History as a science, subject and methods of study.

What is history? It can be viewed both as a process of development of nature, society, man, and as a complex of social sciences that study the past of mankind in all its concreteness and diversity (diagram

History is primarily a field of human activity.

The value of history lies in the fact that thanks to it we learn what a person has done and, therefore, what he is.

Historical sources are everything that reflects the historical process, gives us the opportunity to study the past of mankind. Several decades ago, historical science developed a system for classifying historical sources based on principle of information carrier. In our opinion, this traditional system gives the most complete picture of the whole variety of historical sources that are in service with historical science (Scheme 2). Most authors distinguish six types of sources.

1. Written sources. It is generally accepted that the oldest type of writing was pictography, i.e. writing-drawings, which were used by primitive people. It is from such drawings that hieroglyphic writing originates. Writing, which denotes not objects of thought, phrases or words, but the sounds of the language, also arose in ancient times. The inventors of the first alphabet are the Phoenicians, a people who lived on the eastern coast of the Mediterranean Sea in the second half of the 1st millennium BC. The Slavic alphabet was created in the 9th century. based on the Greek alphabet by Christian missionaries Cyril and Methodius. The first written monuments in the Old Russian language that have come down to us date back to the 11th century. Written sources include ancient chronicles, memoirs, articles from newspapers and magazines, business documents, statistical materials, etc. Even fiction can become an important source, because the works of writers and poets perfectly reflect the life, customs, social moods of a particular era.

Scheme 2

2. Material sources. Such sources can be called a tool of labor of a primitive man found by an archaeologist, and a family service passed down from generation to generation, and an old clock stored in a museum, and any other item that helps us study the history of mankind.

3. Ethnographic sources. These include cultural, religious, everyday traditions of different peoples. The customs, norms of behavior, rituals, holidays that we inherited from our ancestors are an integral part of the historical memory of mankind.

4. Oral sources. Any of us who have ever listened to the memories of the experiences of our parents and grandparents have come across this type of source. Much has happened in the memory of people living today: the Great Patriotic War, a short-term thaw in 1950-1960, perestroika, the collapse of the USSR. Someone remained a passive observer of the events taking place, and someone, by the will of fate, found himself in their very thick. Eyewitness accounts can be a very valuable source and provide a basis for serious historical research.

5. Linguistic sources. The memory of the past is kept not only by people, but also by the languages ​​they speak, therefore it is customary to single out linguistic sources as a separate type. For example, the origin in the Slavic languages ​​of words denoting the names of animals and plants allows scientists to draw conclusions about the location of the ancient ancestral home of the Slavs. We can say for sure that the ancient ancestors of the Slavic peoples lived in places where spruce and birch trees grew, but beeches did not grow, since their name in our language has an "alien" origin.

6. Audiovisual documents (photo, film and video documents, sound recording). They reflect a significant period of modern and recent history. As you know, photography appeared in the middle, and cinema - at the very end of the 19th century. In the XX century. photography became color, and cinema, besides this, became sound. Relatively recently, videos have appeared. The materials captured on photo, film and videotape make it possible to "stop" the moment, "revive" the irretrievably bygone past.

The first phonograph was invented in 1877 by the American T. Edison. Since then, sound preservation techniques have been continuously improved. In less than a hundred years, gramophone records have been replaced by laser CDs. Audio recordings store the sounds of past eras, the voices of long dead people.

The study of historical sources requires special skills and knowledge. To get them, it is necessary to study special (auxiliary) historical disciplines that allow mastering the basic methods of working with historical sources (see Table 1).

Table 1

Auxiliary historical disciplines

Name	Subject of study
Genealogy (Greek genealogia - genealogy)	The science of the origin, emergence and development of family relations
Heraldry (lat. heraldus - herald)	The science that studies coats of arms
Diplomatics (Greek diploma - document)	The science that studies the origin, form and content, functioning, history of the text of legal documents
Metrology (Greek metron - measure and logos - science)	The science that studies the measures of length, area, volume, weight used in the past in their historical development
Onomastics (Greek onoma - name, name)	The science that studies proper names, the history of their occurrence. It has several sections: toponymy - the science of geographical names; anthroponymy - a science that studies the personal names of people; ethnonymy is a science that studies the names of cities; Theonymy is the study of the names of gods.
Numismatics (lat. numisma - coin)	The science that studies the history of coinage and monetary circulation of coins, banknotes, etc.
Paleography (Greek palos - ancient and grafo - I am writing)	The science that studies the external features of handwritten sources in their historical development (handwriting, writing signs, ink, etc.)
Sphragistics (Greek sphragis - seal)	The science that studies seals
Chronology (Greek chronos - time)	The science that studies the systems of chronology and calendars of various peoples
Etymology (Greek etymon - truth, true meaning of the word)	A branch of linguistics that studies the original word-formation structure of a word and identifies elements of its ancient meaning

It is not always enough to simply read a historical source to obtain the necessary information. And yes, it can be hard to read at times. In Ancient Russia, for example, the text was written together, without separating words, the spelling of individual letters was very different from the modern one. Even the number of alphabetic characters changed over time. The type of handwriting also became different: charter, semi-tire, cursive. In order to learn how to read the manuscripts of past centuries, historians study paleography - the science of the external features of handwritten sources.

No less important for researchers is the account of time. It is not difficult, for example, to guess that the ancient Greeks never wrote that they lived in the 5th century BC. BC. They began their reckoning from the beginning of the first Olympic Games. In pre-Petrine Russia, years were counted from the biblical "creation of the world." By the way, our ancestors celebrated the New Year in the spring (March 1), and from the end of the 15th century. - in September. Over the long history of mankind, many calendars have been created. Lunar calendars come from Mesopotamia, and solar calendars from Ancient Egypt. A calendar similar to the one we use was created in ancient Rome. In the 1st century G. Yu. Caesar introduced a calendar consisting of 365 days and 6 hours, called the Julian. According to this calendar, there is a leap year every four years. Once every 128 years, there was a difference of one day. By the 16th century it was ten days, so in 1582 Pope Gregory reformed the calendar. This is how the Gregorian calendar was born. In our country, it (we also call it "new style") was adopted only in 1918. Divine services of the Russian Orthodox Church still take place in accordance with the ancient Julian calendar. Historians help to understand the systems of chronology and calendars of different times and peoples chronology.

Throughout the long history of mankind, not only time counting systems have changed, but also systems of measures. The metric system is adopted in most countries of the world. But in the past, each nation had its own system of measures of length, area, volume, weight. The systems of measures in their historical development are dealt with metrology.

As mentioned above, the memory of the past is kept by the languages ​​of the peoples of the world. This is especially evident in the names of proper names. The history of their origin is studied onomastics. This discipline has several sections, the most important of which can be considered toponymy (the science of geographical names) and anthroponymy (the science of the origin of human names and surnames).

Of great importance to the historian are numismatics, examining coins, and sphragistics - the science of seals. One of the most interesting historical disciplines are genealogy - the science of genealogy heraldry - the science of emblems.

Historical sources and the complex of considered disciplines make it possible to approach the knowledge of historical truth.

Similar information.

History, translated from Greek, means a story about the past, about what has been learned. History is a process of development of nature and society. Also called history is a complex of social sciences (historical science), studying the past of mankind in all its concreteness and diversity. History is included in the group of humanities that study a particular region (African studies, Balkan studies), a people (Sinology, etc.) or a group of peoples (Slavic studies).

World (general) history is a history that studies the period of mankind from the appearance of the first Homo sapiens to the present.

The history of homeland - this is a history that studies the history of individual countries and peoples (the history of Russia, the history of Germany).

The history is divided into the following sections in chronological order:

the history of primitive society is a history that studies the period in the history of mankind before the invention of writing, after which there is the possibility of historical research based on the study of written sources.

ancient history is the history that studies the period of human history, distinguished between the prehistoric period and the beginning of the Middle Ages in Europe.

Medieval history is a history that studies the period in the history of mankind, following after Antiquity and preceding the New Age.

new history - history that studies the period in the history of mankind, located between the Middle Ages and the Newest time.

recent history - history that studies the period of mankind since 1918

Branches of history:

economic history is a branch of history that studies the phenomena and processes associated with the evolutionary development and interaction of those aspects of human activity that are somehow related to the economy.

military history - a branch of history that studies wars that took place in any particular historical era; also the history of any one war or even a single campaign.

historical geography - a branch of history that studies history through the "prism" of geography, it is also the geography of a territory at a certain historical stage of its development.

historiography is a branch of historical science that studies its history (accumulation of historical knowledge, interpretation of historical phenomena, change of methodological trends in historical science, etc.).

Organic parts of history as a complex of sciences:

archeology is a science that studies the history of society based on the material remains of people's life and activities - material (archaeological) monuments.

ethnography (ethnology) is the science of ethnic groups (peoples), studying their origin and settlement, life and culture.

History is included in the group of humanities that study a particular region (African studies, Balkan studies), a people (Sinology, etc.) or a group of peoples (Slavic studies).

historical sources- all objects that directly reflect the historical process and make it possible to study the past of mankind.

Historical sources are conditionally divided into several groups:

according to the type of information fixation:

written - epigraphic documents, birch bark letters, manuscripts, printed materials.

material - the instruments of production and the material goods created with the help of them: buildings, weapons, jewelry, dishes, works of art - everything that is the result of human labor activity.

Unlike written ones, they do not contain a direct account of historical events and most often do not contain any inscriptions.

film and photo documents - documentary film, audio and photographic materials.

pictorial - icons, parsuns, paintings, posters, etc.

from the point of view of studying any science:

ethnographic - information that has survived to the present: data on life, customs, customs, which are often absent in written sources. Such information is collected, studied and processed by ethnography.

folklore - monuments of oral folk art, i.e. legends, songs, fairy tales, proverbs, sayings, etc. Such information is collected, studied and processed by folklore.

linguistic - information about the origin of geographical names, personal names, proper names of ships, vessels, proper names of gods and deities, etc. Such information is studied by linguistics.

Separate historical sources can only conditionally be attributed to one or another group. So, some ethnographic sources study both archeology and ethnography; anthropological sources stand on the verge of natural science and history. The development of society is constantly leading to a particularly rapid expansion of the varieties of written sources and the emergence of completely new types of historical sources. For example, the invention and use of sound recording photo and film cameras led to the formation of a special group of film, audio and photographic materials.

Auxiliary historical disciplines- these are subjects that study certain types or individual forms and contents of historical sources.

We can refer the following sciences to auxiliary historical disciplines:

Paleography - an auxiliary historical discipline (a special historical and philological discipline) that studies the history of writing, the patterns of development of its graphic forms, as well as monuments of ancient writing in order to read them, determine the author, time and place of creation. Palaeography studies the evolution of the graphic forms of letters, written characters, the proportions of their constituent elements, the types and evolution of fonts, the system of abbreviations and their graphic designation, the material and tools of writing. A special branch of paleography studies the graphics of cryptography systems (cryptography).

Diplomatics - an auxiliary historical discipline that studies historical acts (legal documents). It explores ancient documents of a diplomatic and legal nature: charters, acts and similar texts and their originals. One of its tasks is to distinguish fake acts from real ones.

Genealogy - an auxiliary historical discipline that studies the family relationships of people, the history of childbirth, the origin of individuals, the establishment of family ties, the compilation of generational paintings and family trees. Genealogy is linked to heraldry, diplomacy and many other historical disciplines. Since the beginning of the 21st century, in connection with scientific progress, genetic genealogy using human DNA analysis has been gaining popularity.

Heraldry - a special historical discipline dealing with the study of coats of arms, as well as the tradition and practice of their use. It is part of emblematics, a group of interrelated disciplines that study emblems. The difference between emblems and other emblems is that their structure, use and legal status correspond to special, historically established rules. Heraldry precisely determines what and how can be applied to the state coat of arms, family coat of arms, and so on, explains the meaning of certain figures.

Sphragistics - an auxiliary historical discipline that studies seals (matrices) and their impressions on various materials. Initially developed as part of diplomacy, dealing with the determination of the authenticity of documents.

Historical metrology - an auxiliary historical discipline that studies the measures used in the past - length, area, volume, weight - in their historical development. Often units of measurement did not form a metric system, they are referred to as traditional systems of measurement. Historical metrology studies the history of the genesis and development of various measurement systems, the names of individual measures, their quantitative ratios, establishes their real values, that is, their correspondence to modern metric systems. Metrology is closely related to numismatics, since many peoples in the past had weights that coincided with monetary units and had the same name.

Numismatics - an auxiliary historical discipline that studies the history of coinage and money circulation. Public functions of numismatics: identification of numismatic cultural monuments; the study of characteristic facts, connections and processes that contribute to a deeper understanding of history and fill in the gaps in historical science.

Chronology - an auxiliary historical discipline that establishes the dates of historical events and documents; sequence of historical events in time; a list of any events in their time sequence.

Historical geography - an auxiliary historical discipline that studies history through the "prism" of geography; it is also the geography of a territory at a certain historical stage of its development.

Archiving - a scientific discipline that studies and develops theoretical, methodological and organizational issues of archiving and its history.

Archeology - a historical discipline that studies the historical past of mankind from material sources.

Ethnography - a part of historical science that studies ethnic peoples and other ethnic formations, their origin (ethnogenesis), composition, resettlement, cultural and everyday features, as well as their material and spiritual culture.

Historiography is an auxiliary historical discipline that studies the history of historical science. Historiography tests the correct application of the scientific method in writing a historical work, focusing on the author, his sources, the separation of facts from interpretation, as well as style, author's biases and the audience for which he wrote this work in the field of history.

Historical computer science - an auxiliary historical discipline that studies the methodology of using information technology in the study of the historical process, the publication of historical research and the teaching of historical disciplines, as well as in archival and museum work.

CHRONOLOGY. TIME COUNT. Julian and Gregorian calendars.

Chronology(from Greek χρόνος - time; λόγος - teaching):

an auxiliary historical discipline that establishes the dates of historical events and documents;

sequence of historical events in time;

a list of any events in their time sequence.

"Calendar"- from the Latin ‘Calendarium’ – “debt book”, and ‘Calendae’ is the first day of each month in ancient Rome, on which it was supposed to pay regular interest on debts; - hence the figurative meaning of this word as a time counting system.

When counting time in history, two parameters are needed:

measures of time in relation to each other - this is a "calendar" in the narrow sense;

the distance from a conditionally chosen reference point is the “chronology” or “era”.

Together, these two parameters make up a system of counting time or a "calendar in the broadest sense."

Calendars in the narrow sense are of three types:

solar - measures of time in them from the ratio of the Sun - Earth: DAY, YEAR and its derivatives - CENTURY (CENTURY) and MILLENNIUM.

lunar - measures of time in them from the ratio Moon - Earth - Sun - WEEK, MONTH

lunisolar, - combine measures of time of the 1st and 2nd type.

Calendars of the 3rd type are more widely used, and the first two are usually in the field of religion. Calendars of the 3rd type are JULIAN and GRIGORIAN, the use of which is typical for European and Russian history.

Julian calendar- a calendar developed by a group of Alexandrian astronomers led by Sosigen. The calendar was introduced by Julius Caesar from January 1, 45 BC. e. The Julian calendar year begins on January 1, since it was on this day from 153 BC. e. consuls elected by the comitia took office.

The Julian calendar replaced the old Roman calendar and was based on the astronomical culture of Hellenistic Egypt. In Kievan Rus, the calendar was known as the "Peaceful Circle", the "Church Circle", the Indiction and the "Great Indiction". The Julian calendar in modern Russia is usually called the old style.

Gregorian calendar- a time calculation system based on the cyclic circulation of the Earth around the Sun; the duration of the year is taken equal to 365.2425 days; contains 97 leap years for 400 years.

For the first time, the Gregorian calendar was introduced by Pope Gregory XIII in Catholic countries on October 4, 1582 to replace the previous Julian one: the next day after Thursday, October 4, was Friday, October 15.

THE PRINCIPLE OF HISTORICISM. PARADIGMS OF HISTORICAL SCIENCE. GENERAL HISTORICAL PERIODIZATION.

historicism- a scientific method, the principle of considering the world, natural and socio-cultural phenomena in the dynamics of their change, formation in time, in a natural historical development, involving the analysis of research objects in connection with the specific historical conditions of their existence.

Name theories		Criteria division historical process	Basic concepts and definitions
religious	The founder of the Christian concept is considered to be the Roman church writer Eusebius Pamphilus, Bishop of Caesarea from 311. It received its final form in the theological concept of the church father, Bishop Augustine (354-430), developed in his work “On the City of God”.	God's Providence	providentialism (from lat. providentia - providence), a religious understanding of history as a manifestation of the will of God, the implementation of a predetermined divine plan for the "salvation" of man.
formational	Developed in the 40-60s. 19th century K. Marx, It was developed in the works of V.I. Lenin and in the works of Soviet historians and philosophers from the 1930s to the end of the 1980s.	Socio-economic	Socio-economic formation - a historical type of society, which is a certain stage in the progressive development of mankind, based on a certain mode of production with its own base and superstructure.) Basis.Superstructure.Classes.
Civilizational	It was developed in the late XIX - early XX centuries. N. Ya. Danilevsky, O. Spengler, A. Toynbee.	Socio-cultural	Civilization - there is no universal definition of civilization, each author, depending on the criteria, gives his own definition. There are signs of established civilizations: the duration of their existence, the coverage of vast territories, the spread to a huge number of people, and their uniqueness (originality).
Passionate	L.N. Gumilyov, formulated in 1939, but saw the light in the 70s. 20th century	The dynamics of the development of the ethnos	Ethnos - this is a group with an internal structure, opposing itself to other similar groups and having common stereotypes of behavior. Passionarity (from passion - passion) - this is a high determination of individuals who are capable of sacrificing their lives to achieve the goal on the way to a real or illusory goal and leading other people, infecting them with their enthusiasm.

Paradigms of historical science:

Periodization of history- a special kind of systematization, which consists in the conditional division of the historical process into certain chronological periods. These periods have certain distinctive features, which are determined depending on the chosen basis (criterion) of periodization.

Europe	Russia
Primitive communal system Primitive society appeared about 40 thousand years ago with the advent of Homo sapiens and the formation of tribal communities and existed before the formation of the first city-states at the end of the 6th millennium BC. in Mesopotamia (Asia). preliterate type of culture.	Primitive communal system (40 thousand BC - the end of the 4th millennium BC) There is no information about the existence of Slavic tribes during this period.
Ancient world (The end of the 4th millennium BC - the end of the 5th century AD) From the emergence of the first city-states in Mesopotamia to the fall of the Western Roman Empire (476). Slave building. Form of government: eastern despotism, empire, republic. The emergence of a written type of culture.	Ancient world II millennium BC Slavic tribes stand out from the Indo-European language family and by the 5th century. AD the resettlement of the Eastern Slavs along the Dnieper begins. Primitive society.
Middle Ages 5th century AD - ser. 17th century feudal system. The predominant form of government in Europe is the monarchy (all types). .	Middle Ages 5th century AD – IX century. AD - the decomposition of the primitive communal system, military democracy., the folding of the prerequisites for the formation of the state among the Eastern Slavs. IX AD – 17th century feudal system. Forms of government: monarchy (all types), boyar republic. Religious nature of culture .
new time (Mid. XVII - early XX century.) The spread of capitalist relations. Industrial revolutions, the formation of industrial societies. Various forms of government (monarchy, limited monarchy, republic). Secular culture.	new time (Mid. XVII - early XX century.) The dominance of feudal-serf relations to the middle. XIX century. The emergence of capitalist relations, their rapid development in industry after the abolition of serfdom in 1861 Industrial revolution. Preservation of feudal vestiges. Forms of government: absolute monarchy, Duma monarchy (1906-1917). The origin and establishment of secular principles in culture, the split of culture into noble and folk culture in the first quarter of the 18th century.
Newest time (Beginning of the 20th century - beginning of the 21st century) The variety of ways of development of the economy, politics and culture, the formation of the information society.	Newest time (Beginning of the 20th century - beginning of the 21st century) An attempt to build a socialist society, the design of the Soviet republic. The dominance of "socialist culture". The collapse of the USSR (1991). Return to market relations, the establishment of a multi-party system, the formation of a presidential republic. The spread of Western trends in culture.

PERIODIZATION OF THE HISTORY OF PRIMARY SOCIETY. MONUMENTS OF PRIMARY CULTURE ON THE TERRITORY OF RUSSIA.

Stone Age:

Stone Age- the oldest period in the history of mankind, when the main tools and weapons were made mainly of stone, but wood and bone were also used. At the end of the Stone Age, the use of clay (dishes, brick buildings, sculpture) spread.

Periodization of the Stone Age:

Paleolithic:

The Lower Paleolithic is the period of the appearance of the oldest human species and the widespread distribution of Homo erectus.

The Middle Paleolithic is a period of displacement of erectus by evolutionarily more advanced human species, including modern humans. Neanderthals dominated Europe during the entire Middle Paleolithic.

The Upper Paleolithic is the period of domination of the modern type of people throughout the globe in the era of the last glaciation.

Mesolithic and Epipaleolithic; the terminology depends on how much the region has been affected by the loss of megafauna as a result of the melting of the glacier. The period is characterized by the development of technology for the production of stone tools and the general culture of man. Ceramic is missing.

Neolithic - the era of the emergence of agriculture. Tools and weapons are still stone, but their production is brought to perfection, and ceramics are widely distributed.

Copper Age:

Copper Age, Copper-Stone Age, Chalcolithic(Greek χαλκός "copper" + Greek λίθος "stone") or Eneolithic (Latin aeneus "copper" + Greek λίθος "stone")) - a period in the history of primitive society, a transitional period from the Stone Age to the Bronze Age. Approximately covers the period 4-3 thousand BC. e., but in some areas it exists longer, and in some it is absent altogether. Most often, the Eneolithic is included in the Bronze Age, but sometimes it is also considered a separate period. During the Eneolithic, copper tools were common, but stone tools still prevailed.

Bronze Age:

Bronze Age- a period in the history of primitive society, characterized by the leading role of bronze products, which was associated with an improvement in the processing of metals such as copper and tin obtained from ore deposits, and the subsequent production of bronze from them. The Bronze Age is the second, late phase of the Early Metal Age, succeeding the Copper Age and preceding the Iron Age. In general, the chronological framework of the Bronze Age: 35/33 - 13/11 centuries. BC e., but different cultures are different. In the Eastern Mediterranean, the end of the Bronze Age is associated with the almost simultaneous destruction of all local civilizations at the turn of the 13th-12th centuries. BC BC, known as the Bronze Collapse, while in the west of Europe the transition from the Bronze Age to the Iron Age drags on for several more centuries and ends with the appearance of the first cultures of antiquity - ancient Greece and Ancient Rome.

Bronze Age periods:

Early Bronze Age

Middle Bronze Age

Late Bronze Age

Iron Age:

The Iron Age is a period in the history of primitive society, characterized by the spread of iron metallurgy and the manufacture of iron tools. For civilizations of the Bronze Age, it goes beyond the history of primitive society, for other peoples, civilization develops in the era of the Iron Age.

THE LARGEST GREEK POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC CENTERS IN THE NORTHERN BLACK SEA REGION. SCYTHIANS.

Ancient Greek colonies of the Northern Black Sea region:

Borisfen (on the island of Berezan at the mouth of the Dnieper) - the first Greek colony in the Northern Black Sea region, later its center moved north to Olbia; founded ca. 647 BC e.

Tyra (now Belgorod-Dnestrovsky, founded c. 502 BC); UNESCO is included in the list of 10 oldest cities in the world, the oldest city (of the existing ones) in Ukraine.

Olbia (Ochakov area, founded in the first quarter of the 6th century BC, one of the largest policies in the region);

Kerkinitida (now Evpatoria, founded around 550 BC by the Ionians. In the 4th - 2nd centuries BC, it was under the rule of Chersonesos, then captured and practically destroyed by the Scythians.);

Tauric Chersonesos (now in its place is Sevastopol; founded by the Heracleians around 528 BC) - the most important city of southwestern Tavria; weakened by the struggle with the steppe nomads and the Bosporus, became dependent on Rome, later became the possession of Byzantium. His successor was the Principality of Theodoro.

Kalos-Limen (near the village of Chernomorskoye) - founded in the 4th century BC. e. the Ionians. At the end of the 4th century BC. e. was captured by the Chersonesites; became an arena of confrontation between the Greeks and the steppe peoples - the Scythians and Sarmatians. Destroyed by the Sarmatians in the 1st century AD. e.

Theodosius - founded in the middle of the VI century BC. e., from 355 BC. e. - captured by the Bosporus kingdom. After the Hun invasion - an Alanian, then a Khazar settlement, gradually deserted. The revival began in 1267, when this place was bought from the Tatars by the Genoese for a trading post and where the city was revived under the name of Kafa;

Panticapaeum (later the center of the Bosporus kingdom (now Kerch, founded at the very end of the 5th century BC or the first quarter of the 5th century BC) with adjacent policies and settlements that also became part of the Bosporan kingdom:

• Tiritaka

  Mirmekiy

• kimmerik

  Zenonov Chersonese

  Heracles

• Parthenius

On the Asian side of the Cimmerian Bosporus:

Hermonassa - founded by the Milesians in the first quarter of the 6th century BC. e.

Kepi ​​- founded by the Miletians in the 580s - 570s BC. e.

Korkondam

Patreus - founded no later than the third quarter of the 6th century BC. e.

Phanagoria - founded shortly after 543 BC. e., the largest city on the Asian side of the Kerch Strait;

AUXILIARY HISTORICAL DISCIPLINES, special historical disciplines, in Russian science, the collective name for a number of scientific disciplines of the source cycle, studying certain types of historical sources and their external features. The purpose of auxiliary historical disciplines is to extract maximum information about the origin of a historical source and establish the degree of legitimacy of its use in scientific research. The scientific apparatus of auxiliary historical disciplines is special methods and techniques that make it possible to establish the time, place, conditions for the creation of historical sources, to determine their authorship and authenticity. The subject of study of each of the disciplines and the theoretical questions being developed are determined by the type (written source, coin, coat of arms, seal, etc.) and type (chronicle, act, epistolary, memoirs, chronicle, etc.) of the source, as well as the material of the source containing written information (birch bark, parchment, paper, stone, bone, metal, wood).

The use of techniques that form the methodological basis of auxiliary historical disciplines was originally of a practical nature. The chroniclers, setting out events in chronological order, unwittingly developed the techniques of chronology. In order to establish the authenticity of documents in contentious court cases, ancient scribes analyzed the act form, compared handwriting, studied inscriptions on seals and methods of attaching them to documents. The clergy calculated the dates of Paschal. Domestic needs and the need for fiscal taxation contributed to the development of metrological units.

Gradually, practical knowledge acquired a more systematic character. In the 16th and 17th centuries, the development of "practical" paleography was expressed in the preparation of teaching aids (alphabet-copybooks, manuals for scribes, draftsmen, primers), in the practice of forensic examination. Knowledge of metrology formed the basis of reference books that reflected various metrological units (“Trading Book”, 1570s; “Counting Wisdom”, 1st third of the 17th century). The development of genealogy met the needs of the state authorities and the nobility: genealogical books were compiled (from the 1540s), "The Sovereign Genealogy" (in the 1550s). In 1672, by decree of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich, the “Big State Book or the Root of Russian Sovereigns” (abbreviated as “Titulary”) was compiled, which can be considered the pinnacle of the integrated use of practical knowledge in the field of paleography, genealogy, heraldry, sphragistics, historical chronology, onomastics.

Since the 18th century, the formation of auxiliary historical disciplines began. This, in particular, was facilitated by the decrees of Peter I on sending ancient letters and books from monasteries and churches to the Synod, the creation of the King of Arms office under the Senate (1722) and the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences (1725), the emergence of large museum collections (collections of the Kunstkamera and the Hermitage). Sources of various nature were accumulated, and the development of methods for their study began. Scientists V. N. Tatishchev, G. F. Miller, V. V. Krestinin, N. I. Novikov, N. N. Bantysh-Kamensky, Count A. I. Musin-Pushkin and others began to study and publish sources of diplomacy, genealogy, numismatics, historical geography.

In the first half of the 19th century, auxiliary historical disciplines developed mainly as descriptive ones, however, in the works of researchers, attempts were already made to scientifically comprehend, generalize, classify and systematize factual material. For the first time in Russian historiography, A. N. Olenin spoke about auxiliary historical disciplines in general, using the expression “auxiliary information” (“Experience of a new bibliographic order for the St. Petersburg Imperial Library”, 1809). The terms “auxiliary sciences”, “auxiliary knowledge” of historical science were used in the creation of library and bibliographic classifications by H. A. Schlozer (1823), K. K. Voigt (1834), V. G. Anastasevich (1828), V. I. Mezhov (1869) and others. The activities of Metropolitan Evgeny (Bolkhovitinov), K. F. Kalaidovich, P. M. Stroev and archeographic expeditions contributed to the further identification and collection of historical sources. In the 19th and early 20th centuries, archeographic commissions made a great contribution to the publication of historical sources. An important role in the development of auxiliary historical disciplines was played by the works of A. Kh. Vostokov, P. I. Ivanov, I. P. Laptev on paleography, P. V. Khavsky on chronology, Ts. A. B. Lakiera - in heraldry and sphragistics. With the scientific study of sources and the development of historical science as a whole, a desire arose to isolate each discipline, determine the subject of its study and goals, improve methodological techniques, and move away from descriptiveness. Thus, the study of external signs of manuscript sources moved to the field of paleography, and the study of inscriptions on stone, metal seals and coins became the subject of study of glyptics, epigraphy, sphragistics, and numismatics.

In the 2nd half of the 19th - early 20th century, books, articles, reference books in the field of paleography were published (authors - E.F. Karsky, F.F. Brandt, N.M. Karinsky, A.I. Sobolevsky, I.A. Shlyapkin, N. P. Likhachev, V. N. Shchepkin), historical chronologies (D. I. Prozorovsky, N. V. Stepanov, D. M. Perevoshchikov, N. I. Cherukhin), sphragistics (N. P. Likhachev ), genealogy (Prince P.V. Dolgorukov, V.V. Rummel and V.V. Golubtsov, Prince A.B. Lobanov-Rostovsky, L.M. Savelov, G.A. Vlasyev), heraldry (V.K. Lukomsky, V. L. Modzalevsky, P. P. von Winkler, Baron N. A. Tipolt), numismatics (Count I. I. Tolstoy, A. V. Oreshnikov, A. K. Markov). The teaching of auxiliary historical disciplines was started at the St. Petersburg Archaeological Institute, and then at the Moscow Archaeological Institute. The result of the theoretical and methodological understanding of auxiliary historical disciplines as a set of sciences at the end of the 19th century was summed up by V. S. Ikonnikov (“The Experience of Russian Historiography”, vol. 1, books 1-2, 1891-92). Auxiliary historical disciplines in Russia developed at this stage in close connection with Western European science. New disciplines emerged: archeography, archiving, historical bibliography, document science, historical demography, historical cartography, iconography, medallions, textology, uniformology, philately, philocarty, heuristics, epistolography. At the same time, the subject and tasks of some sciences remained unclear: sphragistics was considered as an applied discipline in relation to diplomacy; heraldry - to genealogy; chronology - to paleography. Archeology occupied a special place in the system of the humanities, since this concept included both the science of antiquities (for example, Slavic, Eastern, ancient) in the broad sense, and most of the auxiliary historical disciplines (except for historical geography, genealogy and some others).

In the 1920s and 1930s, there was a crisis in the USSR in the study of many auxiliary historical disciplines, in particular genealogy, heraldry, etc., which were considered "noble" sciences. At the same time, in 1930, the Moscow State Historical and Archival Institute was established (until 1932 - the Institute of Archival Studies; since 1991 - the Historical and Archival Institute as part of the Russian State University for the Humanities), in which the Department of Source Studies and Auxiliary Historical Disciplines was established in 1939.

Interest in the auxiliary historical disciplines began to grow again from the mid-1940s. Facsimile editions of a number of handwritten texts were made, new sources were involved in scientific circulation, including birch bark letters, seals, coins discovered during archaeological excavations. In the works of M. N. Tikhomirov, A. V. Artsikhovsky, B. A. Rybakov, L. V. Cherepnin, I. G. Spassky, N. V. Ustyugov, V. A. Nikonov, N. A. Soboleva, S. M. Kashtanova, S. A. Klepikova, G. A. Leontyeva, P. A. Shorina, V. B. Kobrin and others have developed a historical approach, comprehension, improvement and deepening of methodological techniques and theoretical development of individual auxiliary historical disciplines. They began to study in more detail: in paleography - cursive writing of the 17-18th century, book writing, miniature, paper brands and stamps, in metrology - the measures and metrological policy of the Russian government in the 18-19th centuries, in heraldry - city and noble coats of arms; in the chronology, simpler formulas for calculating and checking dates were derived. The objects of study of auxiliary historical disciplines became more diverse (for example, in sphragistics - seals preserved in isolation from documents), traditional sources were studied in a new way (in numismatics - coin treasures as a complex numismatic source, in heraldry - coat of arms as a source that reveals the fate of the owners) .

In the 1960-80s, the methods and techniques of auxiliary historical disciplines were improved. Through the efforts of numismatists, a technique for stamp analysis of coins has been developed. In the field of chronology, knowledge of dendrochronology, phenology, ornithology began to be applied, helping to establish indirect dating; in sphragistics - methodological methods of working with ancient Russian seals, based on the exhaustive involvement of sphragistic material. On the basis of traditional historical disciplines, new ones appeared: codicology, associated with the study of handwritten books, ascertaining the composition of scribes and ways of distributing books from their centers of correspondence to modern book depositories. Since 1968, the collection Auxiliary Historical Disciplines (vols. 1-29-) has been published in Leningrad (now St. Petersburg).

The chronological framework of auxiliary historical disciplines, their traditional source study functional tasks are expanding; the conclusions began to be used to solve problems in the field of socio-economic, political and cultural history. Paleographic observations on the evolution of letter graphics and the study of writing material help in solving the problem of the level of development of writing and literacy. The seals preserved separately from the documents make it possible to restore the history of the state institutions of the Old Russian state. Coin hoards are used to characterize economic ties, genealogy and heraldry help to supplement conclusions about political and cultural ties. Onomastics provides an opportunity for a more in-depth study of demographic processes, and metrology - an understanding of the severity of fiscal taxation, the amount of work and the amount of its payment.

There is an opinion about the separation of birch bark from paleography (studies birch bark letters) and filigranology (studies the signs of paper), from heraldry - vexillology, from numismatics - phaleristics (studies badges) and bonistics. Several variants of the classification of auxiliary historical disciplines have been developed, none of which is generally accepted.

Lit .: Bolshakov A. M. Auxiliary historical disciplines. 4th ed. L., 1924; Cherepnin L. V. Development of auxiliary historical disciplines for fifty years // Soviet archives. 1967. No. 5; he is. To the question of the methodology and methods of source study and auxiliary historical disciplines // Source study of national history. M., 1973. Issue. one; Pronshtein A.P. The use of auxiliary disciplines when working on historical sources. M., 1972; Kamentseva E. I. History of auxiliary historical disciplines. M., 1979; Pronshtein A.P., Kiyashko V.Ya. Auxiliary historical disciplines. M., 1979; Soboleva N. A. On the trends in the development of special historical disciplines: Historiographic review // Source study of national history. M., 1980; Shepelev L. E. Source study and auxiliary historical disciplines: On the question of their tasks and role in historical research // Auxiliary historical disciplines. L., 1982. Issue. 13; Actual problems of source studies and special historical disciplines. M., 1983; Pashkov A. M. Auxiliary historical disciplines in domestic archival education in the late XIX - early XX centuries. M., 1984; Auxiliary historical disciplines: historiography and theory. K., 1988; Introduction to Special Historical Disciplines. M., 1990; Special historical disciplines. St. Petersburg, 2003; Auxiliary historical disciplines. M., 2004; Leontyeva G. A., Shorin P. A., Kobrin V. B. Auxiliary historical disciplines. M., 2006.

Detailed solution paragraph Introduction to history for grade 10 students, authors V.I. Ukolova, A.V. Revyakin Profile level 2012

• Gdz control and measuring materials on History for grade 10 can be found

Define the concepts and give examples of their use in historical science:

civilization - a stable socio-cultural community, consisting of a group of countries united by cultural and linguistic characteristics at a certain stage of development;

historical anthropology - the concept of historical development and the method of cognition based on the awareness of the unity of material and spiritual culture, as well as with the help of cross-cultural research, while the focus of research is aimed at primitive societies;

modernization is the transition from a traditional society to an industrial one.

1. In what sense is the concept of "history" used?

On the one hand, history is a collection of past events. By default, what happened to humanity, but there is also the history of the planet Earth itself (geology studies it), the history of the Universe (astronomy tries to understand it), etc.

On the other hand, history is our idea of ​​this very past, its awareness and analysis. Such a picture is precisely created by the science of history.

The historian does not study the past itself, but the evidence of that past. As a rule, these are written sources that were written by someone, that is, events and phenomena are passed through the prism of perception by the author. Material evidence is more objective, but they carry much less information, usually the same written sources are needed to interpret them.

Not all created written sources and not all material evidence reach us. Time usually makes its own subjective selection, although there are exceptions. So the Spanish colonialists deliberately destroyed the books of the Aztecs, hoping that having lost the heritage of their pagan ancestors, they would more easily accept Christianity. From ancient sources, what has come down to us is mainly those that were copied in the Middle Ages, and then they specially selected texts according to certain criteria, therefore we see in many ways the picture created as a result of this selection.

The historian analyzes the data obtained on the basis of existing methods. In history, as in any science, they develop: the researchers of the past did not have the tools that they have today. This also applies to the help of the natural sciences (radiocarbon dating, methods of reconstructing a face from the skull, etc.), and directly to the analysis of the text, which has been increasingly improved over the generations of scientists.

In addition, any historian analyzes the past through the prism of his time. The most striking example is the ideological influence on history, which many political regimes have tried to exert over the past centuries. But there are also less obvious examples. Often the result depends on the personal predilections of the researchers, their gender and other conditions.



4. List the types of historical sources. What is their feature? Illustrate your answer with examples.

historical sources.

1. Material. Usually these are finds during archaeological excavations. They are the most objective, but without the help of written sources, they are sometimes difficult to interpret. That is why, for example, we know so little about the Cretan (Minoan) culture - a lot of material evidence remains of it, but the writing of that people has not been deciphered, the language is not understood.

2. Written.

a) Artistic works. Rather, they reflect the author's idea, but the author lives in certain historical conditions, which he unwittingly reflects in the work. Therefore, in the absence of other sources, works of art can be of great help to scientists. For example, numerous studies are based on Homer's poems, although they are most often used to study the era of the creation of poems, and not the Trojan War.

b) Religious texts. It is difficult to extract information from them, but some contain it. So the Bible is the main source for studying the past of the Jewish people. However, one should take into account the specifics of the source and understand that the presentation of events in such texts was not the main goal.

c) Memoirs. Tell directly about historical events. However, nothing prevents the author from distorting reality in order to whitewash himself or for any other purpose. It should also be borne in mind that memoirs are usually written many years after the events described, and human memory is a complex thing that is only beginning to be understood today. An example is the memoirs of Georgy Konstantinovich Zhukov: with the opening of archival funds dedicated to the Great Patriotic War, more and more places emerge where the marshal, to put it mildly, distorted reality, posing as a great strategist who knew everything in advance and predicted everything.

d) Letters. Unlike memoirs, they are usually written immediately after the event. But the question of the sincerity of the author remains. Examples are the letters of Mark Tullius Cicero (the texts of many of them have been preserved): they are not used to reconstruct the event if the information reported is not confirmed in parallel sources, but it contains a lot of valuable information about the life and customs of the Romans of the 1st century BC .

e) Press. Many of their contemporaries learned about the events from publications in newspapers and magazines, and historians can also use them. However, the "objectivity" of the press is well known: it is most concerned about either the circulation or the opinion of the authorities, depending on the type of state in which the publication is published. In addition, the publication often appears before all the details of the event are known. As an example, we can mention the differences in the coverage of the events on Tiananmen Square in Beijing in 1989 by the newspapers of the United States and China, and not only the assessments, but the published "veils" were different.

f) Chronicles, chronicles, etc. Contrary to popular belief, the authors had reasons not to distort what they knew. However, the question arises about their awareness. A typical example is the "History" of Herodotus. When the author describes events close to his time, he conveys them quite accurately, but when describing the first centuries of the Greco-Persian conflict (which he traces back to the beginning of history itself), he uses frank mythology.

g) Official documents. Usually they reflect reality objectively, because they are compiled for a practical purpose, and not for transmitting information to posterity. However, they have their own specifics and individually usually contain little information. So it makes sense to study the tablets of the economic archives of the Sumerian temples only in their significant complex. From a separate entry, which says, for example, how much grain this or that person contributed as a tax, little can be understood.

There are many other types of written sources.

3. Folklore. It should be remembered that events in folklore are described through the prism of folk memory. In addition, these works have come a long way through oral transmission before being written down. For example, it would be strange to study the reign of Vladimir the Holy according to the description of Vladimir the Red Sun in Russian epics. However, they provide valuable information about people's perception of certain events, about the worldview of the people.

4. Photos.

a) Artistic photos. They help in studying the history of culture, as well as everyday life and material objects. For example, pre-war even artistic photographs show buildings that later died during the hostilities, and fashion magazines of the past decades are the best source for studying this very fashion.

b) Documentary photos. Usually, they are objective, but require interpretation based on other types of sources. For example, photographs of Vladimir Ilyich Lenin during public speeches help us understand what kind of expression he had, why he led so many people with him. But if we did not know from other sources who this speaker was and what his role was in history, we would not be able to understand the value of these shots.

5. Cinema and phono sources.

a) artistic. This type includes feature films, recordings of musical compositions, etc. They can be used to study the history of culture, as well as life and even worldview, and also obtain other valuable information. For example, shortly after the revolution in Russia, most of the equestrian stunts in Hollywood films were performed by exiled Cossacks. Therefore, there you can see examples of horse riding, which are described in written sources, but rarely caught on film.

b) Archival records. This type includes mainly recordings of television and radio programs. They are also useful for exploring both culture and worldview. For example, in such recordings, we can see interviews with politicians of past years, make out their demeanor, style of speech, etc.

c) Documentaries and programs. In such films, we see genuine footage. Sometimes, they are preserved only in a similar form - the originals are lost. But in this case, you need to understand that the material went through the prism of perception of the author of the film. He did not edit the frames and audio fragments, but selected those that seemed most interesting to him, best of all reflected his idea.

d) Documentary footage and audio recordings. These are records made during the events, not processed by anyone. They are the most objective, but require patience, because in order to find the one most informative minute, sometimes you need to look at the clock. An example is the numerous materials of the Great Patriotic War, made by cameramen right during the fighting, right in the thick of things.

5. Can a historian be objective? Please confirm your opinion.

The historian usually strives for this, but cannot be completely objective. If only because the human perception of even what he directly sees and hears is not completely objective. A scientist understands historical events with the help of sources that have an author with their own biased perception. Information passes through the prism of perception of several people. Moreover, these people differ in worldview, therefore they often understand the same things differently. In addition, we must not forget about the censorship of time - not everything created in a certain period has come down to us, many sources have died for a variety of reasons. Therefore, our knowledge is largely mosaic.

6. Write a discussion on the topic "Three reasons why people study history and what studying history will give me personally."

Historical science in its primitive form arose in ancient Greece. It has existed as a mature science at least since the 18th century. Areas of knowledge that humanity does not need are measured over such a period of time. Suffice it to recall phrenology, a science that tried to understand a person’s character, intellect and mental state by the protrusions of his skull (which supposedly spoke of the greater or lesser development of certain parts of the brain). Phrenology was quite popular at the turn of the 19th-20th centuries, but eventually died out. Nothing like this happened in history.

People study history for the following reasons.

1) It's interesting. Any science begins with interest, otherwise there is no point in doing it.

2) The ability to avoid the mistakes of the past. Recently, the phrase “History teaches only that it teaches nothing” has been spreading more and more lately, but after the horrors of World War II, humanity learned not to divide people into full-fledged and inferior on any grounds, after the end of colonialism, they realized the importance of an independent the lives of each of the peoples, etc.

3) Formation of one's own historical memory. The common past plays a big role in the formation of the nation, patriotic feeling and much more.

Personally, I am attracted to history by the opportunity to literally immerse myself in other eras. It's like living another life and then returning to your own. Immersion in history without knowing it is bad Hollywood movies - only the weapon changes, while the musket is held like a modern rifle. But a different era is not only a different city around and people in different costumes, but also their behavior, a different picture of the world in their heads, different interests, expectations and aspirations. All this is very interesting.

1. Highlight the social functions of the story. What role does history play in politics? Give examples of the ideologization of history.

Social features:

cognitive function;

predictive function (although the failure of such forecasts throughout the 20th century has shaken the position of this function);

Self-identification of nations and civilizations;

educational function.

History in a distorted form was used by many regimes. So in the Soviet Union the formational approach dominated, according to which the highest form of historical development was communism, in the previous one - socialism. Based on this concept, the USSR, like the rest of the countries of the socialist camp, were declared more developed than the "decaying West".

Hitler's Germany focused on civilizations that developed rapidly, and then began to degrade, after which they disappeared. Nazi scientists argued that the development was provided by the Aryan ethnic element, and degradation began when Semites began to predominate in civilization.

The use of history for ideological purposes leads to the inevitable distortion of history, because the reality of the past is too complex to illustrate simple political ideas. Mixing ideology and history always harms historical science.

2. Name the modern concepts of historical development. Make a summary of the 3rd paragraph of the paragraph in the most rational form.

1. Civilizational concepts.

a) The concepts of the French Enlightenment.

b) Civilization as a stage in the development of society.

c) Civilization as a cultural and historical community.

d) Linear-stage theories of civilization.

e) The concept of A. Toynbee and its development.

2. Historical (cultural) anthropology.

a) The study of primitive societies.

b) Annals School.

c) New sections: the history of mentality, everyday life, etc.

d) Comparativeness in history.

3. Theories of modernization.

a) Understanding modernization as an acceleration of development.

b) Understanding modernization as a transition from the Middle Ages to the Modern era.

c) Understanding modernization as a transition from a traditional society to an industrial one.

d) Second and third echelons of modernization.

3. Consider why there is no single definition of "civilization".

Because this word with a Latin root initially had a very broad and relatively vague meaning, and in everyday life it has retained it to this day. However, it was very popular. In science, a definition must unambiguously imply one particular meaning. Each author of the concept took one of the aspects of the ordinary meaning of the word "civilization" and included it in his constructions. There are many civilizational concepts, and therefore there are many definitions of the concept of "civilization".

4. Explain the concept of "modernization". In what historical situations is it appropriate to use this concept, and in which not? Give examples.

It is easiest to use this concept in the narrowest sense of the word. Modernization is the path from a traditional society to an industrial one. In this sense, the abolition of serfdom in Russia in 1861 is a significant step towards modernization.

The concept of modernization as a transition from the Dark Ages to our time is much broader. In this sense, modernization is also the reformation of the Western Christian Church (meaning as the Reformation, there is the restructuring of the Catholic Church in the course of the struggle against the Protestant). In the same sense, the transition of an already industrial society to a post-industrial one (in which the main part of GDP is the service sector and the majority of employees work in the same sector) is also modernization.

Modernization as accelerated development is linked with the concept of progress. This is the introduction of steam engines, and the invention of firearms, and much more.