Causes of feudal fragmentation. Many Russian pre-revolutionary historians explained the causes of feudal fragmentation by the large number of children of Russian princes, who divided their lands into separate principalities among their sons. Modern historical science believes that feudal fragmentation in Russia was a natural result of the economic and political development of early feudal society.

Economic factors of feudal fragmentation:

Subsistence economy and economic independence of estates, isolation of estates and communities, growth and strengthening of cities;

Political factors:

Tribal and territorial conflicts, strengthening of the political power of local princes and boyars;

External economic factors:

Temporary elimination of the Polovtsian danger (in 1111, Vladimir Monomakh defeated the Polovtsian khans. Some Polovtsian tribes migrated to the Caucasus).

The largest lands of Russia in the era of feudal fragmentation were: Vladimir-Suzdal principality, Galicia-Volyn principality, Novgorod feudal republic.

Vladimir-Suzdal land. In the north-east of Russia there were fertile lands, "opolye". The most important occupation of the population is agriculture. Crafts and trade play a significant role (the Volga trade route). The most ancient cities of the principality: Rostov (former capital), Suzdal, Murom. The principality gained independence during the reign of Vladimir Monomakh's son Yuri Dolgoruky (1154-1157). He managed to subjugate Kyiv. On the eve of 1147 in the annals for the first time there is a mention of Moscow (on the site of the estate of the boyar Kuchka, confiscated by Yuri Dolgoruky).

Galicia-Volyn principality. It occupied the territory from the Carpathians to Polissya, located on fertile black earth fields interspersed with forests and mountains. On the territory of the principality, rock salt was mined. The principality actively traded with other countries. The main cities are Galich, Vladimir-Volynsky, Przemysl. The rise of the principality took place in the second half of the 12th century under Prince Yaroslav Osmomysl (reigned 1152-1187). Volyn lands were annexed to Galicia in 1199 under Prince Roman Mstislavich (reigned 1170-1205).

This prince captured Kyiv in 1203 and assumed the title of Grand Duke. Under his leadership, successful wars were waged with the Poles, Polovtsy, an active struggle for supremacy over Russian lands. The eldest son of Roman Mstislavich, Daniil Romanovich (reigned 1221-1264), who inherited the principality, went down in history as a militant claimant to the Russian throne with Russian, Polish, and Hungarian princes. He strengthened his position in 1238, and in 1240 he occupied Kyiv and subsequently united South-Western Russia and Kyiv land. After the conquest of Russia by the Mongol-Tatars, Daniil Romanovich found himself in vassal dependence on the Golden Horde, but together with Andrei Yaroslavich persistently opposed it.

Novgorod feudal republic. The possessions of Veliky Novgorod stretched from the White Sea to the Northern Urals. The city was at the crossroads of trade routes. The commercial occupations of the population are hunting, fishing, salt making, iron production, beekeeping. Novgorod, before other lands, began the struggle for independence from Kyiv, revolting in 1136. The boyars, which possessed significant economic power, managed to defeat the prince in the struggle for power, as a result of which a special political system developed in Novgorod - feudal democracy (boyar republic), in which the Veche was the supreme governing body.

The highest official (head of government) in the Novgorod administration was the posadnik (from the word "plant"). The court obeyed him. The head of the militia was appointed - the thousand; he was in charge of the commercial court. Veche elected the head of the Novgorod church - the bishop (archbishop), who disposed of the treasury and controlled the external relations of Novgorod.

Rice. 2. Scheme of the political structure of the Novogorodsk Boyar Republic

To control the militia during military campaigns, the Veche invited the prince; the prince with his retinue maintained order in the city. The prince was instructed: “Without a posadnik, you, prince, do not judge courts, do not keep volosts, do not give letters.” It is symbolic that the residence of the prince was located outside the Kremlin (on Yaroslav's courtyard - the Trade side, and later - on Gorodische). The cities of the Novgorod land - Pskov, Torzhok, Lagoda, Izborsk and others had political self-government and were vassals of Novgorod.

The years of feudal fragmentation in Russia were the result of constant strife and disputes between the heirs of the Grand Duke, who claimed to own the best lands. Princely civil strife reached internal wars, which caused damage to the material wealth of Russia and entailed many victims. The result was the complete separation of the Russian lands into separate principalities with their own independent government. The development of each principality proceeded with characteristic features, depending on the geographical location, climate, neighboring states and historical events.

Largest lands	Galicia-Volyn principality (Chervonnaya Rus)	Novgorod land	Vladimir-Suzdal Principality
Territory	North-eastern slopes of the Carpathians and between the rivers Dniester and Prut.	From the Arctic Ocean to the upper reaches of the Volga, from the Baltic to the Urals.	Interfluve of the Oka and Volga.
economy	Rich fertile lands, established trade relations with Byzantium.	The main occupation is craft and trade. Trade was conducted mainly with German and Danish merchants, also with Byzantium, the countries of the East.	Under the influence of Dolgoruky's policy, the following developed: agriculture, cattle breeding, craft: pottery, blacksmithing, jewelry, construction; trade.
Polit. system	Acute struggle between the boyars and the princes. The princes looked for support in the junior combatants (veche lads).	At the beginning of the 12th century, a republican form of government developed in Novgorod. The veche had the supreme power. The posadnik was the highest official.	Andrei was the first of the Russian princes who decided to start a fight against the specific system. The embodiment of unity.
Rulers	Under the rule of Yaroslav Osmomysl, the principality began to consolidate, grow rich, and enjoy the respect of European rulers. Roman Mstislavich Volynsky - the union of the Galician and Volyn principalities. Daniil Galitsky began the reorganization of his squads, received support against the boyars: “If you don’t crush the bees, don’t eat honey”; one of the few who could resist the Mongol invasion. Under him, trade relations with many countries began to be established again.	The prince, along with his retinue, was invited from other lands. In Novgorod XII-XIII centuries. princes changed 58 times. The absence of their own princely dynasty made it possible to avoid fragmentation and maintain their unity.	Prince Yuri Dolgoruky fought for the mastery of the throne of Kyiv, the first annalistic mention of Moscow (1147) is associated with his name; Under Andrei Bogolyubsky, Vladimir on the Klyazma became the capital of the land, he fought a lot; under Vsevolod the Big Nest, the land reached its greatest power, he took the title of "Grand Duke".
historical destiny	In the XIV century. Under the pressure of the Tatar hordes from the east and the Polish troops from the west, the former principality was divided between Poland, Lithuania and Hungary.	A strong northern city-state, not affected by the Tatar-Mongol invasion, relying on the volost militia, was soon able to stop the onslaught of the Swedish and German knights.	Fell under the pressure of the Mongol-Tatar hordes in the winter of 1238. and was thrown back in its development far back.

The period of feudal fragmentation, traditionally called the “specific period”, lasted from the 12th to the end of the 15th centuries.

Feudal fragmentation weakened the defensive capabilities of the Russian lands. This became noticeable in the second half of the 11th century, when a new strong enemy appeared in the south - the Polovtsy (Turkic nomadic tribes). According to the annals, it is estimated that from 1061 to the beginning of the 13th century. there were over 46 major Cuman invasions.

The internecine wars of the princes, the destruction of cities and villages associated with them, the removal of the population into slavery, became a disaster for the peasants and townspeople. From 1228 to 1462, filed by S. M. Solovyov, there were 90 wars between the Russian principalities, in which there are 35 cases of taking cities, and 106 external wars, of which: 45 - with the Tatars, 41 - with the Lithuanians, 30 - with Livonian Order, the rest - with the Swedes and Bulgars. The population begins to leave Kyiv and neighboring lands to the northeast to the Rostov-Suzdal land and partly to the southwest to Galicia. Occupying the southern Russian steppes, the Polovtsy cut Russia off from foreign markets, which led to a decline in trade. In the same period, European trade routes were replaced by the Balkan-Asian directions as a result of the Crusades. Russian principalities in this regard experienced difficulties in international trade.

In addition to the external ones, the internal reasons for the decline of Kievan Rus also appeared. Klyuchevsky believed that this process was influenced by the degraded legal and economic position of the working population and the significant development of slavery. The courtyards and villages of the princes were full of "servants"; the position of "purchases" and "hires" (semi-free) was on the verge of a slave state. Smerdov, who retained the communities, were crushed by princely extortions and the growing appetites of the boyars. Feudal fragmentation, the growth of political contradictions between the independent principalities expanding their territories led to changes in their social system. The power of the princes became strictly hereditary, the boyars grew stronger, which received the right to freely choose their overlord, the category of free servants (former ordinary warriors) multiplied. In the princely economy, the number of unfree servants, who were engaged in the production and material support of the prince himself, his family, and persons of the princely court, grew.

Features of the divided Russian principalities

As a result of the fragmentation of the ancient Russian state by the middle of the XII century. separated into independent ten states-principalities. Subsequently, by the middle of the 13th century, their number reached eighteen. They were named after the capital cities: Kiev, Chernigov, Pereyaslav, Muromo-Ryazan. Suzdal (Vladimir). Smolensk, Galician, Vladimir-Volynsk, Polotsk, Novgorod Boyar Republic. In each of the principalities, one of the branches of the Rurikovich ruled, and the sons of princes and governors-boyars ruled over separate destinies and volosts. However, in all the lands, the same written language, a single religion and church organization, the legal norms of the Russkaya Pravda, and most importantly, the awareness of common roots, a common historical destiny, were preserved. At the same time, each of the established independent states had its own peculiarities of development. The largest of them, which played a significant role in the subsequent history of Russia, were: Suzdal (later - Vladimir) principality - North-Eastern Russia; Galician (later - Galicia-Volyn) Principality - South-Western Russia; Novgorod Boyar Republic - Novgorod land (North-Western Russia).

Suzdal Principality located between the Oka and Volga rivers. Its territory was well protected from external invasions by forests and rivers, had profitable trade routes along the Volga with the countries of the East, and through the upper Volga - to Novgorod and to the countries of Western Europe. The constant influx of population also contributed to the economic recovery. Prince of Suzdal Yuri Dolgoruky (1125 - 1157) in the struggle with his nephew Izyaslav Mstislavich for the throne of Kyiv repeatedly captured Kyiv. For the first time in the annals under 1147, Moscow is mentioned, where Yuriy negotiated with the Chernigov prince Svyatoslav. The son of Yuri, Andrei Bogolyubsky (1157 - 1174) transferred the capital of the principality from Suzdal to Vladimir, which he rebuilt with great pomp. The northeastern princes ceased to claim to rule in Kyiv, but sought to maintain their influence here, first by organizing military campaigns, then with the help of diplomacy and dynastic marriages. In the fight against the boyars, Andrei was killed by the conspirators. His policy was continued by his half-brother - Vsevolod the Big Nest (1176 - 1212). He had many sons, for which he received such a nickname.

The settlers, who made up a significant proportion of the population, did not preserve the state traditions of Kievan Rus - the role of "veche" and "worlds". Under these conditions, the despotism of the power of the princes is growing, which intensifies the struggle against the boyars. Under Vsevolod, it ended in favor of princely power. Vsevolod managed to establish close ties with Novgorod, where his sons and relatives reigned; defeated the Ryazan principality, organizing the resettlement of part of its inhabitants to his possessions; successfully fought with the Volga Bulgaria, putting a number of its lands under his control, intermarried with the Kyiv and Chernigov princes. He became one of the strongest princes in Russia. His son Yuri (1218 - 1238) founded Nizhny Novgorod and fortified himself in the Mordovian lands. Further development of the principality was interrupted by the Mongol invasion.

Galicia-Volyn principality occupied the northeastern slopes of the Carpathians and the territory between the rivers Dniester and Prut. The favorable geographical position (neighborhood with European states) and climatic conditions contributed to economic development, and the second migration flow from the southern Russian principalities was also directed here (to safer areas). Poles and Germans also settled here.

The rise of the Galician principality began under Yaroslav I Osmomysl (1153 - 1187), and under the Volyn prince Roman Mstislavich in 1199, the Galician and Volyn principalities were unified. In 1203, Roman captured Kyiv. The Galicia-Volyn principality became one of the largest states in feudally fragmented Europe, its close ties with European states were established, Catholicism began to penetrate Russian soil. His son Daniel (1221 - 1264) waged a long struggle for the Galician throne with the western neighbors (Hungarian and Polish princes) and the expansion of the state. In 1240, he united South-Western Russia and the Kyiv land, and established his power in the fight against the boyars. But in 1241, the Galicia-Volyn principality was subjected to Mongol ruin. In the subsequent struggle, Daniel strengthened the principality, and in 1254 he received the royal title from the Pope. However, the Catholic West did not help Daniel in his fight against the Tatars. Daniel was forced to recognize himself as a vassal of the Horde Khan. Having existed for about a hundred years, the Galicia-Volyn state became part of Poland and Lithuania, which had a great influence on the formation of the Ukrainian people. The Grand Duchy of Lithuania included the western Russian principalities - Polotsk, Vitebsk, Minsk, Drutsk, Turov-Pinsk, Novgorod-Seversk, etc. The Belarusian nationality was formed as part of this state.

Novgorod boyar republic. Novgorod land is the most important component of the ancient Russian state. During the period of feudal fragmentation, it retained its political significance, economic and trade relations with the West and East, covered the territory from the Arctic Ocean to the upper reaches of the Volga from north to south, from the Baltic and almost to the Urals from west to east. A huge land fund belonged to the local boyars. The latter, using the uprising of the Novgorodians in 1136, managed to defeat the princely power and establish a boyar republic. The veche became the supreme body, where the most important issues of life were decided and the Novgorod administration was elected. In fact, the largest boyars of Novgorod were the owners of it. The posadnik became the chief official in the administration. He was elected from the noblest families of Novgorodians. Veche also elected the head of the Novgorod church, who disposed of the treasury, controlled external relations and even had his own army. From the end of the XII century. the post of head of the commercial and economic sphere of life in Novgorod society was called "thousand". Usually it was occupied by large merchants. Certain positions were maintained in Novgorod by princely power. Veche invited the prince to wage war, but even the residence of the prince was outside the Novgorod Kremlin. The wealth and military power of Novgorod made the Novgorod Republic an influential force in Russia. Novgorodians became a military support in the fight against German and Swedish aggression against Russian lands. The Mongol invasion did not reach Novgorod. Extensive trade relations with Europe determined the significant influence of the West in the Novgorod Republic. Novgorod became one of the major trade, craft and cultural centers not only in Russia, but also in Europe. The high level of culture of Novgorodians shows the degree of literacy of the population, which can be seen from the "birch bark letters" discovered by archaeologists, the number of which exceeds a thousand.

Appearance in the second half of the XI century. - the first third of the XIII century. new political centers contributed to the growth and development of culture. During the period of feudal fragmentation, one of the greatest creations of ancient Russian culture, The Tale of Igor's Campaign, arose. Its author, touching upon the circumstances of the defeat of the Novgorod-Seversky prince Igor Svyatoslavich in an everyday clash with the Polovtsians (1185), was able to turn it into a tragedy of a national scale. "The Tale of Igor's Campaign" became a prophetic warning against the danger of princely strife, sounded for four decades on the eve of the devastating Tatar-Mongol invasion.

Synopsis on the history of Russia

In the XII century. period begins on the territory of Russia political fragmentation, a natural historical stage in the development of feudalism.

The specific period is full of complex, contradictory processes. On the one hand - the flourishing and strengthening of individual lands, for example, Novgorod, Vladimir, on the other hand - a clear weakening of the overall military potential, the fragmentation of princely possessions intensified. If in the middle of the XII century. in Russia there were 15 states, at the beginning of the XIII century. - about 50, then in the XIV century, when the process of consolidation had already begun, the number of states reached 250.

This process was natural not only for the history of Russia. Similar processes took place in Europe, for example, the collapse of the Carolingian empire.

The real power of the Kyiv princes already in the middle of the XII century. limited to Kyiv itself. The attempt of Yaropolk, who became the prince of Kyiv after the death of Mstislav, to arbitrarily dispose of the "fatherlands" of other princes was decisively suppressed. Despite the loss of all-Russian significance by Kyiv, the struggle for its possession continued until the Mongol invasion. The Kyiv table passed from hand to hand, depending on the balance of power between the rival princely and boyar groups. Soon the rulers of the strongest principalities, who had become "great" in their lands, began to put dependent princes - "handmaids" on the Kyiv table. The strife turned the Kyiv land into an arena of frequent hostilities, as a result of which cities and villages were ruined, the population was driven into captivity. All this predetermined the gradual decline of Kyiv.

The complex of causes that gave rise to fragmentation, covered almost all spheres of society:
- the dominance of natural economy;
- lack of strong economic ties between different parts of Kievan Rus;
- features of the transfer of princely power not from father to son, but to the eldest in the family, the division of territory between heirs;
- civil strife of princes;
- the growth of cities;
- weakening of the central government, i.е. Kyiv prince;
- strengthening the administrative apparatus in each feudal estate;
- the growth of economic and political independence of local princely dynasties, the growth of political separatism;
- the development of large land ownership, the active development of crafts, the complication of the social structure, the emergence of the nobility;
- loss of Kyiv's historical role in connection with the movement of trade routes from Europe to the East.

In 1097, the Lyubech congress established: "everyone keeps his homeland." It was a transition to new political system.

Among the most famous new formations stood out: Vladimir-Suzdal, Galicia-Volyn, Kiev, Polotsk, Smolensk, Chernigov principalities, as well as the boyar republics: Novgorod and Pskov, which separated from it somewhat later.

A feature of the new era was that in these formations, as their further economic and political development, the process of fragmentation, the allocation of new possessions, appanages did not stop.

The feudal fragmentation of Russia led to the following consequences:
- the rise of the economy and culture of individual principalities and lands;
- fragmentation of principalities between heirs;
- conflicts between princes and local boyars;
- weakening of the defense capability of Russia.

Of the feudal formations into which the Old Russian state broke up, the most notable in terms of power and influence on all-Russian affairs were: the Vladimir-Suzdal principality, the Galicia-Volyn principality and the Novgorod land.

Vladimir-Suzdal The principality occupied the territory between the Oka and Volga rivers, covered by forests from the Polovtsian raids. Masses of people moved here from the southern principalities bordering the steppe. In the XII - XIII centuries. Rostov-Suzdal the land experienced an economic and political upsurge, which put it in a number of the strongest principalities of Russia. The cities of Dmitrov, Kostroma, Tver, Nizhny Novgorod, Gorodets, Galich, Starodub, etc. arose. In 1108, Vladimir Monomakh founded the city of Vladimir on the Klyazma River, which later became the capital of all North-Eastern Russia. The political significance of the Rostov-Suzdal land increases sharply under Yuri Dolgoruky (1125-1157). Under 1147, Moscow was first mentioned in the annals - a small border town founded by Yuri Dolgoruky. In 1156, a wooden "city" was built in Moscow.

Dolgoruky pursued an active foreign policy, subjugated Ryazan and Murom, organized several campaigns against Kyiv. This policy was continued by his son Andrei Bogolyubsky (1157-1174), who laid the foundation for the struggle of the Suzdal princes for political supremacy over the rest of the Russian lands. In internal affairs, relying on the support of the townspeople and warriors, Andrei dealt harshly with the recalcitrant boyars, expelled them from the principality, confiscated their estates. To strengthen his position, he moved the capital from the ancient citadel of Rostov to Vladimir, a young city with a significant trade and craft settlement. After a successful campaign against Kyiv in 1169, the role of the political center of Russia passed to Vladimir.

The dissatisfaction of the boyar opposition led to the assassination of Andrei, followed by a two-year struggle and further strengthening of princely power. The heyday came during the reign of Andrei's brother - Vsevolod the Big Nest (1176-1212). During his reign, the Vladimir-Suzdal land reached its highest prosperity and power, playing a decisive role in the political life of Russia. He broke the resistance of the old boyars. Ryazan and Novgorod were again "at hand" of the Vladimir prince. However, after his death, a new period of strife in the principality nullified all efforts, which especially weakened Russia before the Mongol invasion.

Galicia-Volyn the land stretched from the Carpathians to the Black Sea region in the south, to the Polotsk land in the north. In the west, it bordered on Hungary and Poland, in the east - on Kyiv land and the Polovtsian steppe. There were favorable conditions for the development of agriculture and animal husbandry. Craft reached a high level, there were more cities than in other Russian lands (Galic, Przemysl, Vladimir-Volynsky, Kholm, Berestye, etc.). Galician land until the middle of the XII century. It was divided into several small principalities, which in 1141 were united by Przemysl prince Vladimir Volodarevich, who moved his capital to Galich. The principality of Galicia reached its peak under Yaroslav Osmomysl (1152-1187). After his death, the principality became for a long time the arena of the struggle between the princes and the influential boyars.

The Volyn land became isolated from Kyiv in the middle of the 12th century, becoming the "fatherland" of the descendants of the Kyiv Grand Duke Izyaslav Mstislavovich. In contrast to the Galician land, a large princely domain formed early in Volhynia - the basis of a strong princely power. Boyar land ownership grew mainly due to princely grants to serving boyars, their support allowed the Volyn princes to actively fight for the expansion of their "fatherland".

In 1199, the Volyn prince Roman Mstislavovich united the Volyn and Galician lands, and with the occupation of Kyiv in 1203, all of Southern and South-Western Russia fell under his rule. The favorable geographical position contributed to the growth of the principality's political significance and its economic prosperity. The rise in the economy was explained by the decline in the international role of the route "from the Varangians to the Greeks", which was under the control of the Polovtsy - the trade routes moved west, to the Galician lands.

After the death of Roman, who actively fought against the boyars, a period of feudal unrest began (1205-1236). Hungary and Poland actively intervened in the internal political struggle of the principality. Relying on the trade and craft population, Roman's son Daniel in 1236 managed to break the main forces of the opposition. The grand princely power won, there was a tendency to overcome fragmentation. But this process was interrupted by the invasion of the Tatar-Mongols.

A special political system of the feudal republic, different from the monarchical principalities, took shape in the 12th century. in Novgorod land.

Three factors were decisive for the economy of Novgorod:
1. The prominent role of trade, especially foreign trade - from the north, Novgorod controlled the route "from the Varangians to the Greeks";
2. A large share in the economy of handicraft production;
3. The abundance of land-colonies, which were an important source of commercial products.

6) Feudal fragmentation - the process of economic strengthening and political isolation of individual lands. This process has gone through all the major Western European countries; in Russia - from the XII to the XV centuries. The reasons for feudal fragmentation were: the weakening of the central government, the lack of strong economic ties between the lands, the predominance of subsistence farming; the growth of cities that have become centers of economic and political development; the emergence and strengthening in the specific principalities of their own princely dynasties. Reasons for the fragmentation of Russia:

1. Economic:

patrimonial property and princely domain developed.

Every land had a subsistence economy

2. Political:

The emergence of feudal clans, the church hierarchy was formed

Kyiv, as a center, has lost its former role

Russia did not need to be united militarily

Confused order of succession

3. The collapse of Russia was not complete:

There was a single Russian church

During enemy raids, Russian princes united

Several regional centers have survived that claimed the role of association

The beginning of this process is attributed to the time of the death of Yaroslav the Wise (1019 - 1054), when Kievan Rus was divided between his sons: Izyaslav, Svyatoslav and Vsevolod. Vladimir Monomakh (1113 - 1125) managed to maintain the unity of the Russian land only by the power of his authority, but after his death, the collapse of the state became unstoppable. At the beginning of the 12th century, about 15 principalities and lands formed on the basis of Kievan Rus by the middle of the 12th century, about 50 principalities by the beginning of the 13th century, and about 250 in the 14th century. It is difficult to establish the exact number of principalities, since along with the fragmentation there was another process: the formation of strong principalities, which attracted small neighboring lands into the orbit of their influence. Of course, the Russian princes understood the destructiveness of crushing and especially bloody strife. Three princely congresses became evidence of this: Lyubechsky 1097 (obligations to stop civil strife with the condition that the princes inherit their estates); Vitichevsky 1100 (conclusion of peace between the princes Svyatopolk Izyaslavich, Vladimir Monomakh, Oleg and Davyd Svyatoslavich, etc.); Dolobsky 1103 (organization of a campaign against the Polovtsians). However, it was impossible to stop the crushing process. Vladimir-Suzdal land occupied the territory between the Oka and Volga rivers. The Vladimir-Suzdal principality becomes independent of Kyiv under Yuri (1125-1157). For the constant desire to expand his territory and subjugate Kyiv, he received the nickname "Dolgoruky". The initial center was Rostov, but already under Yuri, Suzdal, and then Vladimir, assumed the main importance. Yuri Dolgoruky did not consider the Vladimir-Suzdal principality as his main possession. Kyiv remained his goal. He captured the city several times, was expelled, captured again and eventually became the prince of Kyiv. Under Yuri, a number of new cities were founded on the territory of the principality: Yuryev, Pereyaslavl-Zalessky, Zvenigorod. Moscow was first mentioned in chronicles in 1147. The eldest son of Yuri, Andrei Bogolyubsky (1157-1174), having received Vyshgorod (near Kyiv) from his father, left him and, together with his entourage, went to Rostov. After the death of his father, Andrei did not occupy the Kyiv throne, but began to strengthen his principality. The capital was moved from Rostov to Vladimir, not far from which a country residence was founded - Bogolyubovo (hence the nickname of the prince - "Bogolyubsky"). Andrei Yurievich pursued an energetic policy of strengthening princely power and oppressing the boyars. His abrupt and often autocratic actions aroused the dissatisfaction of the major boyars and, as a result, led to the death of the prince. The policy of Andrei Bogolyubsky was continued by his half-brother Vsevolod the Big Nest (1176-1212). He brutally dealt with the boyars who killed his brother. Power in the principality was finally established in the form of a monarchy. Under Vsevolod, the Vladimir-Suzdal land reaches its maximum expansion due to the fact that the Ryazan and Murom princes declare themselves dependent on Vsevolod. After the death of Vsevolod, the Vladimir-Suzdal land broke up into seven principalities, and then reunited under the leadership of the Vladimir prince.

Galicia-Volyn principality. An active role in the life of the principality was played by a strong local boyars, who were in constant struggle with the princely power. The policy of neighboring states - Poland and Hungary, also had a great influence, where both princes and representatives of boyar groups turned for help. Until the middle of the XII century, the Galician land was divided into small principalities. In 1141 Prince Vladimir Volodarevich of Przemysl united

them, moving the capital to Galich. In the first years of separation from Kyiv, the Galician and Volyn principalities existed as two independent ones. The rise of the Galician principality began under Yaroslav Osmomysl of Galicia (1153-1187). The unification of the Galician and Volyn principalities took place in 1199 under the Volyn prince Roman Mstislavich (1170-1205). In 1203 he captured Kyiv and assumed the title of Grand Duke. The eldest son of Roman Mstislavich, Daniel (1221-1264), was only four years old when his father died. Daniel had to endure a long struggle for the throne with both the Hungarian, Polish, and Russian princes. Only in 1238 Daniil Romanovich asserted his power over the Galicia-Volyn principality. In 1240, having occupied Kyiv, Daniel managed to unite southwestern Russia and Kyiv land. However, in the same year, the Galicia-Volyn principality was ravaged by the Mongol-Tatars, and 100 years later these lands became part of Lithuania and Poland.

Novgorod boyar republic. The territory of the Novgorod land was divided into five patches, which in turn were divided into hundreds and graveyards. The rise of Novgorod was facilitated by an exceptionally advantageous geographical position: the city was located at the crossroads of trade routes. In 1136 Novgorod separated from Kyiv. Boyar agriculture developed early in the Novgorod land. All fertile lands were actually redistributed among the boyars, which did not lead to the creation of a large princely estate. The rebellious citizens expelled Prince Vsevolod Mstislavich for "neglect" of the city's interests. A republican system was established in Novgorod. The highest body of power in Novgorod was the assembly of free citizens - owners of yards and estates in the city - veche. Veche discussed issues of domestic and foreign policy, invited the prince, concluded an agreement with him. At the veche, a posadnik, a thousand, an archbishop was elected. The posadnik was in charge of administration and court, controlled the activities of the prince. Tysyatsky led the people's militia and ruled the court on commercial matters. The actual power in the republic was in the hands of the boyars and the top merchants. Throughout its history, the positions of posadniks, thousands and

Koncha elders were occupied only by representatives of the elite nobility, called "300 golden belts". The "smaller" or "black" people of Novgorod were subjected to arbitrary exactions from the "better" people, i.e. the boyars and the tops of the privileged merchant class. The answer to this was the frequent uprisings of ordinary Novgorodians. Novgorod waged a constant struggle for its independence against the neighboring principalities, primarily against Vladimir-Suzdal, who sought to subjugate the rich and free city. Novgorod was an outpost of the defense of Russian lands from the crusader aggression of the German and Swedish feudal lords.

Feudal fragmentation existed in Russia until the end of the 15th century, when most of the territory of Kievan Rus united as part of the Russian centralized state with its capital in Moscow. The ensuing feudal fragmentation made it possible to more firmly establish the system of feudal relations in Russia. Each individual principality developed faster and more successfully than when it was in alliance with other lands. Further economic development, the growth of cities, the flourishing of culture are characteristic of this era. However, the disintegration of a single power also had negative consequences, the main of which was an increase in vulnerability to external danger. Despite the process of fragmentation, the inhabitants of the Russian lands retained the consciousness of their religious and ethnic unity, which later became the basis for the process of centralization. At the head of this process was northeastern Russia, which had the following features: extensive agriculture, the dominance of the peasant community and collective values, and despotic power. It was this region that became the birthplace of Russian civilization.