius. He managed to be a dictator for several years, until his death from the conspirators of the Senate.

After the death of the dictator, the struggle for power continued. The fall of the republic was impossible to avoid.

Empire

Mark Antony and Octavian August fought for power. The first was fascinated by Cleopatra, which weakened him as a politician. And Octavian was the adopted son of the murdered Caesar. He became the first emperor. At first he was proclaimed the first person of the Senate (princeps), but due to the war of Ancient Rome with Thrace, Augustus was released from any restrictions. Later he was made a great pontiff. It is Octavian who is credited with creating the Roman professional army. Soldiers had to serve twenty to twenty-five years. They received a regular salary, lived in a military camp, could not start a family.

The names of other emperors of this period are known:

Tiberius Claudius Nero - the adopted son of Octavian, expanded the borders of the empire to Germany, reduced the number of spectacles, and began to collect taxes directly.
Caligula - strove for unlimited power, disrespected the Senate, planted his own cult. Power was held by the army and the plebs, whom he bribed with spectacles. The treasury was depleted. Caligula was killed by the conspirators.
Claudius the First - was the uncle of Caligula, was proclaimed emperor against his will. Over time, he executed the conspirators who killed his nephew. He built a new water pipe.
Nero - the board was distinguished by extreme cruelty. He is remembered for the fire he started in Rome. He did not deal with the affairs of the state, which led to its decline. Having committed suicide, he left no heir, ending the Julio-Claudian dynasty.

The following rulers belonged to the Flavian dynasty. Under Vespasian, the economy of Rome was streamlined, the Forum and the Colosseum were built. His sons Titus and Domitian pursued policies that reflected the interests of the nobility from the provinces. The Senate didn't like it.
Anthony became the third imperial dynasty. The time of their reign was relatively calm. The emperors were called Nerva, Trajan, Adrian, Antoninus, Mark. The last representative of the Commodus dynasty intensified the crisis tendencies and was killed by the conspirators.
The next Severan dynasty dealt with the Eastern question and the Pictish invasion of Roman Britain. The names of the rulers: Septimius, Caracalla, Geta, Heliogabal, Alexander. These are not all the great rulers of Ancient Rome.

Late Roman Empire

In one of the military campaigns, Alexander Sever died without leaving an heir. For fifty years there was a crisis in Rome. Military leaders who relied on their army proclaimed themselves emperors. Rome had to repel the invasions of the Germanic tribes. The situation improved after the proclamation of Diocletian as emperor. He had to face domestic and foreign policy problems. He decided to strengthen the power of the emperor by establishing a system of domination. He was no longer the first of the senators to become absolute monarch.

It is worth mentioning the reign of Constantine the First. It was he who proclaimed Christianity the state religion. He divided the reign of the empire among his three sons. In the 5th century, the invasion of the Visigoths, Ostrogoths, Vandals, Burgundians began in Italy. Later they were replaced by the Huns, led by Attila. In 455, the Vandals captured the city. It was a death blow to the empire.

The rise and fall of ancient Rome is associated with the name Romulus. That was the name of the first and last emperor. There was no state in 476. Although the eastern part of the empire still existed for ten centuries, until it was conquered by the Ottoman Turks.

Society

A feature of ancient Rome was the full power of the father as the head of the family over his wife, children, servants, slaves. The “domovladyka” could marry off his daughter, dissolve her marriage, dispose of the families of her sons. The father had the right to recognize or not recognize the child, to sell him into slavery. Sons became full citizens after the death of a parent. The daughters did not have their own names, they were called by their last names. That is, if several daughters were born in the family of Julius, they were all Julius, but under different serial numbers.

According to the law of ancient Rome, a wife could marry in one of the following forms:

Under the authority of her husband, she was accepted into her husband's family. There is evidence that once a year a woman could leave the house for three days. Upon his return, the husband should not have asked anything, he should have thought about what does not suit his wife.
Under the authority of her surname, a woman could leave her husband at any moment, claim the inheritance of her father. This form was rare.

When a child was born in the family, the father had to pick him up from the floor and give him a name. So he accepted him into the family. It was necessary to register a child only when he became an adult. Octavian Augustus amended this law to require children to be registered within thirty days of birth.

Achievements

The achievements of Ancient Rome are connected with politics, law, historiography, and agriculture. This is exactly what the citizens of Rome, especially the nobility, were doing. Of course, the influence of Ancient Greece on culture was great.

The achievements of Ancient Rome include numbering, the Julian calendar, knowledge of medicine. The most outstanding achievement was Roman law. It played an important role in the development of legal science. In the modern world, the private law of Rome is still used as a framework in the study of civil law branches.

Yes, there was an adoption procedure. A citizen of Rome could adopt a person, and he received all civil rights. There were cases when wealthy inhabitants of the provinces agreed with a Roman citizen about adoption for a fee. So they got all the rights in a legal way.

A non-standard approach to the history of Ancient Rome

This is a very interesting point. A completely different point of view regarding the chronology is presented in the film "Symbols of Ancient Rome". This is the twenty-fourth series of a historical project that was created based on the research of Fomenko-Nosovsky. This point of view also has the right to exist, although it destroys many established opinions.

Academician Fomenko claims that many chronological errors have been made in history. For example, Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius, Nero are considered different rulers. In fact, it is one person. Another example is related to the birth of Jesus Christ. According to Fomenko, it happened in 1054. And there are a lot of such mistakes. Historians do not want to understand them, so as not to rewrite all the events.

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