The answers to tasks 1–20 are a number, or a sequence of numbers, or a word (phrase). Write your answers in the fields to the right of the task number without spaces, commas or other additional characters.
1
Write down the missing word in the table.
Characteristics of methods of cognition
2
In the given series, find the concept that is generalizing for all the other concepts presented. Write down this word (phrase).
Reform; revolution; social dynamics; evolution; social regression.
3
Below is a list of terms. All of them, with the exception of two, relate to the concept of "social control".
1) remark, 2) sanction, 3) social norm, 4) political ideology, 5) condemnation, 6) material culture.
Find two terms that "fall out" of the general series, and write down the numbers under which they are indicated.
4
Choose the correct judgments about the activity and write down the numbers under which they are indicated.
1. Activities are related to meeting the needs of a person, a social group, society as a whole.
2. Creative activity is inherent in both man and animal.
3. As a result of labor activity, material and spiritual values are created.
4. The same type of activity can be called with different motives of people.
5. The structure of activity implies the existence of a goal and means to achieve it.
5
Establish a correspondence between the distinctive features and types of societies: for each position given in the first column, select the corresponding position from the second column.
6
Artyom and Igor Chaika wrote a book about corruption. On what grounds can the content of the book be classified as scientific knowledge? Write down the numbers under which they are indicated.
1. All conclusions are theoretically substantiated.
2. The book is difficult for independent study by a non-professional.
4. Evidence is given to confirm the truth of the hypotheses.
5. The book was printed by a major publishing house.
6. The entire circulation of the book was sold out within one month.
7
Choose the correct judgments about securities and write down the numbers under which they are indicated.
1. The action is a certificate of a cash deposit in a bank with the bank's obligation to return this deposit and interest on it after a specified period.
2. A security certifying ownership of a share in the capital of an enterprise and giving the right to receive part of the enterprise's profit is called a share.
3. Securities are registered and bearer.
4. The bill gives its owner the right to participate in the management of the company and receive dividends.
5. The bond gives the owner the right to demand its redemption on time.
8
Boris Mikhailovich owns a car and a land plot and periodically pays the appropriate taxes. Establish a correspondence between examples and elements of the tax structure: for each position given in the first column, select the corresponding position from the second column.
9
The owner of the company draws up a business plan for the development of his enterprise. Which of the following can he use as external sources of business financing? Write down the numbers under which they are indicated.
1. improvement of production technologies
2. issue and placement of shares of the enterprise
3. Increasing productivity
4. income from the sale of the company's products
5. attracting loans
6. tax deductions
10
11
Choose the correct judgments about social stratification and write down the numbers under which they are indicated
1. The concept of "social stratification" refers to any changes taking place in society.
2. Social stratification involves the division of society into social strata by combining different social positions with approximately the same social status.
3. Sociologists identify the following criteria for social stratification: income, power.
4. Social stratification involves the allocation of social strata depending on the personal qualities of a person.
5. The prestige of a profession as a criterion of social stratification is associated with social attractiveness, respect in society for certain professions, positions, occupations.
12
In the course of a sociological survey of 25-year-old and 50-year-old citizens of country Z, they were asked the question: "Who read books to you in childhood?" (Any number of answers). The results of the surveys (in % of the number of respondents) are shown in the diagram.
Find in the list of conclusions that can be drawn from the diagram, and write down the numbers under which they are indicated.
1. The proportion of those to whom parents read books in childhood is greater among 50-year-olds than among 25-year-olds.
2. Equal shares of the respondents in each group had books read by their grandmother/grandfather in their childhood.
3. Among 25-year-olds, those to whom other relatives read books in childhood are less than those to whom kindergarten teachers read books in childhood.
4. Among 50-year-olds, those to whom grandparents read books in childhood are more than those to whom kindergarten teachers read books.
5. The proportion of those who found it difficult to answer among 50-year-olds is less than among 25-year-olds.
13
Select the correct judgments about political (state) regimes and write down the numbers under which they are indicated.
1. The signs of a political regime include the order of distribution of power between various social forces and political organizations expressing their interests.
2. The type of political regime is determined by the state of freedoms and human rights in society, the state of relations with the bureaucracy (bureaucratic apparatus), the dominant type of legitimacy in society.
3. The features of a political regime include the mechanisms of power, the way government bodies function, the procedures for selecting ruling groups and political leaders.
4. The presence of a professional administrative apparatus (bureaucracy) distinguishes a totalitarian regime from a democratic one.
5. The regime of any type (kind) is characterized by the implementation of the principle of separation of powers.
14
Establish a correspondence between the powers and the subjects of state power of the Russian Federation exercising these powers: for each position given in the first column, select the corresponding position from the second column.
15
Citizen A. was elected governor of region Z. He pays great attention to the protection of the rights and freedoms of citizens, the development of civil society institutions. In communication, he is friendly, open to criticism. What characteristics relate to the type of political leadership in this situation? Write down the numbers under which they are indicated.
1. regional
2. nationwide
3. democratic
6. charismatic
16
Which of the following do you attribute to the constitutional duties of a citizen of the Russian Federation? Write down the numbers under which they are indicated.
1. choice of profession, type of activity
2. defense of the Fatherland
3. appeal to public authorities
4. participation in the elections of the President of the Russian Federation
5. conservation of nature and the environment
17
Choose the correct judgments about procedural law and write down the numbers under which they are indicated.
1. Branches of procedural law directly regulate social relations, they focus on establishing the rights and obligations of subjects.
2. The parties in civil proceedings are the plaintiff and the accused.
3. As a general rule, a claim is brought to the court at the place of residence of the defendant
4. Administrative jurisdiction may be exercised by judges, commissions for the affairs of minors and the protection of their rights, internal affairs bodies (police), tax authorities, customs authorities, military commissariats, etc.
5. Criminal proceedings are carried out on the basis of the adversarial nature of the parties to the prosecution and defense.
18
Establish a correspondence between legal forms and types of legal entities: for each position given in the first column, select the corresponding position from the second column.
19
Leonid, a medical university graduate, found a job as a doctor. To conclude an employment contract, he brought military registration documents and a work book. What other documents, according to the Labor Code of the Russian Federation, should Leonid present to the employer? Write down the numbers under which they are indicated.
1. certificate of registration of ownership of the dwelling
2. insurance certificate of state pension insurance
3. an extract from the financial and personal account
4. tax notice
5. passport or other identity document
6. diploma of higher education
Read the text below with a number of words missing. Choose from the proposed list of words that you want to insert in place of the gaps.
20
“Legal responsibility is a measure of state coercion for the committed __________ (A), associated with the perpetrator undergoing certain __________ (B) of a personal (organizational) or property nature. Legal liability is one of the means to ensure __________(B). It is associated with state coercion, which is understood as __________ (D) to oblige the subject against his will and desire to perform certain actions. In the presence of the fact of an offense __________ (D) (or body) obliges a person (or organization) to undergo certain adverse consequences. Along with legal responsibility, such types of state coercion as preventive measures __________ (E), protective measures are singled out.
Words (phrases) in the list are given in the nominative case. Each word (phrase) can only be used once.
Choose sequentially one word (phrase) after another, mentally filling in each gap. Please note that there are more words (phrases) in the list than you need to fill in the gaps.
List of terms:
1. deprivation
2. possibility state
3. illegal behavior
4. public opinion
5. offense
6. guilt
7. lawful conduct
8. public danger
9. authorized person
Part 2.
First write down the task number (28, 29, etc.), and then a detailed answer to it. Write your answers clearly and legibly.
Read the text and complete tasks 21-24.
“The ability of the state to be effective largely depends on the principles of organization of the institutions of legislative, executive and judicial power.
When forming the institutions of the state, these principles are combined in various volumes with the principle of separation of powers into legislative, executive and judicial. Depending on the procedure for isolating the majority of the people and whether the right of legal investment (the right to form, control and dissolve the government) belongs to either the parliament or the president, the majority principle gives rise to two institutional types of democracy - parliamentary and presidential. The legislative and executive branches of government can be organized on the principle of either a clear separation, or the absence of a strict separation of powers. The application of this principle of organizing the branches of government depends on the form of government.
The parliamentary form of the political system does not provide for a clear separation of powers. The popular majority is determined on the basis of a unified voting system - the election of deputies of parliament. The formation of the executive power is carried out indirectly: the head of government and cabinet members are elected by parliamentarians. Therefore, the separation of powers is indirectly carried out after the formation of the government. The leader who receives the support of the majority in parliament becomes the head of the executive branch. The government relies on the support of parliament, is controlled by it and is dismissed. Pluralism of interests and the rights of the minority is defended by the legally operating opposition. Great Britain provides a classic example of a parliamentary form of government. The leading role in shaping the domestic and foreign policy of the country is played by the prime minister, who has broad powers. He rules through parliament, which determines his influence.
The presidential form of political structure implies a strict separation of powers already at the election stage, provides for the legislative and executive branches of power to have their own independent electorate, therefore, in countries with a similar form of government, there is a dual voting system. The presidential republic is based on the direct election of the parliament and the head of the executive branch by the citizens through national elections. Then the president appoints members of the cabinet (government), directs its activities. He is responsible directly to the people. The dual voting system provides equal legitimacy to the executive and legislative branches of government.
The United States is a typical example of a presidential model of democracy.
The choice of a parliamentary or presidential form of government determines the structure of the institutions of power, the technology for the implementation of the will of power. Paradoxical as it may seem, the parliamentary model strengthens the executive power, while the presidential republic strengthens the power of the parliament. In the parliamentary model, the main functions of the parliament are to form the government, control it and dissolve it. Otherwise, the influence of the legislature is limited. The powers of the government are significant, including legislative initiatives, and the possibilities of its influence are due to the support of the parliamentary majority.
In the presidential form of government, the parliament has independent powers and rules along with the president. The presidential model does not require compromise or disagreement between the executive branch and the parliamentary majority. The parliamentary majority can play the role of opposition to the president and thus restrain him. The situation is different in parliamentary republics: since the government is efficient only if a coalition of the parliamentary majority is created, the importance of compromises between legislators and the government is significant in the parliamentary model.
In order not to identify the executive and legislative branches of power, restraining principles were created in Western countries in the form of a system of the rule of law, in which political institutions, groups, individuals act within the framework of law, respect and obey it.
Sometimes in the literature this regime is called the regime of legal democracy. However, it seems that the differences between regimes based on majoritarian and legal principles are rather arbitrary, since Western democracies in all their varieties are a creation of law.
(R. T. Mukhaev)
Show answer
- An indicator of effectiveness is indicated: the ability of the state to be effective largely depends on the principles of organization of the institutions of legislative, executive and judicial power.
- Two principles are named.
Modern Western democracies are based on two principles: the majority principle, according to which power belongs to the majority of the people, and the legal principle, which means the rule of law, equal responsibility of government and citizens before the law.
Elements of the answer can be given in other formulations that are close in meaning.
Name two criteria for the formation of two types of democracy. What underlies this formation? Explain the role of the principle of separation of powers in this process.
Show answer
- Criteria: "Depending on the procedure for separating the popular majority and whether the right of legal investiture (the right to form, control and dissolve the government) belongs to either the parliament or the president."
- Reason: the principle of separation of powers.
Elements of the answer can be given in other formulations that are close in meaning.
There is no answer to the second question in the text, the task is aimed at attracting knowledge.
Firstly, the principle of separation of powers is the basis for the formation of democracy, as it ensures democracy through parliamentary representatives, consideration of the opinions and interests of different social groups, and obstacles to the usurpation of power. Secondly, the principle of separation of powers delimits parliamentary and presidential democracies depending on the clarity of the separation of branches of power.
Formulate three features that distinguish the parliamentary form of political structure from the presidential one. Using knowledge of the constitutional structure of the Russian Federation, illustrate each difference.
Show answer
- Differences between the parliamentary form and the presidential form
- Each difference must be illustrated by the provisions of the Constitution of the Russian Federation
- c) The Parliament forms the Government (in accordance with Article 111 and Article 112 of the Constitution of the Russian Federation, the President of the Russian Federation appoints the Chairman of the Government of the Russian Federation with the consent of the State Duma, the President, at the proposal of the Chairman of the Government, approves federal ministers).
Other relevant examples may be given..
What is the meaning of legal democracy? Using the text and social science knowledge, name and illustrate with an example two restraining principles of the rule of law. Show the answer
1. The meaning of the concept, for example: corpus delicti - a set of signs prescribed by law that characterize the committed act as a specific type of crime.
2. One sentence containing information about the signs of a crime, for example: The signs of a crime include public danger, wrongfulness, guilt and punishability.
(Any other proposal can be drawn up, revealing, based on the knowledge of the course, the signs of legal liability).
3. One sentence, based on the knowledge of the course, revealing the basis that excludes the presence of a crime, for example: The absence of an objective side, that is, the connection between the act and the consequences of the act, excludes the presence of a crime.
(Any other proposal can be drawn up, revealing, based on the knowledge of the course, the features of administrative responsibility).
Show answer
The correct answer must contain the following elements:
1) trend (according to the text of the assignment)- humanization of education:
2) other trend with corresponding characteristic, let's say:
Internationalization of education (integration of national educational systems);
Informatization of education (development of distance learning, widespread use of information technologies and digital resources in education, focus on developing students' skills in searching and analyzing various information).
Other trends may be named (not according to the terms of the assignment), other characteristics are given
You are instructed to prepare a detailed answer on the topic "Moral standards in the system of social control." Make a plan according to which you will cover this topic. The plan must contain at least three points, of which two or more are detailed in sub-points.
Show answer
One of the options for the disclosure plan for this topic
1. Social norms and sanctions as elements of social control.
2. Types of social norms:
a) moral;
b) legal;
c) religious;
d) etiquette, etc.
3. Features of moral standards:
a) focused on values, patterns of behavior;
b) are manifested in customs and traditions;
c) are regulated by public opinion, human conscience;
d) are historical.
4. The structure of morality:
b) principles;
5. Morality and morality.
6. The relationship of morality and other social norms.
A different number and (or) other correct wording of points and sub-points of the plan are possible. They can be presented in nominal, interrogative or mixed forms.
By completing task 29, you can show your knowledge and skills on the content that is more attractive to you. For this purpose, choose only ONE of the statements below (29.1-29.5).
Choose one of the statements below, reveal its meaning in the form of a mini-essay, indicating, if necessary, different aspects of the problem posed by the author (the topic touched upon).
When presenting your thoughts on the problem raised (designated topic), when arguing your point of view, use the knowledge gained in the study of the social science course, the relevant concepts, as well as the facts of social life and your own life experience. (Give at least two examples from various sources as evidence.)
29.1. Philosophy“Art illuminates and at the same time sanctifies a person’s life ...” (D.S. Likhachev)
29.2. Economy“In business and sports, too many people are afraid of competition. As a result, people avoid striving for success if it requires hard work, training and self-sacrifice.” (K. Rockne)
29.3. Sociology, social psychology"Our social roles are determined by other people's expectations." (N. Smelser)
29.4. Political science"Totalitarianism is a form of government in which morality is within the competence of the authorities." (A.N. Kruglov)
29.5. Jurisprudence"Freedom consists in being dependent only on laws." (Voltaire)
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Scientific observation is a purposeful and organized perception of objects and phenomena of the surrounding world. The connection of observation with sensory cognition is obvious: any process of perception is associated with the processing and synthesis of those impressions that the cognizing subject receives from the outside world. These impressions in psychology are called sensations. They are a display of individual properties, aspects of objects or processes of the outside world. Sometimes observation can refer to the perception of experiences, feelings, mental states of the subject himself.
The activity of consciousness in the process of observation is not limited only to the fact that it synthesizes the results of various sensations into a single sensory image.
Its active role is manifested, first of all, in the fact that the observer, especially in science, not only fixes the facts, but consciously searches for them, guided by some idea, hypothesis or previous experience. Empiricists, in order to guarantee the purity and reliability of the data of experience, require the collection of data and facts without any prior hypothesis or guiding idea. It is not difficult, however, to understand the utopian nature of such a program. Even in everyday knowledge, observation is based on previous experience and knowledge of people.
In science, as a rule, observations have as their goal the verification of one or another hypothesis or theory, and therefore they essentially depend on this goal. The scientist does not simply register any facts, but consciously selects those of them that can either confirm or refute his ideas.
Observations in science are also characterized by the fact that their results require a certain interpretation, which is carried out with the help of some theory.
This circumstance plays an extremely important role in cases where not the object or process itself is directly observed, but the result of its interaction with other objects and phenomena. So, for example, we can judge the behavior of microparticles only indirectly, observing not the microphenomena themselves, but the results of their interaction with certain macroscopic devices and installations. But such conclusions require an appeal to a certain theory, with the help of which the interpretation of the obtained results of observation is carried out. The interpretation of observational data just makes it possible for a scientist to separate essential facts from non-essential ones, to notice what a non-specialist can ignore and even not detect at all. That is why in science it rarely happens that discoveries are made by non-specialists, if only because chance, as Louis Pasteur pointed out, can only teach something to a prepared mind.
All this shows that the process of observation in science has a number of specific features that are absent in ordinary, everyday observations. Although, in principle, both everyday and scientific observation represent the perception of objects and phenomena, but in science this perception is much better and more expediently organized, and most importantly, it is directed and controlled by a certain idea, while everyday observations are based mainly on practical experience and the knowledge acquired through this experience.
This difference between scientific and everyday observations is manifest in their very structure. Any observation presupposes the presence of some observable object and a subject that perceives it, which makes observations in specific conditions of place and time. In scientific observation, these three elements are supplemented by special observation tools (microscopes, telescopes, photo and television cameras, etc.), the purpose of which is to compensate for the natural limitations of the human senses, to increase the accuracy and objectivity of observation results. Finally, an important role is played here by conceptual means, i.e. the concepts and theories by which scientific observations are organized and, in particular, interpreted.
The use of special material and conceptual means gives the results of scientific observations, as well as the entire process of observation as a whole, such new features and features that are present only in an undeveloped form in ordinary, everyday observations.
Apparently, the most common feature that brings scientific observations closer to everyday ones is their objectivity, although the degree of this objectivity is far from the same.
For a better understanding of the specifics of scientific observation, let us consider in order those features in which it differs from ordinary observation, starting the discussion with such a sign as the objectivity of the results of observation.
3.1.1. Intersubjectivity and objectivity
In daily activities and in science, observations should lead to results that do not depend on the will, feelings and desires of the subject. In order to become the basis for subsequent theoretical and practical actions, these observations should inform us about the objective properties and relationships of really existing objects and phenomena. However, achieving such results is often associated with considerable difficulties.
First of all, observation based on perception is not a purely passive reflection of the world. Consciousness not only reflects the world, but also creates it. In the process of such an active development of the world, mistakes, delusions and even simple illusions of the senses are possible, which also cannot be ignored. It is well known to all that a stick dipped in water appears to be broken; parallel rails appear to converge in the distance.
The fallacy of this kind of sensory illusions is revealed by simple experience. The situation is much more difficult with those observational errors that occur as a result of biased inclinations or ideas, erroneous initial attitudes, and other subjective factors. These difficulties increase even more when one has to resort to indirect observation, i.e. draw conclusions about the properties or characteristics of directly imperceptible objects. Thus, the achievement of objectivity in the results of observation requires the correction and elimination of a number of shortcomings and errors associated with both the natural limitations of the human senses and the activity of consciousness in general.
The first necessary, although not sufficient, condition for obtaining objective observational data is the requirement that these data should not be of a personal, purely subjective nature, but could be obtained and recorded by other observers. In other words, the observation should give results that do not depend on the individual characteristics of a particular subject - they must be intersubjective. If the same data are obtained by many observers, then their reliability and correctness increase.
From this point of view, it is clear that the direct data of the sensory experience of an individual subject, the so-called sense date, are of little value in science precisely because individual sensations and perceptions of a person cannot be controlled and verified, and therefore cannot become a true basis for building a scientific knowledge that is objective in nature. Even the same results obtained by many observers do not in themselves guarantee their objectivity, because mistakes, delusions and illusions can be characteristic of different people. That is why intersubjectivity is not identical with objectivity. Objectively true knowledge, as is known, does not depend on the consciousness and will of either an individual or humanity as a whole. The final criterion of such objectivity is experience and practice, understood in a broad sense, namely, as the material, socio-historical activity of people.
In the scientific approach to research, intersubjectivity serves as an important stage on the way to achieving objectively true knowledge. But in this case, the observations themselves are carefully analyzed and corrected in the light of existing theoretical concepts.
Very often in science, to increase the objectivity of observation results (not to mention their accuracy), instruments and recording devices are used.
At first glance, it may seem that the replacement of the observer by instruments completely eliminates, if not errors, then at least subjectivism in the process of observation. However, the data recorded with the help of instruments, in itself, does not say anything. They require a certain evaluation and interpretation, which again is carried out by a person.
Therefore, the only way to achieve objectivity and accuracy of observations is to strengthen control over their results, which is achieved with the help of both material means of observation and conceptual ones.
3.1.2. Direct and indirect observations
The greatest difficulties in achieving objective results of observation occur when not the object or process itself is directly observed, but the effect of its interaction with other objects and phenomena. Such observations, called indirect or mediated, are playing an increasingly important role in modern science. Indeed, the objects and processes explored by modern atomic and nuclear physics, quantum chemistry and molecular biology are not directly observable either with the help of the senses or with the help of instruments. But they can become observable if we study the results of their interaction with other objects and processes.
However, in this case, we actually directly observe not the micro-objects and processes themselves, but only the results of their impact on other objects and phenomena, in particular those on which the operation of a particular instrument or measuring device is based. So, in a cloud chamber designed to study the properties of charged particles, we judge the properties of these particles indirectly by such visible manifestations as the formation of tracks, or traces, consisting of many liquid droplets. They arise as a result of the condensation of the supersaturated vapor contained in the chamber, just in those centers that serve as ions formed along the flight path of charged particles. In their form, such traces are very similar to the foggy trail left by a high-flying aircraft. They can be photographed and measured, and from these data appropriate conclusions can be drawn about the properties of the particles under study. In a similar way, the fluxes of cosmic rays, α-particles, and other radiations can be studied from the change in grains on photographic plates.
Thus, in all these examples, we are not dealing with direct, immediate observation, but with indirect.
The peculiarity of such an observation is that the phenomena under study are concluded here through the perception of the results of the interaction of unobserved objects with the observed ones. And such a conclusion is necessarily based on some hypothesis or theory that establishes a certain relationship between observable and unobservable objects. Indeed, in order to judge the properties of charged elementary particles by their traces in a cloud chamber or on a photographic plate, it is necessary to admit the existence of a regular connection between directly unobservable particles and the effects they cause in observed objects and processes. Such an assumption, like any hypothesis, needs to be verified and confirmed with the help of precisely recorded evidence. Directly observable objects, phenomena, and also facts serve as such evidence.
They inform that effects and changes in observable objects and processes are caused by some unobservable objects. We can explore the properties and behavior of such unobservable objects only by putting forward hypotheses and then critically testing them. In some cases, one has to build whole systems of hypotheses, i.e. essentially complete theories.
It should be especially emphasized that the relationship between observed and unobserved objects is not established at all by arbitrariness or agreement between researchers.
True, at first the scientist formulates it in the form of a conjecture or hypothesis, but the latter acquires scientific significance only after it has been confirmed by the relevant facts, i.e. results of directly observed objects interpreted in a certain way.
As a rule, science establishes not just a connection between observable and unobservable objects and their properties, but a certain functional relationship between the quantities that characterize these properties. It is well known, for example, that we judge the magnitude of atmospheric pressure at a certain point on the Earth by the height of a column of mercury in a barometer. This kind of measurement of quantities unobservable with the help of observables is based, of course, on a hypothesis that establishes a specific functional relationship between them.
So, in the case of atmospheric pressure, a direct proportional relationship is assumed between the pressure value and the height of the mercury column in the barometer. Most often, the relationship between observable and unobservable processes is more complex, but it must certainly be accurately characterized using one or another mathematical function.
Indirect observations play an ever-increasing role in modern science, especially in those branches of science that study phenomena occurring in remote corners of the universe (astronomy), as well as processes occurring at the subatomic and submolecular levels (atomic and nuclear physics, quantum chemistry, molecular biology, etc.). some others). In the latter case, observations, as a rule, are closely intertwined with experiment and necessarily require interpretation with the help of theory.
3.1.3. Interpretation of Observation Data
If we proceed from the literal meaning of the word "data", then there may be a false impression that the latter are given to the observer in a finished form. Such a representation to some extent corresponds to the ordinary understanding of the results of observation, but it is clearly not suitable for science. As a rule, in science, data is the result of a long, painstaking and difficult study.
Firstly, since the data are obtained by separate subjects, they must be cleared of all possible layers and subjective impressions. As already noted, science is primarily interested in objective facts that allow control and verification, while direct sensory perceptions are only the property of an individual subject.
Secondly, science does not include sensations and perceptions as data, but only the results of their rational processing, which are a synthesis of sensory perceptions with theoretical concepts.
Thirdly, the data itself, before they enter into science, undergoes significant processing and standardization. Their processing is carried out from the point of view of theoretical concepts, both the corresponding branch of science and the statistical theory of observation errors. Standardization consists in bringing the data to some standard observation conditions (for example, temperature and pressure). Finally, already at this stage of the study, the data are systematized in a certain way: tables, graphs, diagrams, etc. are compiled. Of course, such a systematization is still far from a theory, but it contains everything that is necessary for preliminary generalizations and the construction of empirical hypotheses.
The dependence of observational data on theory and the need for their interpretation is most pronounced when they serve as evidence for or against a particular hypothesis. Usually, only those observational data that are directly related to the hypothesis and are based on evidence are considered evidence. the corresponding theory. Why do we consider the cloud trail in the cloud chamber to be evidence that it was left by a charged particle?
Obviously, because this result of observation is predicted by the theory of ionization. Similarly, the deflection of a magnetic needle over which a current-carrying conductor is placed indicates that an electric current is flowing through the conductor. This result is predicted by the theory of electromagnetism. Any number of such examples can be cited. All of them show that data alone cannot serve as evidence for or against any hypothesis. To become evidence, the data must be interpreted in terms of some theory. As long as there is no theory, or at least some body of knowledge of a semi-theoretical nature, there is no evidence.
There have been many examples in the history of science when some facts or data remained accidental discoveries for a long time, until a theory was created that managed to explain them and thereby contributed to their introduction into the everyday life of science. Suffice it to mention, for example, the discovery by the ancient Greeks of the property of amber, worn on cloth, to attract the lightest bodies (electrification by friction) or magnetic iron ore to attract metal objects (natural magnetism). All these facts, right up to the creation of the theory of electromagnetic phenomena, first in the form of a mechanical model with lines of force, and then the mathematical theory of Maxwell, remained curious curiosities of nature. Being understood on the basis of theory, they became the initial base that served as the foundation of modern technology.
Thus, if in the most general form we formulate the difference between scientific observation and everyday perception of objects and phenomena directly surrounding a person, then it consists in a significant strengthening in science of the role of theory, accuracy and objectivity of observation results, which are achieved with the help of material means specially designed for this purpose. observation, as well as a conceptual apparatus that serves to interpret observational data.
3.1.4. Functions of Observation in Scientific Research
Observation and experiment are the two main forms of empirical knowledge, without which it would be impossible to obtain initial information for further theoretical constructions and verification of the latter by experience.
The essential difference between observation and experiment is that it is carried out without any change in the studied objects and phenomena and the observer's intervention in the normal process of their flow.
This feature of the observation was very clearly noted by the famous French scientist Claude Bernard. “Observation,” he wrote, “occurs in natural conditions, which we cannot dispose of.” This, of course, does not mean that observation is a passive reflection of everything that falls within the sphere of perception of the senses. As we have noted, scientific observation is an expediently organized and selective process that is guided and controlled by theory.
Therefore, we are talking here about the absence of not the activity of the subject as a whole, but practical activity aimed at influencing and changing the object under study. Most often, we are forced to confine ourselves to observations and study phenomena in the natural conditions of their course, because they turn out to be inaccessible for practical influence. This is the case, for example, with most astronomical phenomena, although in the last decade, in connection with the wide development of space research, scientific experiment has begun to be used more and more here.
And yet, observation with ever more sophisticated instruments will remain the most important method for studying stars, nebulae and other astronomical objects in our Universe in the future.
Observation in scientific research is called upon to perform three main functions.
The first and most important of these is to provide the empirical information that is necessary both for the formulation of new problems and hypotheses, and for their subsequent testing. This, of course, does not mean that before observation or experiment, the scientist is not guided by any idea, hypothesis or theory. On the contrary, when observing and searching for new facts, the researcher necessarily proceeds from certain theoretical concepts.
But it is the new facts, and in particular those of them that do not fit into the previous theoretical concepts or even contradict them, that require their explanation. To solve the problem that has arisen, the scientist creates hypotheses or a whole theory, with the help of which he explains the newly discovered facts.
The second function of observations is to test such hypotheses and theories, which cannot be done by experiment. Of course, experimental confirmation or refutation of hypotheses is preferable to non-experimental. However, where it is impossible to set up an experiment, only observational data can serve as the only evidence. When observations are accompanied by accurate measurements, the results of such verification can be no worse than experimental ones, which is confirmed by the entire history of the development of astronomy.
The third function of observation is that in its terms the comparison of the results obtained in the course of theoretical research is carried out, their adequacy and truth are checked. In empirical research, the scientist turns to theory in order to purposefully conduct observations and conduct experiments. However, in order to further develop the theory, he is forced from time to time to “check” his concepts, principles, and judgments with the data of experience. Since it is impossible to directly compare the abstract propositions of a theory with experience, one has to resort to various auxiliary methods, among which a significant role is played by the formulation of empirical results in terms of observation and "observational" language.
Observation is a purposeful systematic perception of objects, in cognition
which the individual is interested in, is the most developed form
intentional perception. Surveillance is highly active
personality.
A person does not perceive everything that caught his eye, but singles out
the most important and interesting for him. Differentiating objects, the observer
organizes perception in such a way that these objects do not slip out of the field
activities.
The systematic nature of purposeful perception allows us to trace
phenomenon in development, note its qualitative, quantitative, periodic
changes. Active thinking included in observation helps to separate the main
from the minor, the important from the accidental, helps to more clearly differentiate
items. Perception, attention, thinking and speech are combined when observed in
single process of mental activity.
The act of observation reveals the extreme stability of arbitrary
attention. It allows the observer to produce for a long time
observation, and if necessary, repeat it repeatedly.
Observation reveals the inner activity of the individual. It is closely related to
features of the mind, feelings and will of man. However, their ratio in observation
will be different depending on the objectives of the observation, on the qualities of the observer himself.
Therefore, in some cases, observation will be predominantly intellectual
expressiveness, and in others - emotional or volitional aspiration.
When a person studies the development of a phenomenon or notes changes in objects
perception, then there is a need for observation. Observation begins with
task setting. Based on the observation tasks that have arisen, a detailed
plan for it. This makes it possible to foresee various aspects of the observed
phenomena, to avoid chance, spontaneity of perception.
Observation presupposes the preliminary preparation of the observer, the presence of
certain knowledge, skills, mastery of the method of work.
Observation is the ability to notice characteristic, but barely noticeable features.
objects and phenomena. It is acquired in the process of systematic studies by any
business and therefore is associated with the development of the professional interests of the individual.
The relationship of observation and observation reflects the relationship between mental
processes and personality traits. Cultivating observation as self
mental activity and as a method of cognition of reality is the basis
development of observation as a personality trait.
Scientific observation is a purposeful perception of objects, phenomena and processes, as a rule, of the surrounding world. A distinctive feature of observation is that it is a method passive registration of certain facts of reality. Among the types of scientific observations, the following can be distinguished:
Depending on the purpose of observation, it can be divided into verification and search ;
According to the nature of the existence of what is being studied, observations can be divided into observations of objects, phenomena and processes that exist objectively , i.e. outside the consciousness of the observer, and introspection, i.e. introspection ;
Observation of objectively existing objects is usually divided into immediate and indirect observations.
Within the framework of different sciences, the role and place of the method of observation is different. In some sciences, observation is practically the only way to obtain initial reliable data. Particularly in astronomy. Although this science is essentially an applied branch of physics and therefore it is based on the theoretical concepts of this fundamental natural science, however, many data that are relevant specifically for astronomy can only be obtained through observation. For example, knowledge about objects that are located at a distance of several light years. For sociology, observation is also one of the main methods of empirical scientific knowledge.
Scientific observation for its successful implementation requires the presence of a problematic situation, as well as the corresponding conceptual and theoretical support. The basis of scientific observation, as a rule, is any hypothesis or theory, for the confirmation or refutation of which the corresponding observation is carried out. . The role and place of conceptual factors in scientific observation, as well as the specifics of their specific types, can be shown using the following examples.
As you know, people have been observing the movement of objects in the sky since time immemorial and as a result of this they came to a quite natural, within the framework of common sense, conclusion that the Earth with observers located on it stands motionless, and planets move uniformly around it in regular circular orbits. In order to explain why these planets do not fall to the Earth, but float in space, it was suggested that the Earth is inside several transparent glass-like spheres, in which planets and stars are, as it were, interspersed. The rotation of these spheres around its axis, which coincides with the center of our planet, leads to the fact that the surface of the spheres begins to move, dragging the planets firmly fixed on it.
While this notion is completely wrong, it is consistent with the corresponding common-sense logic that in order for a body to keep moving and never fall, it must be holding on to something (in this case, attached to transparent spheres). The notion that it is possible for a body to move continuously along a closed trajectory without anyone supporting it seems incredible to thinking within the framework of the common sense of the corresponding era. It should be noted that, in its own way, common sense is “right”: the fact is that, indeed, within the framework of the natural, ordinary and pre-theoretical perception of the movement of bodies on Earth, we do not see anything that could all the time move along a closed trajectory, hovering and without touching anything, and at the same time not falling. Newton, who discovered the law of universal gravitation, naturally also observed the movement of various terrestrial and cosmic bodies, including the Moon. However, he did not just look at them, but used observations in order to understand from them what cannot be seen. Namely: by comparing the data on the speed of the movement of the Moon around the Earth and their distance between themselves with the characteristics of the movement of bodies falling to the Earth, he came to the conclusion that a single and general pattern is hidden behind all this, which was called the “law of gravity”.
This example can be seen as a case search observation, the result of which was the formulation of the corresponding law. The purpose of exploratory observation is to collect facts as primary empirical material, based on the analysis of which the general and essential can be identified. Checking observation differs from exploratory one in that here the ultimate goal is not to search for new theoretical knowledge, but to test the existing one. Verification observation is an attempt to verify or refute a hypothesis. An example of such an observation is, for example, an attempt to make sure that the law of gravity is truly universal in nature, i.e. that its action extends to the interaction of any massive bodies. From this law, in particular, it follows that the smaller the mass of interacting bodies, the smaller the force of attraction between them. Therefore, if we can observe that the force of attraction near the surface of the Moon is less than the similar force at the surface of the Earth, which is heavier than the Moon, then it follows that this observation confirms the law of gravity. During the flight of astronauts, one can observe the phenomenon of weightlessness, when people freely float inside the ship, in fact, without being attracted to any of its walls. Knowing that the mass of a spacecraft is practically negligible compared to the mass of the planets, this observation can be considered as another test of the law of gravity.
The considered examples can be considered cases immediate observations of objectively existing objects. Direct observations are such observations when the relevant objects can be perceived directly by seeing them themselves, and not just the effects that they have on other objects. Unlike direct observations indirect observations are those when the object of study itself is not observed at all. However, despite this, in the case of indirect observation, one can still see the effects that an unobserved object has on other, observed objects. An unusual behavior or condition of observable bodies that cannot be explained by assuming that in reality there are only directly observable bodies and is the precondition for indirect observation. Analyzing the features of the unusual behavior of visible objects and comparing it with cases of the usual behavior of these objects, one can draw certain conclusions about the properties of unobservable objects. The unusual component in the behavior of visible bodies is the indirect observation of what is not directly observable. An example of indirect observations would be, for example, the situation associated with "Brownian motion", as well as the empirical component of knowledge about "black holes".
Brownian motion is the constant movement of the smallest, but still with the help of a sufficiently strong microscope, visually observable particles of any substance in a liquid. In the case of Brownian motion, the question is quite natural: what is the reason for the observed motion of these particles? Answering this question, we can assume that there are other, invisible particles that collide with visible ones and thereby push them. As you know, the reason for Brownian motion is that objects that are not visually observed with an optical microscope - atoms and molecules - all the time collide with the observed particles, causing them to move. Thus, although the atoms and molecules themselves in the optical range (visible light) are generally unobservable, however, even before the invention of the electron microscope, their individual properties could be observed. Naturally, only indirectly.
As for "black holes", it is impossible to observe them directly in principle. The fact is that the gravitational force that acts in them is so great that no object - including visible light - can overcome the attraction of these objects. However, black holes can be observed indirectly. In particular, in connection with a characteristic change in the picture of the starry sky near them (due to the curvature of space by gravitational forces) or in the case when a black hole and a self-luminous object (star) form a single system, which, according to the laws of mechanics, rotates around a common center of mass. In the latter case, the unusual motion of a star along a closed trajectory (after all, only it is directly observable) will be a case of indirect observation of a black hole.
Introspection It is the observation of a person over the content of his own consciousness. At the end of the 40s of the XX century. The following study was carried out in the USA. In order to find out whether the functioning of consciousness is possible in case of paralysis of the body, the subject was injected with a curare derivative, a substance that paralyzes the entire human muscular system. It turned out that, despite the paralysis of the muscles (the subject was connected to an artificial respiration apparatus, since he could not breathe on his own), the ability to conscious activity was preserved. The subject was able to observe what was happening around him, understood speech, remembered events and thought about them. From this it was concluded that mental activity can be carried out in the absence of any muscular activity.
Data obtained as a result of observation can only claim scientific status if their objectivity is recognized. An essential factor in this is the reproducibility of what was once seen by others. If, for example, someone declares that he observes something that others do not observe under similar conditions, then this will be a sufficient reason for not recognizing the scientific status of this observation. If, however, some “observation” also contradicts well-known and well-established patterns in the field of any field of knowledge, then in this case it can be said with a significant degree of certainty that the “observed” fact actually never existed at all. Apparently, one of the most widely known cases of such pseudo-observation can be considered the story of the Loch Ness Monster.
To give an observation the status of scientifically significant knowledge, an important point is to substantiate the fact that the observed object, one or another of its properties exist. objectively , and are not only the result of the impact of the toolkit that the observer uses. An example of a gross error can be considered the case when, for example, the camera photographs an object that is in fact not a distant subject of the exposed panorama, but an artifact that accidentally stuck to the elements of the camera's optical system (for example, a particle of dust on the lens).
The problem of taking into account and minimizing the influence of the subject-researcher on the object under study is typical not only for natural science, but also for the social sciences. In particular, within the framework of sociology, there is the concept of " included observation ”, i.e. such when a researcher who collects data on a certain social group, while living near or even as part of this group for quite a long time. The latter is done so that those who are the object of observation get used to the presence of an outside observer, do not pay special attention to him and behave in his presence as they usually do.
