Periods of development of physiognomy as a science. Physiognomy among primitive peoples. Practical, morphological and physiological periods of the study of physiognomy. Anthropological physiognomy. Its differences, goals and objectives. Methods of its research. reasons for its development. Influence of ethnographic conditions on the complication of questions on anthropological physiognomy. Research methods of mixed and varying tribes. The method of medium forms and the selection of typical representatives. The value of images in physiognomic research. Conditions required from images of tribes for their scientific study from a physiognomic point of view. Photographs as a way of studying the successive changes in the anthropological characteristics of tribes. Artistic portraits as monuments to the mental and moral changes of the tribes, reflected in facial expressions and in the transmission of their feelings. The method of averages is especially convenient for the study of tribes that have been preserved in greater purity. The method of searching for typical representatives as especially useful in the study of mixed populations. What should be taken as a type in a mixed population?

Physiognomy, as the art of recognizing the properties and sensations of the human soul by facial features, is very old. It began with the manifestation of the first beginning of social self-consciousness in human society, from the time when a person began to put his general observations and conclusions into oral traditions. If you look at physiognomy as a means of noticing sensations, then it is not even exclusively characteristic of a person. Everyone knows that animals, according to the so-called instinct, are able to distinguish, relative to each other and relative to man, various shades of mental states, although in this respect they do not go further than the most obvious and most tangible of them: anger, horror, a pleasant mood of friendly feelings can also express, and convey many animals. Man alone belongs only to the fact that he raised his physiognomic impressions into a system, expressed in a number of positions, comprehended by generalization and analysis; but this is what makes up the whole fundamental difference between man and animals, since inference, generalization and science, or not only knowledge, but also knowledge, represent the undoubted rights of man to a special kingdom, sharply separated by conscious thought from the animal kingdom. That physiognomic generalizations exist among the most primitive races, who do not have real knowledge or science, is also proved by savages who disfigure their faces and hairstyles, make themselves fantastic costumes in order to frighten the enemy with them, to seem more terrible. The priests of even the most primitive religions invent tricks to act on the imagination and will of those present, and in these tricks the expression of the face, gestures and movements play an important role, which should testify to their supernatural will, to their power, emerging from the ordinary order of things. That the art of practically applying physiognomic observations to everyday needs is one of the most ancient, shows the existence everywhere of hypocrites and coquettes. The whole task, both of those and of others, in fact, is to, either with the help of skill and willpower, or with the help of artificial tricks and artificial means, to produce an impression that is not what their faces and movements would have given them given from nature conditions and their natural manifestation; this striving already presupposes by itself the consciousness that physiognomic properties are constantly acting on others, that they notice them, are carried away by them, draw one or another judgment, one or another conclusion from them. The desire and need to know who you are dealing with, what you can count on and what you will find in a person, caused from ancient times the art of physiognomy, both in terms of giving it one form or another, which can be called the art of active working physiognomy, and making a judgment about the meaning and properties of known physiognomic data, which can be called passive or observant physiognomy. Both have the goal of producing, or capturing, certain mental properties and movements, certain mental aspects of a person, and therefore they can constitute a special form or stage in the development of physiognomic knowledge, which can be called practical physiognomy, the most ancient in its manifestation, rooted not so much in conscious thinking as in unconscious impressions and instinctive sensations. They can be called unconscious in the sense that a person directly takes them from experience, as a known fact, accompanied by one or another consequence, one or another pleasant or unpleasant manifestation, and does not analyze his impressions in the least, does not systematize them, does not bring them into any or doctrine. In this sense, a person in such a phase of his physiognomic data has not gone far from the animal and acts under the influence of one or another impression more reflectively than consciously.

A new stage in the development of human society appears, a period of consciousness begins, the first roots of scientific methods, and a person begins to systematize the phenomena surrounding him. Since the first thing that is accessible to his direct observation, which is not yet based on a whole series of obtained scientific methods, is appearance, this is a form, then a person, on the one hand, exaggerates the significance of this form, and on the other hand, tries to understand a number of these forms, grouping them according to affinity, by similarity, by known qualities. Scientific information does not yet give a person the opportunity to reach the immediate causes of the phenomenon; he does not yet know anatomy, he is still unfamiliar with the physiological significance of the factors that make up the human body; for him there is one outer shell, which is the only means of finding an answer to a series, and a series of more and more numerous questions that arise along with mental development. This shell hides from him the secret of spiritual phenomena in the organism, but it itself is a reflection of an unknown inner principle and mechanism; it reflects its course, its various manifestations. It is natural to notice the modifications of these internal manifestations on the external shell accessible to observation, to study all the features of the external form, constantly associated with certain moral and mental manifestations, to put them in order, into a system, to make them convenient for inspection and obtaining some practical conclusions. Is the systematization of physiognomic phenomena, their morphological study; is the first stage of the scientific study of physiognomy - morphological physiognomy, beyond which this branch of the study of man did not go until the first quarter of this century. What are the works of Lavater, Bruyère and others, if not the systematization of known physiognomic phenomena and their classification? A sloping forehead is an expression of dullness, or at least of short-term mental development; a thick and prominent lower lip is a sign of the development of sensuality; flat lips - tricks; a look that quickly lights up under the influence of some impression is an indication of impressionability, inconstancy, etc. An essential step forward of this stage in the development of physiognomy, in comparison with the previous one, is that here the number of mental moments that are being studied is already increasing significantly. Not only the initial, most prominent emotions (anger, horror, fear, love) are already being studied, but things go further: the gradations of these mental manifestations are analyzed, whole series of already more scientifically analyzed mental properties are added. They try to notice how memory, imagination, nobility, honesty, religiosity, etc. are expressed in physiognomy, that is, those properties that only a person is able to notice, and, moreover, a person standing even at a significant degree of mental development, already familiar with the initial scientific knowledge. Some anatomical data have already been obtained; the skeleton, and especially the skull, are already known in their details and in their modifications. The importance of the brain as the central organ of the inner spiritual life is already known, or at least, during the first successes of this period, it was found out that the head, and not the stomach, constitutes the guiding part of the organism. Physiognomy, from an art solely based on the study of facial expression and movements, passes to the observation of the facts of the structure of the skull; it develops, as a separate branch, cranioscopy, skullology, the art of judging the properties of a person by modifications of the skull. Palmistry, or the art of recognizing the fate and life of a person along the lines, obviously belongs to a completely different area of ​​\u200b\u200bapplications of the morphological properties of a person, since it is based on the fatalistic view of some kind of supernatural relationship between the lines of the hands and the events of life, and from this side it obviously does not have nothing to do with physiognomy, based on the undoubtedly existing correlation between the physical structure and mental manifestations. But even in it you can find some features based on positive observations. Thick fingers, muscular arms are found in a strong, physically developed organization; elongated, thin fingers, nervousness of the hand, as the physiognomists expressed it, indicates the predominance of mental life, or at least a predisposition to it. There are general properties of organization, manifestations of temperament, which are expressed not only in physiognomy, but also in the limbs: it is not without reason that small legs so often affect the hearts and heads of people, and in this case their smallness and grace are supposed evidence of the elegance of the nature of the whole person, more its high development.

Morphological physiognomy, to a greater or lesser extent, is the property of every developed person. Each has compiled for himself a well-known code of physiognomic data, by which he judges others. The soul of man is hidden, and it is precisely everything hidden that excites our curiosity especially. Everyone wants to penetrate into the depths of the moral life of another, to know what one can expect or hope from him, not to mention the practical goals that make practical physiognomy necessary in life. In addition to the instinctive desire to judge by facial expression who you are dealing with, there is also a completely Platonic, inquisitive desire to notice what is happening in another. In this curiosity, women and children are distinguished by a special gift for correctly guessing and noticing, whose natures are more integral, or rather more primitive, understanding this word in the sense that they are less one-sided and have not so darkened their impressions with system and theory, as is usually the case. with men. The best practical physiognomists are subordinates of all ranks and states, who depend on the unconditional will of their master or boss, and therefore, by necessity, study his physiognomy to perfection.

Science develops further and already goes beyond those limits in which it should have been limited to facts and external classification. It is already becoming insufficient for her to know that certain properties and features of form are associated with certain manifestations of character, mind and will. She needs to go further; she feels the need to find out why this is so, what determines this connection between fact and result. Is the study of causes and effects, and not only the previous and the next. In natural science, and specifically in the study of organic bodies, external morphology, more or less external classification methods, are followed by a deeper and more scientific anatomical and physiological study of phenomena. First, the scalpel shows the number, shape and position of those constituent parts that make up the appearance of the body, then observation and experience with the action of these parts provide the key to understanding their relative significance and mutual relationship. Physiognomy, as a particular branch of the knowledge of organic bodies, should also have taken this path in due time, and it was revealed to it from the time the anatomist's knife recognized all the constituent parts of the body, as the physiologist recognized their origin. Since in itself the anatomical meaning of the parts without understanding their function does not mean much for physiognomic purposes, the subsequent scientific period in the development of physiognomy can be called physiological. For him worked, consciously or unconsciously, all those anatomists and physiologists, to whose work we owe knowledge of the composition and significance of the constituent parts of the face and the relationship of various organ systems of the human body. The best exponent of the purely physiognomic goals of the period of physiological physiognomy is Duchenne, a French scientist who applied electricity to the study of the actions of various muscles of the face, forced certain muscles of the face to contract under the action of a current, studied the expressions during these contractions, took photographic images of these expressions and tried to find out what action what muscles causes this or that mental mood, this or that expression of sensations. The same physiological direction, with the same desire to find the anatomical and physiological causes of morphological changes in facial expression and sensations, was followed in their works by Graziola and Darwin, who in their writings provided a lot of very important data for the scientific construction of this branch of our knowledge. Darwin's work is also important in the sense that it also outlines many indications of the so-called anthropological physiognomy, the immediate subject of our consideration.

Art, painting and sculpture could also not remain indifferent to physiognomic data, especially since, as we have seen, physiognomy itself stood for a long time only at the level of art. These physiognomic observations were expressed with particular clarity in the sculpture of the ancients, especially when they depicted their gods. Since the ancient Greek deities were the idealization and embodiment of known human properties, in each of them the artists depicted some physiognomic type. So Jupiter was supposed to express the power of the will, the calm consciousness of strength. Juno was the personification of calm virtue, Venus of material beauty; Minerva was considered the personification of a virtuous mind, so to speak, that is, a mind directed towards good deeds, softened by female kindness. Mercury was the personification of the practical mind, which had the ability to often turn in the wrong direction. Hercules was a model of reasonable physical strength, gladiators are only a type of strong physical development. All these ideals of known properties were given both corresponding facial features and a harmonious expression. The actual basis for such reconstructions was either observation of living people, representing to an outstanding degree certain mental or moral properties and characterized by a special development of certain parts of the body (mainly the head and face), or observations of the expression of animals. And until now we often make similar observations and apply them to our physiognomic judgments: we are talking about a fox's facial expression, about cat's grips, about ram's eyes, an eagle's look, a lion's tread. Primitive man, who was closer to nature, often even idolized animals, was even more inclined than ours to notice and assimilate the physiognomy of animals and was more capable, due to unblunted susceptibility, to catch various expressions of properties and sensations in animals. In some respects, it was easier for primitive man to observe animals in terms of expression and sensations than with people, since they are here more primitive, more characteristic than in humans, less masked by various complications acquired by education and habit, less complex. Primitive sculpture left us data for anthropological physiognomy: on Egyptian monuments, for example. We already meet figures in which we can distinguish different tribes by their characteristic features, often conveyed by a few characteristic strokes. Until recently, in matters of physiognomy, the main goal was a person in general, his properties, his passions, the manifestation of his spiritual properties. If there were attempts to point out the facts of racial, tribal physiognomy, then these attempts were accidental. They were limited to the sharpest, most prominent signs, easily evident to any observer, and for the most part had the same meaning as the images of tailed people, cyclops, freaks, fantastic animals had in ancient writings. It was the recording and perpetuating of real or imagined facts based on misinterpreted observations. Only the last time, even the very last, deserves the merit of elucidating the principles of true anthropological physiognomy. True, we already find descriptions of various tribes in earlier anthropologists; travelers have given us a whole series of images of the inhabitants of different countries and localities, but all this is still far from real scientific tribal physiognomy. Even now she is in her infancy and is waiting for her final establishment. It is in almost the same state as descriptive natural science was before the time of Linnaeus. A lot was written and described before him, a lot of images of natural historical objects were given, but the trouble was that everyone described at his own discretion, drew attention to what particularly struck him, expressed it in terms that he found most convenient, and sometimes and the most eloquent, capable of acting more on the imagination than on the elucidation of particulars. Modern natural science allows one eloquence: an accurate and correct description of facts. It put a limit to the inventiveness of images and comparisons for the natural scientist, giving him from the time of Linnaeus a set of laws that determine both the meaning and the application of well-known definite terms. The language has become less flowery and oratory has nowhere to roam in the descriptions, which have become brief, dry, but understandable, accurate and easily comparable. The infancy of anthropological physiognomy is expressed mainly in the fact that there is still a lot of room for descriptive ingenuity in this department of research, that physiognomic phenomena are not subsumed under rubrics and system, which is not yet known in what cases and where what signs are of predominant importance.

Not much information and observation is needed to distinguish a Negro from a white, a Kalmyk physiognomy from a common European type, a gypsy from a Great Russian. But such sharp types are comparatively few, and the divisions of human groups called tribes are considerable in number. Is it possible to apply physiognomic data to their difference; what to look for their distinctive features; what properties can be considered physiognomically characteristic in each tribe; what limit of variations is observed between these signs in the environment of a natural group or tribe: these are some of those essential questions that are associated with the consideration of physiognomic data from an anthropological point of view or with the so-called anthropological physiognomy. Obviously, this particular branch of the study of the shape of the face and the expression of sensations has to present completely unique tasks, different from those considered by general physiognomy, be it practical, morphological or physiological. For a physiognomist-non-anthropologist, it is important how inner life manifests itself in external changes in a person under the influence of certain conditions, what organs under its influence and how it uses it in certain conditions. For the modern anthropologist-naturalist, the study of man is not at all the immediate task, it is the work of the anatomist, physiologist, psychologist and philosopher. For him, those variations are important that in their form and structure represent tribes, and are important insofar as they make it possible to distinguish and group these tribes, to find differences and similarities in them in order to be able to classify them naturally, to recreate that genealogical tree, according to which they developed from each other under the influence of various causes. The anthropologist takes the material already obtained by anatomists and physiologists, bases his conclusions on it, but applies the conclusions obtained by other branches of knowledge to his own special goals. Just as the zoologist relies on histology, embryology, and comparative anatomy for his specially zoological purposes, which consist in the study of the laws of development of organisms, taken in aggregate and under the influence of the historical conditions of this development, and just as the task in this case is clearly unique and purposes, and according to methods, if not observations, then groupings of facts, so the anthropologist in all his science in general and in its physiognomic part in particular takes both anatomical and physiological facts, but groups them and adds them according to his special purpose. If anthropology, in the close natural-historical meaning of this word, is considered different both in purpose, in composition, and in methods from the closest branches of knowledge that are in contact with it, which constitute the necessary foundation for it, then anthropological physiognomy can be singled out with the same right. in a special group in relation to general physiognomy, which pursues the study of expression and sensations in a person in general.

With such a task, anthropological physiognomy will have both its own peculiar character and its own special techniques. First, for her, the physiological significance of physiognomic data will be of very little interest. The ability to understand sensations and impressions, expressed in physiognomic phenomena, in its most important expressions is equally inherent in all tribes, and not only them, but also animals. None of the people caress with a growl, a ferocious expression, waving their fists and trying to bite; no one will fight with a touched and enthusiastic face or express his pleasure with gnashing of teeth and tragic weeping. True, there are tears of joy, but who does not distinguish them by facial expression from manifestations of grief and pain? Animals growl when they caress, but the object of their affection understands well all the sentimentality and tenderness of this growl. If it were otherwise, then people from different countries would not understand, according to physiognomic data, spiritual manifestations in strangers alien to them. But the savages who torture the whites easily distinguish a brave man from a cowardly one, a strong will from a cowardly one. What, speaking in general, can an anthropologist find for himself in these general expressions of sensations for his special purposes? Of course, there are very few, and therefore he puts them in the background, and if he is interested in them, then only when, either due to some peculiarity of the tribe, or the property they have acquired, these expressions become tribal, but even in this case they are for the most part, they are only ethnographic questionable data, and not anthropological, that is, in other words: here in most cases they are original and modified under the influence of social and domestic conditions, the result of tradition and re-acceptance, and not a change in organization. Therefore, anthropological physiognomy takes the most important and essential part of the materials for its conclusions from the anatomical or morphological data of the structure of the face and body, as those that are rooted hereditarily, are transmitted in a natural way, constitute the differences inherent in the tribes. For its purposes, anthropological physiognomy sometimes puts in a prominent place in its conclusions such signs that are not important for a physiognomist in general, such as, for example, the color of hair and eyes.

Strictly speaking, one could call this side of anthropological study not anthropological physiognomy, but anthropological morphology, a department that studies the general form and habitus of tribes, leaving to physiognomy those tasks that are attributed to it by physiologists and psychologists, but this would hardly be convenient. Of course, one can find fault with the term we have adopted and raise more or less witty objections against it, but would the benefit from them be equal to the wasted wit and dialectics? This term is convenient because it directly characterizes both the purpose of observing physiognomic data with the word "anthropological", and a special subject of study - physiognomy or habitus, the general appearance of the tribe. True, we are accustomed to attaching a more special and narrower meaning to the word physiognomy, limiting it in the hostel to the region of the face. But this is also not true: not a single physiognomist draws his conclusions on only one change in facial features, not a single physiognomic treatise is limited solely to the analysis of facial changes. Often the face, under the influence of willpower, is silent, but the mood of the soul is expressed by a barely noticeable nervousness of the hand, by a quick fleeting movement of the body. All physiognomists take into account the physiognomy of animals, and in them the facial parts play a secondary role in the vast majority of cases, and the nature of sensations is expressed more in the make-up of the body, in posture, in techniques. A person's face is only a more mobile and subtle reflection of what is happening, a more accessible mirror of mental states, and therefore it rightfully takes precedence, but far from excluding the rest. Moreover, if we were to replace this term we have used with the expression "anthropological morphology", this would not improve matters by far. Everyone, although not always fully, will understand what anthropological physiognomy means, but the same cannot be said about the term anthropological morphology, which has an immeasurably broader and less sharply defined content. What cannot be summed up under this word from the structure of tribes! Everything that represents a characteristic form in the structure of the body and its organs will fit here, and it will probably be necessary to invent a new term for the anthropological study of the habitus of tribes. Let us use what we have accepted, since at the slightest desire to understand it, it is quite clear and definite.

Anthropological physiognomy, taken in the sense indicated by us, studies the whole figure of a person in its external properties and manifestations, to what extent they deviate from others, to what extent they are characteristic of one or another tribe. She takes her data from height, from deviations from the norm of all parts of the body. Its method is the method of measurement, the method of proportions for some parts, the method of strict classification of features and their meanings on the other. It distributes these colors by numbers and thus gives observers located in the most remote areas from each other the opportunity to designate the same color phenomenon in exactly the same way and similarly, regardless of the subjective properties and views of the persons conducting the study. She replaced the general descriptive signs "large, small, medium, short and long" with known proportions of parts and gave limits by which anyone could form an accurate idea of ​​the relative size and shape of an organ.

How important this is in many cases is shown by daily repeated experience during excavations. A more or less significant skull, taken out of the barrow, and especially the bones of the limbs, are recognized by non-specialists as usually belonging, if not to giants, then especially to large individuals, while comparison shows that there is nothing here that goes beyond the ordinary level. How wrong the eye is and how subject to personal differences views on the size of objects is known to everyone. If we take into account that observations on tribes in the vast majority of cases are made not by physicians and anatomists, but by travelers who have only general scientific information, then the introduction of schemes for physiognomic observations, the clarification of methods for accurately determining the meaning of observations and their correct registration are of considerable importance. The small successes of anthropological physiognomy, not in relation to the collection of facts, but, if possible, inferences from them, are explained by the fact that only very recently a start has been made to the development of uniform methods of observation and research in anthropological physiognomy.

The tasks of a tribal physiognomic study are very difficult for many reasons, and this must also be taken into account when evaluating what has been done so far. Any natural-historical fact is observed and assimilated the easier, the simpler it is, the less complex it is and the less it has changed from various extraneous causes. If the tribes had retained their original purity, their marks of race would have remained intact, then the matter would have been comparatively easy. But the globe, precisely in relation to man, presents us with the most intricate problem in this case. According to most anthropologists, there are no tribes left on the globe that have never been mixed; according to others, their number is extremely small and limited, since the vast majority of what we now call tribes are the result of historical mixtures of different tribes. In addition, the very concept of a tribe is very elastic: any group separated by religion, dialect and customs is usually considered a tribe, but it goes without saying that all these tribes appearing in anthropological inventories are far from having the same anthropological significance. They are different both in relation to the degree of purity of blood and race, and in the degree of deviation of their signs from the original root from which they originated. According to the explainable and understandable, albeit strange, course of human development, it was human tribal natural-historical differences that attracted the attention of observers least of all and, until recently, were rather a curious appendage to the studies of travelers than their essential goal. In addition, the tribes most convenient for research, familiar with science and not afraid of it, and such are European and the most civilized areas of other countries, seem to be the most mixed. The anthropologist, therefore, almost always has to either conveniently observe what, in essence, due to confusion, presents considerable difficulties for inquiring into the characteristic features of the tribe, or, if he has the opportunity to observe a more or less pure tribe, then encounter difficulties in the very production of complete and accurate experiments. not to mention the difficulties that appear as artificial modifications of the face and limbs due to prevailing habits in different places. What in the complexion belongs to sunburn, the action of temperature changes and uncleanliness, and what constitutes a natural characteristic, is often very difficult to get to in practice. Everyone knows how a drawn-out lip, an artificially flattened nose, plastering of the face with different colors can change the expression, and this is very often encountered by an anthropologist-physiognomist. Therefore, if he gives only a simple description of what he saw, a statement of the impression made on him by a certain tribe, then such a description is not only unsatisfactory, but may even lead to incorrect conclusions.

When studying physiognomic features for anthropological purposes, it is necessary to single out everything that belongs to purely everyday ethnographic features. A well-known costume, a well-known method of hairstyle, local features of the environment serve as very strong means for imparting a certain characteristic character to the physiognomy. Change your hair, put on an ordinary suit, and the sharpness of the impression in many cases will disappear. There will seem something special in such a disguised foreigner, but he will not be so sharply distinguished from other representatives of the tribes as in his natural setting. It is this work of isolating everything that can influence from the ethnographic conditions of the tribe that an anthropologist should do, and everyone will understand how similar the task is, such an analysis of the subordinate, decorative, more difficult than a direct description of what is seen, and how much it requires preparatory work and the ability to observe. European tribes have the same task, but in a different form: here the costume does not highlight the features of the existing one, but on the contrary often misleads the less attentive observer and forces him to find differences, or at least does not give him the opportunity to find common features, there where they actually exist. Actors and their make-up make this clear to us in practice all the time: the same face with a bald wig and a shaved chin, or with long hair on the head, beard and eyebrows, will produce a completely different impression and will not have the same physiognomic character. A parting in the middle of the head, sideburns, of one form or another, a shaved chin or a beard a "la Victor Emmanuel, will be made from a Russian ingenuous physiognomy, if not quite an Englishman or Italian, then they will still turn it into a lubok portrait of them, which was published from afar, or if inexperienced, and will tempt the conclusion about tribal or national affiliation.If this is still combined with some gloss, with the ability to grasp and slow down on one's face one or another characteristic expression of another nationality, then something very similar to the original appears.Thus a mixture of tribes and the ethnographic features of their customs, influencing physiognomy, put more than one pebble on the path along which the anthropologist must go, and he must look both ways so as not to stumble over it in his conclusions.

All tribes, as the descriptions of travelers say, show considerable variation between their representatives, not excluding even the tribes considered to be the most pure-blooded. What is to be taken here as a characteristic feature in these modifications: is it the frequency of its occurrence, or its most typical expression? Both present their own conveniences and inconveniences. The choice of the most typical is more convenient in the sense that it gives in one representative a combination of especially characteristic features, but it is subjective, it depends on the view, often on a preconceived opinion, not to mention the deliberate choice of type, which, unfortunately, anthropology also represented, albeit in rare cases and under the influence of completely unscientific considerations. An example of this is the theory of blessed memory of the Turanian origin of Russians, put forward as a counteraction to the Slavic sympathies of Russians. The method of averages is more objective, more outside of arbitrariness, but, like any conclusion based on the study of averages, it gives only the frequency of occurrence of a trait, a greater or lesser probability of its observation in a given population, or better in a given number of its individuals, but sins in that , which does not put forward the main characteristic from the subordinate clause. In addition, as Bertillon and others have shown, obtaining averages of individual features does not yet make it possible to compile them into an average integer that actually exists. The known width of the nose in any population may represent the same frequency and the same magnitude as, for example, the known shape of the cheekbones, but it does not at all follow that the average shape of the nose that we have necessarily obtained must necessarily meet with the average shape of the cheekbones obtained, and may it may happen that if we were to recreate the physiognomy of a person in a drawing using these averages, then he would make an impression on us completely different than we expected; what has been said about two characteristics applies still more to the totality of them. A picture of physiognomy will come out even more wonderful if we create a figure from all medium sizes; then it may even turn out to be completely unnatural and even caricatured in relation to the type being studied. Therefore, in addition to the extreme numbers of the expression of the trait, they also indicate the limiting values, graphically depict the course of variations of each essential trait for breeding differences. Average numbers often constitute an indispensable means of approaching the solution of the morphological question under study, they give irreplaceable indications and illuminate the path to the goal, but do not directly place this goal in the hands of the researcher, which in this case is the establishment of a typical form of physiognomy. Bertillon rightly noted that there is a significant contradiction in the sense of the words "average" and "type": everything that is average, intermediate, characterless, cannot be typical.

Neither words, nor descriptions, nor measurements will give a completely finished idea of ​​the physiognomic type of a tribe, and the natural scientist will always resort to drawings for a complete understanding of the tasks of anthropological physiognomy. Of course, any satisfactory drawing depicting a face and a figure gives a more or less definite concept of it, but for the purposes of anthropological physiognomy, a special kind of representation is required. An anthropologist does not pursue, as a portrait painter, the most successful expression, the greatest showiness and expressiveness of the figure; for him, its accuracy, the correct transmission of proportions, sizes, and the ratio of parts are important. These dimensions will be most suitable for reality when the figure is facing the viewer either in front or in profile. That is why the anthropologist shoots his portraits in these positions, i.e., precisely those that artists and all those who are filming avoid, who want to make the most favorable impression with their special. The goal of all anthropological research is a comparative study of characteristics, types and tribes, therefore the first and main requirement for everything that has to serve as material for the study and study of questions of this science should be that it be comparable, in general and in particular, with all others. similar facts or observations; it is natural that portraits made with an anthropological purpose must satisfy this requirement, and this is strictly possible and convenient only in the above two positions of face and profile. In all other positions, a greater or lesser inclination of the parts will appear, not a projection of lines and outlines, but a perspective view of them, which may be more elegant in impression, but less useful in scientific application.

So, for a complete acquaintance with physiognomic features, an image is certainly required, as complementary to what descriptions and measurements cannot convey, no matter how detailed they are made. The human face presents everywhere the same essential parts; everywhere in all tribes facial sensations are produced by the same muscles, accompanied by the same changes in the external parts; but this is true only of generality, not of detail: the relative development and relative mobility of the muscles vary indefinitely. That is why we can find in each tribe certain constant partial typical expressions and thus bring all the variations encountered to a small number of subdivisions, but these most typical groups will present endless shades. Our eye often catches such differences that we cannot express in words, just as we cannot translate them into the numerical language of anthropometry. On the contrary, we often notice a similarity, and a tangible similarity, in persons, at first glance and considered separately, representing differences, and also not being able to define this in words. The impression made is the same, the character of the expression is the same, although the particulars are different. This is most often found between members of the same family, which, in addition to blood influences, is also influenced by the unity of the situation, habits, external conditions, which often impose their stamp on a whole series of physiognomies. What labor would be required to describe in words all these countless shades, what a mass of numbers and relationships would have to be reproduced in order to express each physiognomy with all the features of its bulges and recesses, the degree of curvature, the extension of lines according to the anthropometric scheme. Go beyond the borders of the tribe, begin to study the representatives of others, and there again you will meet a peculiar series of combinations: until these combinations are clarified in their meaning, in their correspondences and co-causality, until then the accumulation of such descriptive details would not be an enrichment of science, but its clutter, all the more so, how could it turn out over time that the starting points for measurements were taken by us not the same; that we have combined them in an artificial way and in a completely different way from which one can come to positive conclusions. To ignore completely what we do not understand would also be harmful in science, because time can expose its significance and importance, as a recent fact has shown with a question about the details of the structure of one of the planets; some argued that a known particular must be on it on the basis of theoretical considerations, others rejected it because it was not observable. The question was decided by photography, this unprejudiced witness, bringing in indifferently and without a preconceived idea everything that really exists: they really found on it what the observers did not pay attention to. With regard to such and such particulars, which we do not yet know, but which may turn out to be especially important for something later, collections of photographs are indispensable, and the larger the number, the better. For their scientific significance, it is only important that they be produced in a comparable form, i.e., in front and profile, and that those data be indicated on the basis of which the anthropologist’s judgments can only be made, i.e. that it should be indicated tribe, age, locality and even time of removal. The element of time has little meaning in the immediate period to that in which the portraits were taken, but it gains more and more importance in many cases as humanity moves away from it. The indication of the time when the portrait was taken can have both anthropological and ethnographic significance, and this is precisely why.

Each tribe, retaining its typical features and regardless of mixing, undergoes certain changes over time under the influence of those external factors of development and the environment in which it lives. Observations make it highly probable, at least in relation to European peoples, that under the influence of mental development the average size of the skull increases, the outlines of the head, and the relative details of its development change. This is not only evidenced by observations of ancient French skulls compared with modern ones, since these conclusions can still be seriously questioned from the point of view of strict anthropological requirements regarding the impeccability of conclusions: here, perhaps, chance played an important role, delivering the largest share small-headed among the ancient cemetery skulls; then it can be objected that the number of observations made is relatively small for the importance of the conclusion, that, finally, we do not know whether a small number of the investigated cemetery skulls were exactly the same in their origin with those living today compared with respect to the admixture of those initial elements from which the modern French were formed. . But there are observations, noticed by everyone, especially by hatters, which undoubtedly prove by the most reliable factor - the number of sales of goods, that the more comparatively developed the class of population, the larger the head size it has, the larger hats it needs. This change in the head is not expressed only in a simple swelling of it in all directions, but in a well-known modeling. Bricklayers and diggers not only have smaller heads than, for example, physicians, actors and artists, but their head presents peculiar features: with the development of mental life, the frontal part develops predominantly, and it is enough to look at a number of portraits of people who have distinguished themselves in science, art, literature and industry to be sure. It is not for nothing that we use, wishing to express a well-known good impression of a person, the expression: “he is a good head,” but we also say: he has a beautiful forehead when we try to note the impression made by an intelligent and energetic person; it was not for nothing that they also branded with the name “copper forehead” certain qualities that are far from attractive to us and, in any case, cannot be considered sublime from the mental and moral points of view. If the outlines of the forehead change, if its general appearance and its correlation with other particulars of the shape of the head vary over time, then the physiognomic impression will also change from the development of mental life among peoples between an ever larger and larger mass. This is not only due to the fact that an increasing number of persons are subjected to mental labor, transmitting, according to the law of heredity, an acquired improvement in the formation of the forehead and an increase in the size of the skull, but the mental element, the element of development, more and more enters over time, as a necessary factor. , even in the education of those who send crafts that interfere with the development of the size of the brain and head. Probably not much time will pass when “tete de macon”, which in its smallness is an object of unenviable comparison and a synonym for stupidity, will lose its factual basis and become the same archaeological proverb as many of them have become, having lost its historical reason over time. School and the meaningfulness of the craft will do their job over time. Thus the historical series of photographs will, in time, provide Anthropoyugas with accurate material for studying the change of tribes under the influence of cultural conditions, and will complement and enliven what future researchers will have to get from the study of skulls and from written records.

What photography gives to the anthropologist, art, painting, gives to the ethnographer and physiognomist. Photography conveys features, the art of painting - expression. If you look at a series of portraits painted by the best artists in art galleries and belonging to a time more or less distant from us, you cannot help being struck by the originality of expression, the originality, so to speak, of the type of people of former times. In them one can find both physical strength and chivalrous nobility, the beauty of Venus and Diana, but one cannot find that depth of facial expression, that predominance of mental life, that analysis of sensations, which is more and more often found in contemporary portraits. Compare the portrait of Catherine's figures, from the point of view of their facial expressions, with contemporary outstanding ones, and you will involuntarily feel that these faces belong to two eras, two stages of cultural development. True, even now one can meet faces that have retained in themselves, as it were, a petrified expression of past times, but many completely original ones have been added to their number. With the development of intellectual life, in mankind in general, and in particular in any people, the main moments of human inner activity remain the same, but they become more versatile, present more variety and impressionability; is more shades of sensations, and these very shades become different. These shades are materially expressed in a different degree of muscle contraction, in a different variety of their combinations when expressing emotional sensations. Thus the anthropologist-physiognomist will also find many useful indications for himself in the historical facts given by painting and sculpture.

Thus, the artistic reproduction of physiognomies is necessary for anthropological physiognomy. The word will never fully convey that which acts as a combination of forms, colors, mobility of parts, just as it is impossible to describe smell and color. In physiognomy there will always be a lot of things for which it is necessary to resort to the very source of the impression, that is, an image or a copy from it. Thus, one numerical data, one method of averages, can only illuminate the path of research, give general indications, but not completely solve the problem; You also need an image. In relation to him in physiognomy, the choice of what is considered characteristic will always remain inevitable and much falls solely on the insight and open-mindedness of the observer, on his ability to notice characteristic features. Is it possible to find rules by which, if personal arbitrariness in the choice of anthropological types were not completely put an end to, then at least a certain limit would be put to it, would some solid guiding indication be given?

We know that even the most primitive tribes present considerable physiognomic differences within their group; these limits of difference become even wider as they mix with others, as more and more differences in the degree of development appear with the development of the tribe. All savages stand on the same level, which has an equalizing effect on their physiognomies. With the great course of development of a tribe and people, these conditions of equality change, both from a greater or lesser degree of mental susceptibility of individual individuals and their abilities, and from unequal external causes that provide means for this development. By reducing the intellectual conditions for the development of the people, it can be achieved that the former variety of expressions arising from the degree of development and susceptibility will be smoothed out and acquire a uniform shade; can again be reduced in generations in this way to an ordinary half-animal facial expression. History has given us examples of this; but the opposite cannot be achieved. There will always be outstanding organizations, especially gifted natures, who will come forward from the masses, and although their number will gradually increase, they will never become exclusively predominant. There will always be unfavorable conditions in the development of individual individuals, which will adversely affect the development of their physical side and will be transmitted by them hereditarily. The same phenomenon in relation to physiognomic data and facial sensations is also noticed among primitive peoples, although to a lesser extent, which is why they seem to us more homogeneous.

With such a difference in physiognomic particulars, what should the researcher take as a type? What forms are considered basic, what varieties and random modifications of them? What is to be taken in a certain tribe or people as its typical expression? To this, as already mentioned, there are two practical methods that are considered the answer to the above questions. Some take the most frequently encountered physiognomy, the most predominant in number in it; other most characteristic representatives, uniting in themselves to the greatest extent something, the totality of which distinguishes a people or tribe, and according to them they make up an anthropological diagnosis of it. The first technique can be taken as especially applicable to more or less purebred tribes, where the average form of physiognomies indicates that under normal conditions of organization and certain constant external influences, a certain norm is established, expressed in a more frequent combination of known proportions, sizes, shades. When we consider man from the purely physical side of the conditions of his organization, we must take it for granted that the phenomena of this side of his life are completely analogous and even in many cases identical with what we notice in animals. Therefore, questions concerning the physical properties of human tribes are completely analogous to questions about the races of animals and must be studied by the same method, by the same methods that natural science gives for these latter. If this is true at all from the point of view just mentioned, then on the question of the choice of representatives to describe the tribes, from the point of view of their general appearance, we can find indications in the methods of zoologists. The zoologist has both pure and mixed races; he has been working for a long time to describe, delimit, sort them; moreover, in many cases he is especially enlightened by the practical requirements of the pastoralists and the methods developed by them. Strictly speaking, in nature there are no two copies of animals similar to each other, and in each classification group, whether it be a race or a species, there is a greater or lesser border of fluctuations. There are always individuals of larger and smaller sizes, stronger and weaker, more or less brightly colored, etc. When a zoologist approaches a natural, established group, purebred (at least for a significant number of generations), he takes the form that prevails in number and describes it, of course, moreover, giving indications of the modifications that occur, the limits of these deviations. This technique is due to the fact that in this case the zoologist needs signs that would make it possible to determine with the least difficulty and with greater certainty each individual encountered. If he were to draw up his definition from the most outstanding specimens, he would run the risk that his description would be difficult for any other student of the same, since there is a much greater probability that he will come across an average individual than evasion. The description of such permanent tribes, races and species has a purely taxonomic, classification value, and here the law of the predominance of numbers, the frequency of finding a form decides. When studying a pug or a poodle, the zoologist is interested not in its random varieties that have arisen from certain external conditions, but in that more permanent combination, which alone gives him the opportunity to form an idea of ​​\u200b\u200bthe pug or poodle as representatives of natural groups or races.

It is a different matter if the zoologist moves on to mongrels leading their pedigree in the most arbitrary way. Let him deal with a whole flock of such mongrels, mixed by blood affinity with each other in the most varied degree. Can he be exclusively interested in the average form between them, since he knows that this average form will be the arithmetic average, but not the zoological average. A zoologist can be such an average in relation to various characters and will use it for any special purposes, but not for compiling a genealogical table of the mutts at his disposal. He knows that in genetic theories traits are not considered, but are weighted according to their significance; they are classified not according to their number, but according to their clarity of manifestation, according to its certainty. The pastoralist does the same for his special purposes. In this case, what matters to the zoologist in each individual is that which gives him an indication of the influence of race; especially instructive for him are those, at least a few, individuals who combine the characteristic features of one or another race and which make it possible to find the key to understanding the effect of confusion on the forms that he has before his eyes. The zoologist will here select characteristic specimens, and not seek the average of the least outstanding forms. We have the same in the mixed tribes of man; we encounter the same difficulties, the same questions, and the same goals in studying their anthropological properties. For the anthropologist, in most cases, it is not particularly important to find out which mixture of characters actually prevailed in this particular case in terms of numbers in a mixed tribe, but to find indications of which tribes this mixture originated from, which of them prevails in any properties; whether there was any new combination of signs that caused the formation of something stable, permanent in the natural-historical sense.

European populations, mixed in the most diverse ways, have been the most subject to such analysis from an anthropological point of view. What should we understand by modern French, Germans, Russians? Are these terms exclusively denoting certain political, linguistic, national and territorial combinations, or are they anthropologically known groups at the same time? What in these types is determined by certain ethnographic and cultural conditions, and what belongs to blood and organization in them? These questions more than once occupied ethnographers, historians, and anthropologists, and each tried to understand them from his own special point of view, especially since the solution, or at least the clarification of such questions, goes beyond the circle of office tasks and is closely associated with many serious problems. general issues affecting the interests of many branches of knowledge. To solve them, we started with average and statistical data. We studied the average height of growth, the prevailing hair color, especially common craniological signs, and mapped the distribution of these signs in the country under study. It turned out, for example, that northern France is predominantly a blond, tall population with light eyes, while southern France predominates short, black-haired and black-eyed people. Germany also shows the same difference in the geographical distribution of the above signs. Then more private areas were determined within the boundaries of the state of the predominance of one or another feature; a more detailed analysis of the general conclusions began, and the numbers began to be placed and studied in smaller departments of the territory, in its divisions. So far, we have been proceeding by the classification method, by the method of large numbers: but the tasks have been set, the subdivisions have been made, it is necessary to proceed to the restoration of the signs of the original types, their affinity with certain tribes. If they are extinct, then again I give a comparison of the average forms with the average ones, but if there are still living ones, then those representatives are chosen for comparison between them, which are the most typical; here signs are no longer considered, but weighed. Most often, when inquiring into such original tribes, one has to resort to historical legends about tribes, to the characteristics of disappeared tribes transmitted by historians, and they described not the average and not the ordinary, but the most striking, outstanding, typical.

We finally distinguished two or three tribes that served as the initial source of the formation of a well-known mixed people, we learned, for example, that the Gauls and Franks mainly determined the modern population of France. Between today's Frenchmen, shall we look for these two types in the most ordinary personalities, in their most daily representatives, or shall we look for them in those individuals who embody in greater purity and totality the vaguely scattered signs in a mass of monotonous and little outstanding faces? Of course we will do the latter; we will find and study the most characteristic representatives of both tall and short races, typical figures with a Gallic and Frankish character, and this will be especially necessary for us when we specialize our task and reduce it to anthropological-physiognomic dimensions. We are not limited to this yet. In addition to the Gauls and Franks, we will not miss the French, even if they were considered as a mixed race. The history, culture, physical conditions of the country, through mixing, also influenced the race and, in turn, developed a certain type, which can be considered not only ethnographic, but also anthropological. We distinguish the “Frenchman from Bordeaux” from the Frenchman from the North, but nevertheless, when looking at their physiognomy, their temperament, the way they express sensations, the properties of their way of presenting and understanding, we recognize in them representatives of one thing in common - the French, and distinguish them sharply and easily from the German. The abilities of the mind, temperament, expression of sensations, all this is closely connected with certain aspects of the organization, all this imposes on them in general, both from the point of view of structure and from the point of view of anthropology.

When someone wants to study the type of physiognomy of a Frenchman, German or Englishman, he, of course, will not take the first hairdresser's physiognomy, the first sausage maker he meets, but will choose those representatives who embody everything that seems especially remarkable in the character of a given nation. We compose a concept of the people not only from the cultural side and from an artistic point of view, but also from the side of physiognomic features according to those greatest, most typical representatives who came out of a known people. We take the physiognomy of Cuvier and Claude Bernard for the French, Goethe, Schiller and Humboldt for the Germans, Darwin, Owen and Mill for the English. And we are right in this case. We do not judge any plant by its barely noticeable, indifferent bud, but by a fully blossomed flower, by a fully ripened fruit. There are few such individuals, as brilliant and most typical representatives, but each of them concentrates in himself that which is weak, colorless, scattered in the smallest shares in the people, not only from the side of his mental manifestations, but also from the side of the physical, especially development and susceptibility of the nervous system and its physiognomic reflection in the warehouse of the head, face, expression of sensations. Such a study leads us to the study of that new anthropological type, which, as a result of a mixture of domestic and territorial conditions, is developed among the people, constitutes a new nascent or nascent type, a new species, we could say if we adhered to the same narrow definition in anthropology, which according to predominantly dominates in zoology, in which every slightest sign that seems constant to us is considered by us to be specific.

Thus, it turns out that when solving problems of anthropological physiognomy, we inevitably, in certain cases, come to the choice of typical signs, typical physiognomies, although we are not limited to them and use the method of averages with everything that they can give. We just do not limit ourselves to them, as for purely systematizing research purposes, and move on. In more complex problems of mixed populations, we use not one, but all the methods available to research. In the study of mixed populations, in relation to some particular questions, for example, about the nature of the physiognomy resulting from mixing, we even almost exclusively draw our conclusions and conclusions on single, most characteristic individuals, that is, we directly put the method of averages into the background.

These are the general considerations that we involuntarily have to discuss and investigate if we set ourselves the task of studying any tribe from the point of view of anthropological physiognomy. But the particulars of the application are better understood if we specially pass on to the study of any tribe from this point of view, which we have chosen. What tribe can be both more instructive and interesting for us than the one to which we belong, namely the Russian, especially since the question of him and his physiognomy was touched upon very little and was not even posed decisively as a scientific anthropological question.

Physiognomic study of Great Russians. The opinion of ethnographers and craniologists about the extreme variability of anthropological and physiognomic features of Russians. An example of an ethnographic description of the physiognomic characteristics of Russians. Is there really a "Russian type" of face? Views of scientists on this subject and protest against the non-recognition of the Russian type in everyday life and in general conviction. The first attempt to collect in Moscow material on the physiognomy of Russians in the Anthropological Album and opinions caused by it.

The diversity of the degree of mixing of Russians with foreigners in various localities. Elucidation of the significance of the number of mixing factors in relation to the mutual influence of races. The small number of primitive aliens, as an element helping the influence of the colonialists on the race. The weakness of foreign women as one of the reasons for the gradual Russification of their children. Russification cannot be recognized as an exclusively domestic, but also a blood act. Confirmation of this is in folk songs and the characterization of a good fellow and a red maiden. Comparative study of anthropological types based on the songs of various peoples. Why, according to the songs, women only have a blond braid, and men have black curls? What tribe did these curls belong to? To what extent are the signs of a mixed tribe most pronounced? Legends of foreign writers and ancient travelers about the type of Russians. Historical-anthropological collection of images of Russians, projected at the Anthropological Exhibition. The inconvenience of special anthropological data in these notes. Meaning of the attached images. The need for assistance in obtaining portraits of Russian female faces for the possibility of a more detailed study of the anthropological physiognomy of Russians.

Everyone knows that the "Great Russians" are a mixed tribe. The history of the settlement of Central Russia, which appeared in the form of the Russification of the original alien inhabitants and the colonization of the dominant Slavic type, undoubtedly shows that there must have been a mixture, and a mixture to a large extent. This is also evidenced by physiognomy, which can expose a significant number of the most diverse types, differing not only due to ethnographic features that affect more or less the general impression made by physiognomy, but also due to obvious blood differences. This diversity amazed some ethnographers and was even expressed almost in the denial of any common physiognomic features among the Great Russians. One of the good and thorough ethnographers, Mr. Maksimov, reviewing the Great Russian group at the Ethnographic Exhibition that was in 1867, this is what he says about the physiognomy of the Great Russians: “The Great Russian tribe is distinguished precisely by the fact that it is difficult to find one person similar to another, which we meet side by side not only among wandering northern foreigners and nomadic steppe dwellers, but also among the southern highlanders, and especially among the Transcaucasian and Russian Armenians. Even at the smallest fair, in a small bazaar, anyone who wishes can easily convince himself that nothing is more difficult than to find such features that could be considered common, and to determine and find out for himself such a law that would be convenient apply to recognize the tribal differences of the Great Russians. The usual passport tricks (still, however, having no success) never seem so ridiculous and unnecessary as when applied to the faces and special signs of the Great Russians. Almost only one dialect can still be considered among the general special signs, suitable just in case for a person who is still guided by the dead common places of passport marks.

Professor Lesgaft, in one very instructive article on the skulls of the Great Russians, summing up all the craniometric observations made on them, comes to the conclusion that the studies carried out so far on the craniology of Russians contradict each other and do not provide firm support for any conclusions. . On the other hand, the characteristics of the Great Russians are constantly cited in articles that have the task of acquainting the population of Russia. N. I. Nadezhin in 1837, for example, characterized the Great Russians as follows: “The physiognomy of the Russian people, fundamentally Slavic, is captured by the natural shade of northern nature. In general, the Great Russians are not as tall as their Western brothers; but on the other hand they are strongly built, healthy and disposed to obesity. Especially women are distinguished by corpulence, which is considered one of the conditions of beauty in the lower classes. The facial features of both sexes are regular, but not very expressive, the forehead is generally narrow, the eyes and mouth are small, and the nose is roundish. The hair is fair-haired, which is why in the old days they produced the very name "Rus", but as they approach the north, they brighten more and more, so that they stray into yellow and red. However, the red color is generally neglected. Therefore, they essentially like it, the young man has black curls, the girl has a blond braid, as can be seen from folk songs; the latter, the longer and thicker, the stronger the valiant heart shivered. The ideal of a beauty: a white round face, poppy-colored cheeks, black eyes with a veil, a falcon's eyebrow, a peacock's tread. Well done, too, like black-browed and black-eyed; but its chief merit lies in freshness and health, in what is called "blood with milk." The severity of the climate generally dulls the organs of touch, taste and smell; the atmosphere is mostly foggy, and the boundless plains, covered with snow for two-thirds of the year, do not favor the development of the sense of sight; but hearing is very subtle. The Great Russians differ sharply from the Little Russians in that they do not have that liveliness in features, that fire of eyes that belong to the south; they are more similar to the Belorussians, only in these latter the neck is usually extended and the head walks too lively on the shoulders, while in the Great Russians it seems to be ingrown into the shoulders, on a thick, short neck. However, they will not yield, or even surpass both, in the flexibility of the members, the agility and quickness of the movements. The Russian person is generally more robust than strong; he is able to endure the most difficult labors, insensitive to hardships, patient to infinity. Both in strength of constitution and in habit to all the harshness of the air, his health is rarely exposed to diseases without special cases. He lives long, when he himself does not invite death, and remains cheerful until old age. Women soon lose their freshness, but in old age they are rarely exposed to that disgusting disgrace, which is so characteristic of the southern old women and was probably the reason for the legend of the Kyiv "witches". The speed of the concept and the slowness of the judgment belong to exactly all generations of the Russian tribe, but the secrecy of expression is less characteristic of the Great Russians, who are generally more talkative than the Little Russians and Belorussians. Great Russians do not have too lively feelings and ardent passions. They are not capable of excessive impulses, neither in love, nor in hatred ... In relation to their industrial, artistic, creative abilities, the Great Russians, like their other brothers, are not distinguished by ingenuity, but are extremely imaginative and capable of imitation. The aesthetic sense is little developed in him; what is colorful and noisy is good for him, and red, and cheerful.

The above opinions and descriptions are sufficient to show the position in which the question of Russian physiognomy is, since some still say that looking for a type of Russian physiognomy is the same as looking for identities in the shapes of clouds, of which each has its own pattern; others give such an indefinite characterization of Russian physiognomy that you cannot form any definite concept from it, just as from the words of Olearius, who recognized “abundance of hair and a thick belly” as especially characteristic features of Russians. Still others, comparing the attempts that have been made so far to capture on the skull and in measurements the characteristic features of the morphology of the face and head of Russians, are stumped by the paucity of the available material and the contradiction of the data. What does this come from: is it from the real impossibility of finding anything stable in that crossbreed that history has rallied into a group of Russians, or from the fact that the issue was approached without sufficiently elucidating its elements, and without highlighting those that which can hide and obscure the result? Is there a Great Russian physiognomy, and how is it different? Here is a question of special interest to us, which is dependent on another: do Great Russians constitute only a historical or ethnographic term, or does it also have a certain anthropological significance?

This question is of particular interest to us, although, as usual, not only did we not particularly deal with it, but we were inclined in advance, on the basis of our superficial observations and preconceived ideas, to decide it in the negative. Life, however, solves it in a positive sense and without waiting for a special study of anthropologists. We often use expressions: "this is purely Russian beauty, this is the spitting image of a hare, a typical Russian face." Perhaps, when applying these expressions to particular cases, there will be disagreements between observers, but, noticing a number of similar definitions of Russian physiognomy, one can be convinced that not something fantastic, but real, lies in this general expression "Russian physiognomy, Russian beauty." This is expressed most clearly with negative definitions, with the meeting of the physiognomies of those of kindred tribes that historically developed differently, for example: Little Russians and Belorussians, and even more foreigners, and when comparing them with Russians. In such cases, “no, this is not a Russian physiognomy” sounds more decisive, is said with more conviction and with more certainty. In each of us, in the sphere of our "unconscious", there is a rather definite concept of the Russian type, of Russian physiognomy; what is it, a mirage arranged by our imagination or a reflection of something really existing, not only historically and ethnographically Russian, but also anthropologically Russian?

Anyone who chose for his own research the question of the craniological features of the population of Central Russia, which constitutes more convenient material for studying Russians than its outskirts, should have come to this question quite naturally. For several years now I have been occupied with this question, and as far as my means allowed, I collected material for it. Back in 1867, at my request, an anthropological album of Russians was compiled in Russian photography, which appeared at the Ethnographic Exhibition and then transferred by me in copies to the London Anthropological Society, the Paris Anthropological Society and the Museum of Natural History in Paris. The purpose of exhibiting this album, as well as its transfer to foreign anthropological collections, was to evoke opinions about Russian physiognomy. I tried to collect portraits without any preconceived idea, looking on the one hand for those faces that seemed to me the most suitable for those usually recognized as more purely Russian, and on the other, those that are most often found, although they bear traces of a foreign mixture. It is not particularly easy to collect such portraits, especially of purely Russian physiognomies, even of men. With regard to women, I have completely failed, and at the present time I have raised the question of Russian physiognomies due, among other things, to the hope that an understanding of the purpose of the portraits will facilitate their receipt. If you come across a physiognomy that is quite interesting as an expression of a Russian face, then in 99 cases out of a hundred it is impossible to get a portrait from it, due to the refusal to allow you to take a portrait from yourself in front and profile. Such a refusal was almost always met with men, and with regard to women it was unconditional. They had to confine themselves to a very close circle of more familiar faces, who, in the form of a favor, agreed to satisfy a strange demand from which they did not expect anything worthwhile, but agreed out of a desire not to contradict the harmless mania of a familiar and close person. Difficulties are encountered, in addition, and material: the removal of two portraits from each person in a significant size is associated with significant costs with a large number of photographs, and until recently only one Russian photograph of N. M. Alasin, during the management of it by M. A. Zykov , willingly helped with her work and diligence to scientific goals. Only since the beginning of the Anthropological Exhibition, conditions have changed more favorably, and there has been a hope to collect decent material on the anthropological physiognomy of Russians in Moscow and other places.

When the album of the Russians appeared, I did receive a few comments. Some Russians and foreigners, who saw the collected portraits, reproached me for the biased choice of especially good faces and for the tendentious embellishment of the material, although only peasants were photographed in the album, and, as I said, in various modifications of the physiognomic type. True, I placed at the head of the album two clever and very handsome Vladimirians who were carpenters with me at that time, but they were followed by a number of others, impeccable in embellishment, since they were representatives of the most common types, the most ordinary physiognomies. But foreigners, and indeed many Russians, are amazed at everything that concerns Russians by the outstanding negative aspects, and not only overlook, but even consider as abnormal everything that more or less speaks in their favor. Probably, I would not have been reproached by such connoisseurs if I had chosen exclusively representatives of physiognomies for my album of persons with narrow foreheads, with a nose in the shape of an onion, with a sly and stupid physiognomy, in a word, something similar to that “Savoska”, who in the past year , under the pen of an eminent Russian, as the magazine recommended him, appeared to the readers of one very sensible magazine "Revue scientifique" as a representative of the ethnographic life and moral makeup of the Russian peasant. Others expressed the opinion that Great Russians do not exist anthropologically and that the album is a collection of photographs of certain physiognomies that come across in Russia, but that it is not an anthropological album at all, since the anthropological type of Great Russians in its purest form, due to confusion, does not exist in reality. Since these opinions were expressed with a serious and not tendentious purpose, they have the right to be treated seriously, calmly and scientifically.

The Great Russians, like the whole of Russia, represent such a varied combination of the most heterogeneous phenomena that, in relation to the facts concerning them, one can pick up material for any conclusions one likes, especially in such a science as yet unsettled in its particular methods as anthropology. There are no correct numerical data suitable for the anthropological study of individual areas of Russia, and only a detailed study of particular and local special phenomena in the field of anthropology can lead to something positive. It was not for nothing that Vorso, at one of the international congresses of prehistoric archeology and anthropology, expressed a fair idea: he sees the success of the congresses and the assurance of their serious results in the fact that they left the discussion of the general theories of the sciences they studied in the background, and moved from a wide area of ​​general reviews to a private study anthropological and archaeological tasks in each country separately, even in separate areas of each country. Already a priori one can know that the result of the mixing of Russians and their mutual anthropological relationships will be different in the North, South, West and East of Russia. Whoever wants to carry out the theory of the Ural-Altaic origin of the Russians, let him pick up the skulls from those areas in which the Russified tribes of the said origin entered the Russian population. For the Russians seeking their well-being in the Turanian origin, there will also be suitable areas and suitable material, which at first glance will even seem to be deliberately unrigged. If this is possible, and really seems to be, then the first condition of the anthropologist, an und fur sich, i.e., acting under the sole desire to form for himself the most accurate idea of ​​the Great Russian tribe, should be a discussion and assessment of the significance of the material by which he wishes to condition his conclusions, singling out all those elements which, in addition to his desire, could influence unilaterally on his conclusions. But, first of all, he, of course, needs to clarify for himself whether he is taking on a solvable problem, whether he is trying to define something that exists, something created by nature itself, and not by one tradition, by one historical influence of language, religion, customs. In the particular question that concerns us, the study of the influence of the mixing of tribes in Russia, according to the data that we can have, should be subjected to such a preliminary study. If we clearly define the significance of mixing, its degree in the Russian population of various localities, then we will clarify for ourselves some grounds for clarifying the path of research, we will put the question more firmly and precisely, and a good formulation of it is already half the solution.

If we name any people simply by the term "mixed", then by this we will say very little. The mixing of the population can be purely mechanical, it can also be physiological. It can take place in various degrees of tension, depending both on the relative abundance of individuals of each of the mixing groups, and on the physiological stability of the races in relation to the transfer of their properties and characteristics. Without a preliminary clarification of these data to ourselves, we can hardly judge with clarity about the fragmentary facts obtained from our observations. Everyone says that the Great Russians are a mixed population, and, studying them from an anthropological point of view, one should ask oneself, first of all, how this mixing took place, based at least on written monuments and on what is happening now before our eyes.

All evidence tells us that from the southwest and northeast of Russia there was an influx of those colonizers of Central Russia whom history calls the Slavs. Their path went mainly along waterways and along large trade and tribal tracts. For centuries, the primitive tribes that occupied central Russia were constantly inundated with newcomers, representatives of a higher culture and tribe. In what relative abundance did these two different anthropological elements meet each other, how could they act on each other by blood? If in a densely populated area, representing a more or less compact mass, homogeneous in its blood composition, an insignificant number of migrants of a different race enters, or if they are higher in culture, then they leave undoubted traces of their arrival in language, in customs and customs, but with blood currents of sight, they completely disappear in the primitive population. It is remarkable that the vocation of the Varangians was of great domestic and state significance, left its mark on the history of the people, but did not leave any noticeable anthropological trace. It is a different matter if a relatively large number of new colonialists enter a sparsely scattered, small population. If a tribe does not disappear from contact with them, does not go to other places, is not killed or does not die out from taking away from it the only possible conditions for its existence, then it submits to the new colonizers of the earth, and, moreover, not exclusively in the political or domestic sense, but in the anthropological sense, if only both tribes, when combined, can give fruitful generations. It is known that the blood ties of Europeans with some savages are fruitless as a result: individuals of mixed blood do not survive and are removed in the most natural way - non-survivability, early mortality, or simply due to the absence of a fetus. It is also known that the mixing of those foreigners who can be considered a remnant or representatives of the tribes that originally inhabited Central Russia with Russians is fertile and does not at all cause a decrease in offspring. If we take Central Russia a very few years ago and pay attention to what expanse for settlement existed even then, look at the abundance of forests, take facts from the spread of animal industries and the abundance of wild animals that found freedom and were in many localities more numerous than humans; if, finally, we collect information about the population density that existed in former times, as far as they are available to us, then, combining all these data, we can safely say that the newcomers met a relatively very rare population, in relation to the number of which their small the number was already noticeable, especially since this number was constantly increasing both with the arrival of new newcomers and in their blood souvenirs left in the families of the primitive inhabitants. During the excavation of mounds in the Bogorodsk district, I was assisted by his advice and influence by a very intelligent priest who had seen a lot and knew his area well. Giving me information about the burial mounds in the district and being present at the excavation of one of the most numerous burial mound cemeteries, he remarked: “But it must be admitted that there were few of your kurgan people in the world. If we take all the mounds known to me in the district, even if we assume that they have decreased to a large extent over time, then their small number is still surprising. Previously, there were forest areas here, and the mounds may have been robbed, but not destroyed; to plow, but to dig them up and demolish embankments have already become in my memory. We are here at the most extensive barrow cemetery, since here and now there are fifty barrows, and from the terrain it can be seen that it could be four or five times larger. Not in ten years they were poured here, but in centuries, however, they are much less than what I buried in my lifetime in this one factory village.

Thus, it is very likely that the conditions of the size of the newcomer modifying tribe in relation to the local one, which was subjected to change from the influx of new blood, were favorable for this newcomer tribe to leave strong anthropological traces. In addition, the conditions for this influence of one tribe on another were not the same, and from an anthropological point of view, they were more favorable to the colonialists. Perhaps many married native women and became settled, but most of the primitive colonialists were not like that. They were a trading, warlike, industrial people, anxious to earn a penny and then arrange themselves in their own way, in accordance with their own ideal of well-being created for themselves. And this ideal of a Russian person is not at all such that it is easy to twist his life with some kind of "trash", as even now a Russian person honors a non-believer very often. He will conduct business with them, be affectionate and friendly with them, enter into friendship with them in everything, except for intermarrying, in order to introduce a foreign element into his family. Ordinary Russian people are still strong for this, and when it comes to the family, to the rooting of their home, here he has a kind of aristocracy, expressed in disgust for foreigners. Often the settlers of different tribes live in the neighborhood, but marriages between them are rare, although novels are frequent, but the novels are one-sided: Russian womanizers with foreign camellias, and not vice versa. To get actual confidence in this, it is worth looking at the stories of ethnographers about the freedom of the customs of many foreigners in their female representatives. At the present time, Count A. S. Uvarov accidentally told me an observation he made on his estate, in which Russians are close to Mordovians, namely that Russians never marry Mordovians, not believing their firmness of morals, which are easy to tempt, as they know from my own experience. If we allow such a relationship, we will see that although the Mordovians marry only among themselves, the Great Russian influence, blood and anthropological, is gradually gaining its place in it. The ethnographer, seeing on the one hand the constant marriage of the Mordovians in the circle of his tribe and noticing, despite the fact, more and more gradual Russification, will attribute it to the influence of customs, language, and the spread of Russian customs. An anthropologist will be somewhat skeptical about this exceptional influence of language and customs, and will attribute something to nature and to the constant, albeit slow, influence of Russian blood on the population. In discussing such an effect of racial mixing on anthropological characteristics, the following fact, which is almost constantly observed, must also be taken into consideration. A woman who is comparatively more accessible to the influence of representatives of a higher development, of a higher race, will rarely descend to a representative of a race that she considers to be inferior. Mixtures of Europeans with Negroes are extremely rare and belong to random, one might say eccentric phenomena, but Negresses and mulattos are greedy for Europeans. Not obligatory, but completely free intercourse between Negro women and Europeans is not uncommon, just as communication between the latter and representatives of the weaker sex among savage tribes is not uncommon. Men who are reluctant to marry those of the lower races are very gracious to their sacrifices when they are made without any obligation on their part. As we see it now, wherever Europeans penetrate, it is not families of Europeans with families of natives who come into contact with foreigners, but a familyless European crowd of men in the form of troops, sailors, adventurers, merchants, which greatly harms the anthropologist in preserving the purity of the type of primitive tribes. The French, the English, the Spaniards, in their centuries-old intercourse with various natives in their colonies, contributed very little, if only they brought in, the addition of extraneous blood to their families, but everywhere they left sharp features of their stay and their cultural influence in changing the native races through the formation of a significant number of hybrids. with them. Could it have been otherwise for the first Russian colonialists, planters of the anthropological Russian type, in their clash with the tribes that inhabited Central Russia primitively, when even now we see facts very often, telling us that things went the same way as other Western producers have a mixed population. If we accept this factor of Russification that we have outlined and the conditions under which it took place, then certain phenomena will become clear to us, otherwise difficult to explain. In some places, as if oases, foreigners are still scattered, stubbornly preserving both their type and their customs, in contradiction with the power of the influence of customs, language and mores. These foreigners have adopted some of their manners and customs, they say, whether it's bad or good, in Russian, but they live apart for hundreds of years and retain their type. How can this be explained? A difference in religion, but this can only be allowed for Muslim tribes, since here Russians and Muslims equally look askance, speaking in general, and not about exceptions, on mutual blood ties and consider them to be a desecration of themselves. But there are still other foreigners, of whom some semi-pagans have become Russified, while others who stand above them preserve themselves in comparative purity of blood. In addition to language, customs, and other things, does it not work here in particular that among Russified tribes, ladies have a more indulgent heart to the charms of Great Russians, while among non-Russians it is impregnable for guerrilla warfare in favor of Russification carried out by the latter.

Thus, it seems to me likely that the Russification of foreigners was not exclusively domestic and state, but also blood, anthropological. For those tribes for whom this method of Russification seemed more easy, this process ended long ago and they gradually became part of the Russians. And for those for whom this was not easy for some reason, for those there remained the possibility of remaining to this day in greater or lesser anthropological purity. Novgorod and Kyiv colonizers, constantly, in the mass, cherished the purebredness of their family, influencing foreign ones. How long anthropologically the blood of newcomers of a more stable tribe can be transmitted, the Little Russians show. Their disposition towards the Poles and their tribal and historical rivalry are known, but, nevertheless, in the features of the faces of the Little Russians, the Poles left behind a significant number of clear monuments of their passage and stay. This can be explained by the fact that Little Russian women were more likely to make casual capitulations to the Poles, who really differ in those properties that make them attractive in society, in the women's circle. Novgorodians and other Slavic newcomers in Central Russia in foreign tribes were supposed to leave the same souvenirs. Behind the tragedies and dramas of history, behind the great factors in the life of peoples, there are many novels that have had a significant influence on the course of all events, and especially anthropological and physiognomic ones.

Confirmation of this view of the course of Russification can also be found in folk songs. Why is it that a red-haired girl always has a blond braid, but a good fellow with black curls? I happened to look through Sakharov's collection of songs for this purely anthropological purpose. For a long time I have already turned to some collectors of Russian songs and connoisseurs of them in order to obtain from them the resolution of questions: how are physical beauty, physical signs of the population of that area, or that tribe that composed the songs, characterized in songs and folk tales? Do not the people sing in their songs of a certain specific type, which can be clearly recognized if we compare the songs of different tribes? If there are folk tales, expressed in songs and epics, about newcomers and strangers, then are they characterized as their heroes, as representatives of their tribe? Unfortunately, I did not receive positive answers to these convincing requests, i.e., apparently, none of those to whom I addressed considered the questions raised by me worth spending time on them, looking for the material needed for their solution. I had to, albeit with full consciousness of my little acquaintance with literature, to take up this myself. I have made extracts from all the songs placed by Sakharov, in which anthropological signs are indicated; then he looked through the Latvian songs published by the Ethnographic Department of the Society of Natural Science Lovers and tried, on the basis of this material, to be convinced, although somewhat, of the possibility of obtaining any anthropological data on the Russian population in this way. I didn’t have much material at hand, but something was already outlined. So, when the epics speak of Chud, then she is called white-eyed: “I will cut down the white-eyed Chud, I will cut the long-field magpie.” The Latvian sings of golden-haired maidens in his songs. Little Russian yearns for black eyes: “Damp earth is covered on my chest, black eyes are glued together for all nights.” The Russian type of beauty was expressed in the fact that she was “young, reasonable, without whitening her face is white, her cheeks are scarlet without blush.” “She is taller than me, there is no more beautiful than her in the tower, there is no smarter in the city.” In the girls' songs, only a blond braid is found, which, according to the songs, the girls so willingly comb “and walking through the field, weaving a scythe” and at home: “under the window the girl sat, scratched her head wildly, braided her rusa braid.” According to the popular ideal, a red-haired girl should be “thin, tall; thin, white, ”and, therefore, fatness is not at all in the popular ideal of beauty. It is said about old women: “You are an old woman, you are too young, you are short in body, you are broad in shoulders.” However, the people did not take away a kind of charm from girls of small stature; the girl could also be "small, chubby, ruddy face." One can only doubt the constant naturalness of one sign, sung by songs of black eyebrows: “eyes are clear, eyebrows are black, her face is white”, “her face is both white and blush, her eyebrow is blacker than me.” In the songs we have watched, women always sing a blond braid, and men only sometimes have blond curls. “Black curls went to the table, they took the Rusa braid behind them.” “Oh, how my dear is walking, that the falcon is flying clear, waving its white arms, shaking its black curls.” “How are you, fair-haired braid, withered me well done. Black eyes dimmed, a blush on his face faded. But if for black curls fair-haired braids always came across in the desired quantity and they exclusively led only fair-haired braids to the table, then on the contrary, these braids had to sing about the fair-haired curls of men, although to console themselves they chose them with black eyebrows, reminiscent of a somewhat cherished type with black curls: “The red girls looked after the ruddy young man. Russian curls lie on the shoulders, eyebrows are black, like a sable. "Fair-haired curls fit to a white, ruddy face." “It was good that his mother cleaned his blond curls with a comb.” It is remarkable that in the songs the black-haired fellow only combs and shakes his curls, and the fair-haired curls curl: “In front of a crystal mirror, he combed his black curls, combed, he himself said: curl curls, curl black.” Only once out of many references does the song say: “The curls themselves did not curl, the fair girl curled him, along a single black hair.” But we also meet the same thing with regard to fair-haired people: “A red-haired girl curled over a single fair-haired hair,” so that in the first case we can take the word “black” for an arbitrary random insertion. But fair-haired curls require curling, otherwise they will fray: “But the ambassador has come to you, a violent head, unkempt, the curls of Rus are not curled”; “I’ll get up quickly, comb my wild head, I’ll curl my blond curls.” Thus, for the anthropologist, the songs give an indication that the women are fair-haired, and their fellows are black-haired or fair-haired, and somehow more sympathy shines through black curls. Is this not due to the fact that the native beauties often came across and took a closer look at their native curls, and for them the black curls of the newcomers represented more novelty and attractiveness. Among northern women, the southern type of male beauty has a great attractive force: it is only necessary to convince of this by recalling the ovations made to visiting Italians, the favor that the French tutors enjoyed, even the victories of Eastern people and the ovations to the Turks, in order to at least consider it a possible existence the preferences of the primitive inhabitants of the Russian land to the Novgorod colonists or alien people, which they inherited and many modern women. It is also necessary to pay attention to the fact that ritual songs are usually sung by women, composed by them, preserved in their memory from oblivion, and therefore almost exclusively can serve as an expression of the female folk view of the physical beauty of men.

But do the glorified black curls belong exclusively to Slavic newcomers, and fair-haired native beauties? It is difficult to say positively about this, since there is evidence that among the primitive Slavic tribes there were also people with lighter hair. In this respect, the study of graves, no doubt belonging to the ancient Slavic tribes of Russia, and the finding of remains in them, by which one could judge their physical type, will help best to know about the color of the hair, based on positive data. Their skulls, their hair will make it possible, although with some certainty, to judge the physiognomic features of those disappeared tribes that influenced the alien population, and the impact on the change in physical characteristics that they could have.

In addition to songs, there are also other sources for compiling a concept of the Russian type; these are ancient historical images and legends of foreigners. Again, not having the opportunity to personally deal with this due to the lack of special information required for this, I turned to acquaintances who were specialists in this matter, who gave me some instructions. In this regard, I am especially grateful to E. V. Barsov, who brought me several ancient images of Russians. When looking for similar materials of Russian physiognomy, I was guided by the following thought. As a rule, people who are in contact with any phenomenon daily and hourly lose the ability to notice its characteristic features. Who does not know that sometimes a visitor who is shown some locality or object will pay attention and outline such a property of it that had previously eluded attention, although the object or locality is apparently familiar as five fingers. It often happens to a zoologist, especially when inspecting zoological gardens, from a simple hunter or an unlearned visitor to hear such a remark about the property of an animal or about the impression it makes, which escaped him, since he involuntarily gets used to looking at an object only from certain rubrics of his system. The same happens with the anthropologist and with the local resident in relation to the population around him. Ecker rightly noted in one of his articles that we least of all pay attention to the analysis of what surrounds us every day. Abroad, foreigners can more easily distinguish a Russian in a crowd than Russians themselves. It seemed to me that foreign travelers could notice such physiognomic features that could elude us. Hence the considerable interest aroused by the description of Russians by foreigners from the physiognomic side, of course, only in the case when they do not come to Russia to notice only one negative, caricature, in which, however, it is impossible to conceal a sin, many Russians help with some special kind of pleasure, the cicherones serving them. Of course, it is not the opinions of such Russified foreigners that sometimes appear only here in Russia that should be taken into account here. I cannot fail to cite as an example one remarkable fact of the characterization of the physiognomies of Russians, made relatively recently in Moscow by one of these foreigners. They showed a host of bureaucrats foreign in origin, Russian in rank and official greatness, visitors to one of the Moscow hospitals at a time when Russian personnel were allowed into hospitals only as secondary figures. One of these civilized and learned visitors deigned to pay attention to the anthropological physiognomy of the patients. “How easy it is to distinguish Russian patients,” he said, referring to the upcoming ones. “Look, if it’s a stupid face, then it’s certainly Russian.” To the credit of foreigners, it must be said that not all of them so quickly and easily solve the problems of the anthropological physiognomy of Russians, and many of them tried to collect data for a serious characterization of it, as far as it was available to them. It seemed to me that in such descriptions one can find indications of many particulars of Russian physiognomy, not to mention the fact that it is always interesting to verify one's own views by observing fresh, strangers, unless they are prejudiced by some preconceived idea. Among the materials delivered to me by E. V. Barsov was a series of portraits of the Russian embassy sent to the “Roman Emperor” in 1626, printed in Prague by Mikhail Peterle. On one side of the picture, a Russian liturgy is depicted and very decent Russian faces are presented here, in which there is nothing either Turanian or Finnish. These faces are not particularly typical, but they do not represent any preconceived idea. On the other side, the embassy itself is drawn, in which the Tatar region prevails. It is possible, however, to distinguish among the figures those to whom the artist tried to give a Russian and Polish type of face. But all such images in ancient drawings and ancient legends can only serve as reliable material for anthropological conclusions when they are collected systematically and completely, when they are presented comparatively and critically. This can be expected as a result of the upcoming anthropological exhibition in Moscow, thanks to the work being prepared by E. V. Barsov and V. E. Rumyantsev.

Scientific exhibitions, beyond their popularizing and ostentatious side, also have serious results. In ordinary times, specialists in various branches pursue their own specific tasks, and joint work to clarify issues of contiguous sciences is only an exception. As a rule, such questions require for their solution not only the joining of forces, but also significant funds for their implementation. So, in relation to the question of a historical physiognomic Russian gallery, not only labor is required, but also the opportunity to obtain copies from the necessary manuscripts, the necessary images, and with a more or less significant task, significant funds are required. Not only working private individuals, but also the scientists of the Society, who have their own inevitable expenses and very homeopathic remedies in comparison with the complexity of the tasks, cannot, in the ordinary course of affairs, even satisfy all their urgent needs, such as, for example, in printing their works, especially of society -historical and archaeological, made it necessary to attach tables and drawings to their works. Emergency subsidies, and exhibitions only help them out of need. The latter also contribute to the fact that they unite specialists in one common work, carried out according to one general plan, usually, although devoted to any one science primarily, but also capturing the interests of other specialties. Anthropological questions are in such close connection with ethnographic and archaeological ones that even an anthropological exhibition cannot fail to touch upon them and arouse the sympathy of ethnographers and archaeologists. She was so happy that she found competent and active employees in these specialties, two of whom - E. V. Barsov and V. E. Rumyantsev - proposed to more specifically process for the exhibition a historical series of images of Russian people from monuments, manuscripts and ancient travels. . The fulfillment of this assumption will also have a significant impact on the solution of questions on the anthropological physiognomy of Russians. The fulfillment of this assumption will also have a significant impact on the solution of questions on the anthropological physiognomy of Russians. Perhaps the exhibition will be so happy that one of the ethnographers will undertake the work of restoring the physiognomic type from Russian songs and comparing it with the types outlined by the songs of the Slavs and foreigners living in Russia.

In order to go further in the question we have touched on the physiognomy of Russians from a purely special anthropological point of view, we should already move on to the language of numbers, to comparing the measurements of the facial parts, to the results of comparative craniology. Such data have already been partly collected, but it would hardly be convenient to dwell in this essay on their consideration. In a particular study of the issue, factual data based on the study of two or three hundred skulls are of interest as introducing, although not much, new material, regarding which it is especially desirable to increase the number of facts. In essays like the present one, one would not have to specifically analyze individual facts, but to generalize the conclusions, to give them by such a generalization a more undoubted and more immutable significance than they can actually have. With such conclusions, the picture would become more complete and the first impression of what was said would be better, but it would hardly have appeared in a somewhat exaggerated and artificial light. Therefore, I consider it best to postpone the particular facts of measurements for those notes that are already being prepared and have a purely special craniological interest.

But it is all the more natural that in the general question of the path of the study of anthropological physiognomy in general and Russians in particular, it was possible, and even should, before starting the study, to clarify the starting points of the work and consider the issue in general terms; for a private craniological study of physiognomic data, the general foundations of the method for solving a problem have already been developed in their general features and in particular, and the point is in their application to particular cases and in a particular grouping of the results obtained.

In conclusion, I will allow myself to clarify the purpose of the drawings and polytypes attached to these preliminary notes. Some of them aim to show the difference between images taken with anthropological and ethnographic views. Others show several varieties of faces found in the Russian population of the Moscow province. The third relate to the physiognomies of the Mordovians of the Nizhny Novgorod province and are taken from an album compiled for the Ethnographic Exhibition. I chose between them both those that give faces with a completely foreign type, and those in which, to a greater or lesser extent, what is called the “Russian face” begins to appear. Finally, I attached several images of skulls from the mounds of various provinces in order to show on easily comparable samples the physiognomic type of skulls that belonged to the most ancient inhabitants of Russia. All the skulls are presented in four different positions or norms, i.e. front, profile, back and top. For the Moscow province, the skulls of the Podolsky and Ruzsky districts were taken as representatives of the long-headed (Meryansk?) type and the skull of the Kolomna district as a representative of the short-headed (ancient Mordovians?) and, in addition, the skull from the mound of the Mozhaysky district, completely unique in its physiognomic properties from all others and which may have belonged to a random alien from Asiatic large-cheeked tribes. For comparison, photographs of a long-headed kurgan skull from the Chernigov province and an image of a Kalmyk-like skull from a kurgan of the Saratov province are also attached. One has only to look at these skulls to be convinced of the possibility of finding physiognomic data on extinct tribes, of course, to certain limits and with the necessary precautions. I owe the opportunity to make all the enclosed drawings to the Council of the Society of Natural History Lovers, who, two years ago, gave me the necessary funds. The purpose of my notes would be achieved if they could be of interest, both in Moscow and in other localities, to persons who could help to obtain the necessary photographic material for a special study of the anthropological physiognomy of Russians and non-Russians in Russia, especially those who could be part of the current population. Particularly important would be portraits of Russian typical and beautiful female faces, which are often found in merchant, spiritual and peasant families, since it is precisely from them that there is nothing due to the impossibility for me to find them. To do this, you need to attend crowded women's meetings, make acquaintances with representatives of a satisfactory Russian type, beg their portraits. For an armchair person, such a method of obtaining scientific material is not only difficult, but can even put him in a curious position and, perhaps, will be attributed by the owners of typical and beautiful Russian physiognomies not so much to anthropological as to aesthetic motives. For relatives and friends who sympathize with the goal of collecting such an album, getting portraits in front and profile will not be difficult and not burdensome, but from each thread - a naked shirt, and from individual single photographs the necessary number of them for conclusions will be easily compiled. It is only necessary to provide information about the purebredness of the person being photographed, about the absence of marriages with Germans, Poles and other foreigners in the family. The more indications are given, confirmed by the testimony of reliable persons, the greater the scientific value of the delivered portraits will be.

Hello dear readers of the Reading Technologies blog!

I will dedicate this article to esotericism.

But not in the sense that we will control fate through thoughts and attract events with energy. No. But we will try to use interesting and useful esoteric knowledge to develop our qualities.

Take, for example, the quality observation.

Indeed, in fact, to be able to observe means to be able to see details in an object / phenomenon that others do not notice.

But how can you notice, let alone distinguish one from the other, if you don’t know what parts the object actually consists of and how it is correctly described. After all, one must not only be able to see, but also know - what you need to see in a particular object of observation .

Typologies

Since ancient times, people have tried to classify similar properties of objects into so-called Typologies .

For example, there are typologies of a person by temperament: choleric, sanguine, phlegmatic, melancholic. According to the type of body structure: asthenic, normosthenic, hypersthenic.

Or division according to the signs of the Zodiac or the year of the Chinese calendar.

Similarly, typical properties were noticed in the lines of the palm - arose palmistry , in the arrangement of objects - Feng Shui , in handwriting - graphology etc.

It was also noticed that people with the same facial features very often have similar character traits. This is how physiognomy.

About it today and will be discussed in our "Book review".

The concept of Physiognomy

Physiognomy- this is a method of determining the type of personality and character of a person, and even fate by external facial features. This is in short.

The first mention of physiognomy is attributed to Aristotle. Even earlier, Hippocrates was also interested in this.

The word physiognomy (from the French physionomie) first came to the Russian language - the art of recognizing a person's character by the features of his face.

Today, a face is called a physiognomy, and instead of " physiognomy"use the word" physiognomy».

Later, from the concept of "physiognomy" stood out kinesics (gestures, facial expressions) phrenology(study of the structure of the skull), oculesica (eye language), etc.

Principles of physiognomy

We single out the basic principles of human physiognomy in order to use them as the foundation for further study.

1. Balance and proportions.

The proportions of some facial features in relation to others are studied. Ideally, they should be balanced.

For study, the face is divided by horizontal lines into 3 parts: upper, middle and lower zone.

2. Zones and forms - this is the second principle.

Each zone controls its own age, for example, the top one will tell about the period from 15 to 30 years and from 64 to 93 years.

The shape of the face is also studied. What are they - oblong, square, triangular or others, which allow you to complement the characteristics of a person.

Interesting research was conducted at the beginning of the 20th century by K. Huter. He also divided the face into 3 parts and showed that the upper part (forehead) determines mental activity, the middle part - sensual and spiritual, the lower part - love for pleasures and benefits.

The Arab physiognomist Abul-Faraj (1226-1286) in the "Book of Entertaining Stories" described a person's appearance and its connection with character.

Some excerpts:

- A strong, courageous person: a slightly oblong face, deep-set eyes, a large forehead, an aquiline nose, coarse hair, thick eyebrows, narrow lips.

- A lover of wisdom: a beautiful face, glowing eyes with power, thin lips.

- Slow person: thick tip of the nose, big ears.

3 . Sis position topic.

In the Chinese face reading system, specific positions on the face are highlighted and they are responsible for a certain age. There are 99 positions in total.

For example, 37 years old - position 37 (pupil of the left eye). The features of this position will characterize a person at 37 years old.

Each position has its own characteristics, and some of them are the most important.

So position 19 (in the forehead) reflects the fate and character inherited from the maternal side. And position 44 is associated with middle age (this is the middle of the nose).

4. Five essential features.

There are five of them: eyebrows, eyes, nose, mouth and forehead.

Other facial features are also studied: a groove on the upper lip, wrinkles, moles, cheekbones, jaws, and chin.

Overall, this is a very interesting way of analysis and introspection. Another reason to look at yourself and escape from the hustle and bustle. And with careful study, this is an opportunity for self-development.

Here's a little help. To broaden your horizons.

And although the physiognomy of the face over the millennia has accumulated a huge array of observations and hypotheses, nevertheless, most of them do not withstand serious scientific verification. Those. not considered scientifically proven.

Although in China Physiognomy was considered a full-fledged branch of medicine.

However, attempts to use physiognomy do not stop. After all, many working in the system " man-man » you need the ability to instantly receive information about the client, partner, interlocutor. This is necessary for teachers and doctors and businessmen and ...., yes, everyone needs it.

After all, few have the gift of clairvoyance, and observant people are sometimes referred to as clairvoyants, because they see what others do not see. Because they know how to see (observe).

This skill is learn to observe and read in the face, I think you can pay attention and time. No magic, just the ability to work with visual information.

Although I do not rule out that long-term studies and experience in the study of physiognomy will allow us to look into the future of man, i.e. read his fate. After all, physiognomy says that this is also possible. There is a chance to check.

Knowing the future, it can be changed if it does not suit you. After all, what is fate , is the track along which a person walks, and since we are all passive and act on the machine (sleep according to Gurdjieff), we are not able to change anything until we wake up.

But waking up and taking responsibility for our own destiny, we can change what does not suit us in this rut ​​and even move to another, more preferable, actually built one.

Now this is some kind of magic, but conscious magic, and not the kind when they “manage energy” without understanding what is behind it and how it will affect.

A. Malovichko has such a phrase “ we can’t figure out even with 2% of our physical essence, but we are trying to work with a completely incomprehensible 98% ».

I am not against energy, I myself have been in this topic for more than a dozen years, but what I understand is that you should not climb over the fence when there is a gate nearby.

Abilities will be given to a person when his condition is ready to accept them. To achieve such a state is a worthy and promising task.

Approaches to the study of physiognomy

I will not impose approaches, but I would single out three levels of its study.

The first level is the quality of observation.

Knowledge of physiognomy allows you to remember the faces of a person. After all, so often we simply cannot describe or remember someone. To do this, you need to know what and how to describe, according to which algorithm.

And here the approaches of physiognomy are very convenient - dividing the face into zones, areas, key features and giving brief characteristics of all this.
This makes it easier to remember and easier to describe.

Second level of knowledge is the ability to draw conclusions about a person's character by analyzing his face.

Third level – read a person's fate.

You can limit yourself to one level, but you can, if you wish, deepen your knowledge and become a real physiognomist.

In any case, the knowledge gained from the study of Physiognomy can be useful in everyday life.

A sincere interest in the study of physiognomy is the possibility of natural memorization, and not that mechanical one like "5 steps to remembering a person's face." After all, showing a sincere interest in studying people's faces, you do not have to strain yourself, everything happens naturally, and memory works much better under such conditions.

Books on physiognomy

Many books have been written for the study of physiognomy. And among them there are those with which you can start an introduction to physiognomy.

I'll start with two - which, in principle, are enough to start with.

Physiognomy. Series "The Fourth Dimension". Compiled by G.M. Novoselov. 1993

This book contains:
Timothy Mar. Face Reading, or the Chinese Art of Physiognomy.
Eldar Razroev. The mirror of one's heart.
G. Durville, A. Durville. Reading in the face of character, temperament and morbid predispositions.
M. Gibadullin. Physiognomy.
F. Thomas. Secrets of the face Physiognomy.

As a source of information for developing the skill of observing faces, the following book is most suitable for this purpose.

Popov S.V. visual observation.2002

In addition to a lot of interesting and useful information that helps in visual observation of a person, the book provides detailed information and guidelines for remembering a person's face, which I spoke about at the beginning - this is the first level of using the knowledge of physiognomy. Practical and most applicable knowledge in life.

I. Lavater. One hundred rules of physiognomy.2008

Johann Caspar Lavater (1741-1801) - Swiss writer, theologian and poet.
From 1769 he collected materials for Physionomics, which was published in 1772-78, with many drawings by the best engravers.
The published work was the quintessence of all physiognomic experience and brilliant insights of Lavater.

Ivan Sikorsky. General psychology with physiognomy. 1912

Ivan Alekseevich Sikorsky (1842-1919) was a Russian psychiatrist and anthropologist.

Fulfer M. The art of reading by faces. 2004
The author is a lawyer with twenty years of law practice, having studied many books on physiognomy, he gained experience in practice by offering “Reading faces with a guarantee” for more than 2 years at various fairs and festivals. This allowed him to gain practical experience.
Then he was invited to various companies, he trained teachers, artists, photographers, psychologists, doctors, lawyers. He was invited as a consultant to select jurors in court. This is a person who has gained practical experience, so reading it is interesting and useful.

Nami Tickle. The face is the mirror of the soul. Physiognomy for everyone. 2010
It is interesting to read how the author of the book came to physiognomy. Many examples and descriptions related to psychology.

Velkhover E, Vershinin B. Secret signs of the face. 2002

Closer to the scientific and systematic presentation. The historical perspective of this science and the deep detailing of the descriptions.

Roshal V.M. Physiognomy. Signatures of life. 2006
We are talking about four signatures: the first is the face of a person, this is what physiognomy does. The second - hands, palmistry is engaged. The third - bumps and bulges on the head, deals with phrenology. The fourth - prints on the body (moles, etc.), is called morphoscopy.
In the book:

Western method of face shape analysis. Hindu method of division into castes. Chinese method of five elements. Fundamentals of classical physiognomy.

Theodor Schwartz. We read faces Physiognomy. 2010
A popular presentation, as examples - the description of the faces of famous personalities.

The book is accompanied by a program on CD PiterFizio, which allows you to make portraits.

Physiognomy. Eldar Razroev. 2005
Having become acquainted with the Typology, Socionics and IIT (the theory of information interaction), the author found much in common with his analysis technique. This is what he described in his book, proposing an eight-sector structuring. On fig. below.

Each sector carries information about the properties of a person in a certain area:
1. Insight. 2. Spirituality.
3. Persistence. 4. Learning.
5. Practicality. 6. Adequacy.

7. Makings. 8. Perspective.

The next block of books - books are also interesting, and although many of the information is repeated, but each has something of its own. It is also useful for expanding knowledge.

List of books in this block:

1. B. Higir. Physiognomy. 2006
2. Angelo Repossi. Physiognomy or the art of determining the character of a person by the features of his face. 2003
3. Francis Thomas. Face secrets. 1993 (The peculiarity of the book is about the connection between physiognomy and astrology).
4. Parshukova L.P., Karlyshev V.M. Shakurova Z.A. Physiognomy. 2004 (A textbook for higher educational institutions in the service sector. It is interesting because it is a textbook. What it teaches students can be read).
5. Parshukova L.P., Shakurova Z.A. Physiognomy: read the face. 2004 (This is already a popular edition by the same authors).
6. S. Panfilov. Physiognomy of human emotions and characters. 2007
7. T. Klipina, V. Leonkin, I. Gribulina. How to read a person's face. Physiognomy accessible to everyone. 2008
8. Jonathan Dee Chinese physiognomy. 2004
9. Kuai Ch. How to learn to read faces. 2003
10 Jonathan Dee We read in the face. How to know the character of a person. 2007
11. Jeffrey Ford. Physiognomy. 2005
12. Khomich E.O. How to read a person's thoughts: physiognomy. 2006
13. Morok A, Razumovskaya K. We read in the face. 2000
14. Schegolev I. Secrets of the face: Physiognomy for everyone. 2006
15. L. Nimbrook. Physiognomy for everyone. 2006
16. Jean Haner. The wisdom of your face. Change your life with the Chinese art of physiognomy. 2013
17. Rose Rosetree. Face reading. The art of seeing people through. 2011 Series: Mentalist.
18. B. Lynn Henry. Face reading. 2003
19. Mente Boy Lafayette. Asian Face Reading Techniques. 2005

Physiognomy brings many interesting impressions to those who approach it with an open mind.

Of course, we can say that this is not scientific, especially since attempts to simulate on a computer the connection between a person's appearance and his character did not give a positive result.

But still, a person is not a machine and observation is not only in the fact that he evaluated a person by formal signs and that's it.

No, he adds to these signs his experience and knowledge in other areas, i.e. has a complete picture of what he sees.

That is why there are people who are insightful and really read a person like a book.

Why not try?

Sincerely, Nikolay Medvedev.

Encyclopedic YouTube

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✪ Reading by appearance. Basics

✪ Physiognomy. Psychologist Natalya Kucherenko, lecture No. 08.

✪ Physiognomy training | Face and character

✪ Physiognomy in examples | face reading

Subtitles

Etymology

The word physiognomy came into Russian from French (fr. physionomie, facial expression < фр. physiognomie , the art of recognizing a person's character traits and inclinations by the features of his face < лат. physiognomia < лат. physiognomonia < греч. Φυσιο + Greek γνωμονικά ).

in the 18th century the word physiognomy was used in the meaning of "the art of recognizing the features of a person's character and inclinations by the features of his face", then - in the meaning of "facial expression". Today, a face is called a physiognomy, and instead of "physiognomy" they use the word "physiognomy".

In his work “General Psychology with Physiognomy in an Illustrated Presentation”, I. A. Sikorsky wrote: “The term Physiognomy comes from Greek words<…>hence physiognomy - the art of recognizing character and inclinations by external signs; the most recognizable signs were called physiognomonica(plural of Φυσιογνωμονιχόν ). By abbreviation, physiognomy turned out from physiognomy. Terms: Φυσιογνωμονίη, Φυσιογνωμονιχόν we already meet in Hippocrates and in medieval authors<…>The term: physiognomy has finally received its meaning - the recognition of mental properties by facial features, by the movement of the hands and by other movements ... "

Subject of study

In a general sense, the subject of physiognomy is the psychodiagnostics of a person in appearance, primarily in the face. However, there were periods when different parts of the body were subjected to psychodiagnostics. AT broad sense, the subject of physiognomy was both the face and the body, characteristic grimaces, gestures and postures, physique and posture. In ancient times, physiognomy was also applied to animals. It was first described by an unknown author in the work Φυσιογνωμονικά (English) Russian(often this work is attributed to Aristotle), where the main signs were listed: “Now I will tell you what kind of signs are taken. They are taken of all kinds: they recognize the character and by movements, and by figure, and by color, and by facial expression, and by hairiness, and by smoothness [by lack of hair], and by voice, and by fleshiness, and by members, and throughout the type [view] of the body ”(a 26-33). Later, kinesics, phrenology, oculesics, etc., emerged from the concept of "physiognomy", and the term physiognomy began to be used in narrow sense.

Attempts to use physiognomy in science

Many scientists tried to prove the necessity of physiognomy, for example, Charles Darwin, answering the question: “What is scientific in the so-called science of physiognomy?”, wrote “Each individual reduces mainly only certain muscles of the face, following his personal inclinations. These muscles may be more developed, and therefore the lines and wrinkles of the face, formed by their normal contraction, may become deeper and more prominent. But no evidence of the scientific nature of the method was received.

“Physiognomy, which has been studying the relationship between the structure of the face and character traits for thousands of years, has accumulated a huge array of observations and hypotheses, most of which, however, do not withstand serious scientific verification.”

Nevertheless, attempts to use physiognomy do not stop. “For teachers and doctors, actors and politicians, businessmen and managers, the ability to instantly remove information from the face of a business partner, interlocutor, subordinate is very useful.”

Physiognomy of the East

In China, Physiognomy was considered a full-fledged branch of medicine. Xiangfa相法 ("laws of appearance"), xiangshu 相术 ("art of divination by appearance") or xianzhenshuo 相人說 （"art of predicting fate by appearance"） were based on the idea of ​​the relationship between the fate and character of a person with his physical characteristics . The first mention of physiognomy is found in the annals of Zuozhuan (5th century BC). However, Xun-tzu (3rd century BC) proves both that Physiognomy already existed as a system, and that its practicality was questioned (chap. Feixiang, "Negation of Physiognomy"). Du Mu 杜牧 (803-852) also spoke among the Chinese deniers of F..

"Cisets Kuai Tong, realizing that the fate of the Celestial Empire is in the hands of Han Xin, decided to shake [his intentions] with the help of a cunning plan. He began to instruct Han Xin based on the teachings of Xiangzhenshuo. He said: "I have mastered the art of guessing a person by appearance." “How do you determine the fate of a person by the face?” - Han Xin asked. Kuai Tong answered: "The nobility and meanness of a person are reflected in the structure of his bones, worries and joys are concentrated in his appearance, accomplishments and failures are manifested in his determination. He who takes all this into account will not accomplish ten thousand deeds." and one mistake.

“Schemes and terms were used in the physiognomic practice of China. Physiognomic terms "5 peaks" (forehead, nose, chin and cheekbones), "3 courtyards" ("upper courtyard" - from the border of the hair to the bridge of the nose, "middle courtyard" - from the bridge of the nose to the tip of the nose and "lower courtyard" - from the tip nose to chin), etc. marking the location of parts of the face. All the variety of parts of the face was reduced to several types: eight types of noses, six types of eyes, etc., each type was associated with a hieroglyphic analogue and a certain writing technique. The contours of the face were determined by eight hieroglyphic similarities (“8 norms”): a square face was compared with the hieroglyph tian (“field”), a face expanding in the lower part was likened to the hieroglyph feng (“wind”)” .

The main points that divination practices in China were addressed were abundant offspring, material well-being and career advancement. For example, "physiognomists - Confucians tried, first of all, to detect the presence or absence on the face of signs of such moral qualities as respect for parents, decency, devotion to their master, loyalty to the authorities." At the same time, symmetry and harmony of facial features were especially important, promising a good fate. Large, regular features, a square face in men and a round face in women (a symbol of fullness, prosperity in the family) served as a sign of wealth and nobility. Any asymmetry of features, as well as a narrow forehead, a small chin, were called “deviations” and either testified to some kind of health disorder or portended troubles. Forehead - "if its bulge is like a standing wall, it is wide, straight and high - this is the appearance of a noble and long-term person"; ears - “they herald longevity if they are thick and strong, raised and long”; folds near the eyes - "when they go up - wealth and happiness in a continuous series"; nose - "should be thick and dense - you will live for many years"; chin - "if the chin is sharp or pressed down, you will not occupy an honorable position"; cheekbones - "should be prominent, if they do not protrude, are not noticeable, then the person is insignificant and will die early."

Ancient physiognomy

Physiognomy of the Middle Ages and Renaissance

Subsequent studies in physiognomy belong to the Middle Ages. During this period in Europe there was a separation of physiognomy from science. However, Ibn Sina shared the views of Aristotle and referred to his works when it came to facial expressions. At the same time, in his practice, he analyzed in detail the facial expressions of patients and attached the results of observations to other arguments in making a diagnosis and assessing the patient's condition.

XX century in the history of physiognomy

XXI century in the history of physiognomy

In 2014, a group of scientists developed a mathematical model that allows predicting human SNP based on characteristic areas of the face. The accuracy of their method remained low.

Types of physiognomy

1. the study of non-verbal behavior (facial expressions, bodily motor skills);
2. study of facial features - physiognomy, body structure.

There are also the following types of physiognomy:

“We sometimes quite rightly judge about
person on first impression
basis, perhaps, and unconscious
accumulated experience, due to
associations guessing in a person those
or other qualities. And so he immediately
becomes us either nice, or-
more antipathetic ... We believe that
this is explained to a certain extent
peni intuition - unconscious on-
by itia, by that gift of guessing, do not say
zhu clairvoyance ... ".

Principles or basic provisions of physiognomy

Physiognomy is based on the following basic principles:

• the principle of internal and external emphasizes the relationship between the visible and the invisible, points to the relationship of form and content, physical and mental, morphological features of the structures of the face with the internal content of the personality;
• the principle of integrity implies that the whole is always more than just the sum of its parts. The stronger the connections of various elements, the greater and better the integrity. Based on this principle, each part of the body can carry information about the whole. But this information will be somewhat incomplete. Therefore, information obtained only on diagnostic data cannot give a complete picture of the personality;
• the principle of subjectivity indicates that any information is read by a person only at the level to which he has grown, and with the accuracy and integrity that he is capable of due to his capabilities and competence (development);
• the principle of selectivity states that everything that corresponds to the personality - its worldview, values, thinking, orientation, etc. - is perceived faster, better. The subjective assessment of perception is highly dependent on the motivation, interests and needs of the person;
• the principle of balance manifests itself through the balance and proportions of the physical and mental. Any imbalance testifies to disharmony, internal struggle, conflict with oneself;
• the principle of ratios is fundamental when reading information. The ratio of shapes, colors, hard and soft tissues and other features of the parts of the face.

"Difficulties in translation", or factors that make it difficult to "read" a person

Physiognomy is an integral system, since facial features are closely interconnected. And the accuracy of the result of "reading" depends on the ability to evaluate all the factors that affect the person, which, in turn, are divided into the following groups:

1 . depending on the effects on the person's face:
"modern physiognomists believe that any change in facial features is associated with significant internal and emotional changes." Such changes are possible by two factors or groups of influences:

2 . depending on cultural characteristics:

3 . depending on the method of identifying the psychological parameters of the human personality in the context of analytical psychology:

4 . depending on attribution errors leading to social distortion or effects of subjective social perception of a person's face:

The reliability of physiognomic conclusions, however, is very controversial and they are based on percentages of probability, which means that there are no postulates in the correlations of appearance and personality. The idea that, knowing some regularities, one can draw an accurate conclusion about the character of a stranger by the face is one of the typical misconceptions of the authors of the so-called popular literature. “Of course, everyone wants to learn how to read a person like a book. But this is impossible: there are too many factors to consider in order to draw conclusions. Therefore, there is not so much to say about a person whom you see for the first time - there is a great risk of making a mistake. “Nevertheless, despite these difficulties, physiognomy has several attractive features. Her research is holistic (non-reductionist), phenomenological (experimental-descriptive), and interdisciplinary.

Visual psychosemiotics

Physiognomy can help a person analyze facial features in order to interpret them at various levels and gain a deep understanding of both his own personality and the personality of other people. You can start at any time and do it almost anywhere: on the bus, at work or on the street. However, it is better to start reading faces at home, and the easiest way is to look in the mirror. After reading your own face, it's time to focus on other people's faces. The habit of observing faces and associating their features with certain forms of behavior significantly increases the ability (skills) of social communication.

All features, from the forehead to the chin, can reveal important information about the wearer's personality and health. Visual psychosemiotics involves the division of all facial features into four groups:

• face type - face shapes (profile and full face) and head, complexion, the concept of classical proportions;
• hairline (head hair, eyebrows, mustache, beard and sideburns, eyelashes);
• natural openings of the face (mouth - lips and teeth, nose, ears, eyes);
• other reliefs (bone protrusions of the face: forehead, cheekbones, chin; soft integument: cheeks and wrinkles and features of human skin - moles).

face type

Symmetry and asymmetry

The evidence for the asymmetry of a normal human face is the method of creating an image of the same face from two left and two right halves, the rule of bilateral symmetry. Thus, two additional portraits are created with absolute symmetry, but significantly different from the original. "Comparing two pictures -" hard "and" soft ", taken from the same face, you can ... establish very interesting relationships."

Such a face division system is called video-computer psychoanalysis (VKPA), developed by Avtandil Anuashvili (patent No. 2201131) or “Method for determining the mental state” by A. K. Zhuravlev and S. V. Mikhalchik (RF patent RU2303947 of 07/15/2004), previously described V. V. Kupriyanov and G. V. Stovichok (1988), who at one time believed that the objective parameters of the face could be expressed only with the help of scientific methods, the search for new methods for studying the face that could increase the diagnostic value of facial expressions, solve the problems of measuring individual signs face, since only with their strict identification it is possible to continue the analysis and reveal the correlation between mental potencies and physical transformations of the face (phenotypology is one of the methods of application today). “Objective scientific analysis of the face is certainly real,” the scientists say. - It is necessary to use a variety of means to obtain accurate quantitative indicators. How great their predictive function will be is currently difficult to assess. However, it is unlikely that there will be disagreements about the advisability of posing and developing this problem. The prospect of differentiation of the patient's face alone can interest and inspire the researcher. The fact of asymmetry in the external structure of the face and body of a person was known even to ancient artists and sculptors of the ancient world, and was used by them to give expressiveness and spirituality to their works.

Face and head shapes

Characteristics of the oval of a person's face and profile, according to various authors of popular literature

According to V. B. Shapar about the oval of the face	Self-confidence, conservatism and purposefulness, physical activity, softness and rigidity, physical and mental energy, adventurism, authoritarianism, greed, a tendency to idealize, responsiveness, susceptibility to mood swings, understanding, leadership
According to V. B. Shapar about the profile	Representativeness, mentality, leadership ability and dependency, gullibility and skepticism, musicality, perseverance, insight, physical activity
According to S. Brown about the shape of the face	“The shape of a person can provide you with vital information about whether the wearer is overall more Yin or Yang. If you find this definition difficult ... pay special attention to the forehead and jaw line.

The face that we show to the outside world plays a big role in our lives. It can make us happy and self-confident, or it can make us unhappy and cause many complexes and problems. Having its shape, the face acquires its own individuality. On this basis, firstly, the forms of faces in full face are distinguished - morphotypes, which are divided into two groups: angular and rounded, in each of which there are five main types of faces (incomplete classification compared with the ideas of E. Ledo), where " ... "pure" types are rare. Secondly, "according to the profile, the individual difference in the general shape of the head is determined by the so-called facial angle." If we draw a vertical tangent line between the central bulges of the superciliary arches and the junction of the nose with the upper lip, and a horizontal line from this point to the earlobe, we can clearly distinguish three characteristic facial angles. It is worth noting that in addition to dividing the shapes of the head along the facial angle, they are also considered along the contour of the face profile: straight (flat or flattened), convex and concave faces. And also there is a teaching associated with the concepts of the canon of changes i-ching, which highlights the methods of physiognomic analysis of faces in profile, namely, it highlights the formal types of human faces, which are systematized by means of trigrams, tetragrams, pentagrams and hexagrams I-ching, which is new for physiognomy . And thirdly, taking into account the constitutional features of a person, 3 forms of the head are distinguished:

• dolichocephalic long-headedness, which is characterized by a predominance of longitudinal dimensions over transverse ones;
• mesocephalic average head, characterized by an average ratio of transverse and longitudinal diameters;
• brachycephalic short head, characterized by a relatively large transverse diameter of the head.

Face colour

An important role in physiognomy is played by the complexion. Here it is necessary to understand that we are not talking about the main colors of the skin - signs of racial affiliation. Unlike Aristotle, modern physiognomists know that skin does not have a permanent color. It may vary from the state of the person or the area where he lives. The complexion can vary from snow-white to blue-black, which is due to the amount of coloring pigment - melanin. The more it is, the darker the skin. Very often, when describing a person, you can hear that he has an “unhealthy complexion”, “skin like an alcoholic” or, conversely, “healthy color”, “skin just shines”. This also gives a peculiar characteristic ...

The concept of classical proportions

Throughout human history, people have thought about how to define and measure beauty, and therefore how to make it possible to recreate it. Due to time, cultural, ethnic and age differences, it is difficult to establish universal canons of beauty. And in each new era, their own ideas about the beauty of the human face arose, new tastes and criteria for evaluating beauty were born:

• ancient artists were looking for a certain geometric ratio of parts and lines of the face, trying to find a mathematical, exact formula of beauty;
• in the 18th-19th centuries, matte, almost painful pallor, almond-shaped eyes and "sable" eyebrows, a tiny mouth were considered the ideal of female beauty;
• in the 70s it was fashionable to wear thin eyebrows - strings;
• in the 80s, fashion changes in the opposite direction and everyone begins to “grow” eyebrows that were carefully plucked not so long ago.

Numerous attempts are known to determine the proportions of the face, which is of interest for an objective judgment about the limits of its variability and for identifying pathological abnormalities. According to the statement of the ancient Greek sculptor Polykleitos (5th century BC), who was an adherent of the Pythagorean theory of the golden section, the face should be 1/10 of the length of the entire body. Leonardo da Vinci and his friend Luca Pacioli come to an understanding of the harmony of the structure of the human body, after which the latter approaches the discovery of the laws of its construction - "divine proportions" (see Fig.). For example, according to Da Vinci's notes, the distance between the eyes is equal to the length of the eye. The length of the palpebral fissure should correspond to the distance between the inner corners of the eyes and about one-eighth of the height of the head. A line drawn through the inner edge of the iris outlines the border of the mouth. These classical artistic proportions of the human face are mentioned by Leonardo da Vinci in the text to the Vitruvian Man. The principle of the "golden section" was also used by the German scientist K. G. Stratz (1858-1924) in his work "The Beauty of the Female Body" (1905). However, there are still discussions about the beauty of the face: what is it and what are its parameters (unavailable link since 11-05-2013 ).

Scientists add that people with ideal facial proportions may have good health.

hairline

Hair is present on almost the entire surface of the skin, in particular, on the head. And from the point of view of physiognomy, each sign of hairline can tell a lot about how a person wants to express himself and be perceived by other people, but also how he perceives the world around him. They are considered according to the following criteria:

• by type - dry and oily hair, normal and mixed, soft and hard, thick and thin, healthy and depleted;
• in appearance - fluffy, bristly (eyebrows, eyelashes) and long hair (hair of the head, beard, mustache);
• by color - blondes or blonds (blond, fair-haired, golden, etc.), redheads, brown-haired, brunettes;
• in shape - smooth or straight hair, wavy and curly;
• by perception - in physiognomy, the general perception of the shape of various hair is important - hairstyle.

Natural openings of the face

Anatomical examination of the face involves the allocation of two groups of muscles: chewing, mimic and suboccipital. The definition of the functions of the latter depended on the direction of the muscle bundles, and it was important to determine what caused the tension of the skin at the site of fixation of the bundles of one or another muscle to it. It turned out that the ends of the muscles are attached to the skin, located around the circumference of one of the natural openings on the face, namely around the orbits of the nose, mouth, ears and eyes. Thus, the mimic muscles either expand the entrance to these natural openings, or narrow it, or at least somehow change its shape. These muscles determine facial expressions, which is a good addition to the study of physiognomy in the complex.

Eyes

One of the most beautiful components of the face are the human eyes. Among the people, the eyes are associated with the “mirror of the soul” (although this Latin saying is associated with the face, and not with the eyes, expressed by Cicero: “Imago animi vultus est”), physiognomists say that this is the “mirror of thought”, but the ancient oriental (in in particular, the Chinese) physiognomists called them "the mirror of the mind". Russian poet - satirist Don Aminado subtly remarked:

"Eyes are the mirror of the soul".

The eyes are the most difficult to study and interpret. From the point of view of evaluating the eyes as a material structure (shape, cut, color, etc.), a spiritual evaluative component is also acceptable to them - a look. The eyes have always determined the internal experiences of people, perhaps that is why the ancient Chinese physiognomists, like the Japanese, consider the eyes to be the most important part of the face, and if they are “favorable”, then this circumstance outweighs the negative properties of all other details of the face. A number of signs are used to evaluate the eyes: size, fit, profiling and length of the palpebral fissures, gaze, focus, color (a classification of psychological types has been developed according to the criterion of eye color, which is not strictly scientific in nature and arose mainly on the basis of everyday observations. Therefore, it should be used carefully, better - in combination with the interpretation of other signs), the nature of the structure of the eye sockets, eyelids, their folds and eyelashes. “And that's not all. There are more than a hundred such characteristics. An essential addition to the characteristics of the eyes are the eyebrows.

Mouth

In determining the character and destiny of a person, the mouth is one of the main ones that supports the life of a person, since the body receives water and food through the mouth. The mouth acts as a speech apparatus and expresses a person’s thoughts, revealing his character warehouse and, finally, the size and shape of the mouth help determine the internal energy of a person. The characteristic of the mouth comes from the following features - lips, teeth and a smile.

The dentist William Rogers (La Buccomancie, 1851) wrote: "Show me only the lips of the face, and I will tell you what it was, what it is, and what it will be."

Nose

“... there are ten types of noses: straight
mye, humpbacked, pressed through, with a bulge
above or below the middle, orly-
nye, even, snub-nosed, rounded and
sharp; they are good because speech
it's about the profile. Front noses are
eleven types: even, thick in
middle, thin in the middle, thick
with a stiff end and a thin place attached
leniya, with a thin end and a thick mess
attachment volume, with wide and narrow
wings of the nose, with high and low
nostrils open or obstructed
end of the nose. And you will also find
licia in other parts ... "

Ash. I, 26 v. 15th century

The architectural center of the face is the nose, which consists of a bone base and cartilaginous tissues that form the nasal cavity. In all newborns, regardless of hereditary characteristics, the noses are small and snub-nosed, but subsequently acquire dominant features: hump, flattening, shape, length, and others. The noses are characterized by the shape, width, length, tip, bridge of the nose, wings of the nose, base and back. A variety of all possible combinations of these signs can be easily traced in everyday life and has ethnic and geographical features of structure and configuration. Physiognomists consider the angle formed by the nose and upper lip to be an important indicator of the level of intelligence. In this regard, they distinguish - a right angle, with a horizontal line of the nostrils; nose, located at an obtuse angle with respect to the upper lip, raised slightly up and down, forming an acute angle. Among other signs, the nostrils are essential. In general, when analyzing the nose as an important detail of the face, one should compare its size, shape and other features with the whole face, and only in comparison speak of harmony, proportionality and proportionality.

The nose is characterized by pronounced age-related changes, which are manifested in an increase in the severity of the back, omission of its base and tip of the nose, in a decrease in the nasolabial angle against the background of deepening of the nasolabial folds.

Bony protrusions of the face

The skeleton of the face represents its basis. Therefore, no matter how developed the muscles and subcutaneous fatty tissue of the face, its appearance is largely determined by the design and shape of the bone base. Perfect for studying and systematizing in modern physiognomy are such ethno-geographical forms on faces formed over millennia as frontal bones, superciliary arches and cheekbones. In male cheekbones, 4 typical options can be considered: wide cheekbones, narrow cheekbones, round cheekbones, sharp cheekbones. Based on the systematization of N. Aliyev, a specialist in modern physiognomy, it is possible to identify new psychotypes that were not described in early works, or described using extremely uninformative illustrations.

Soft covers and features of the skin of the human face

Applied aspects of physiognomy

The face of forensics

Identification of a person by the signs of appearance is the establishment of the identity or difference of a particular person by describing the appearance according to a certain system and using special terminology. The identification of a person according to the signs of appearance is possible due to the fact that each person has an inherent individual set of signs that distinguish him from other people and even close relatives (the uniqueness of shapes, sizes, etc.), as well as their relative stability (the shape of the head, profile line, nose, cheekbones). Various displays of the features of a person's face in the form of a description of a person's features (“verbal portrait”) and a subjective portrait - habitoscopy, plastic and graphical reconstructions of a face by the skull are used in the practice of investigating crimes and biometrics.

face in medicine

“The face of a person throughout the history of mankind has been given close attention. Scientific interest in the study of the human face in different periods was characterized by various specific features and intensity.<…>Currently, there is a steady increase in the number of such studies in various fields of science, starting with the traditional areas of psychological science.<…>, including medical and ontopsychology, in which the features and features of a person's face are used as additional evaluation criteria to identify a predisposition to the formation of pathologies (L. Sondi, L.V. Kulikov, K. Tepperwein) and to differentiate psychosomatic states (G. Durville, A. Durville, A. Meneghetti, etc.)<…>» In this regard, «scientific and traditional medicine has developed several approaches based on establishing links between facial features and human diseases»:

• the psychosomatic approach studies the influence of psychological factors on the occurrence of a number of somatic diseases;
• The pathophysiognomic approach, which represents the Western view of the signs of diseases, involves the diagnosis of diseases by external signs on a person's face.

face in art

In many works of art you can find images and facial expressions. Authors can convey these states of mind, but not character.

Person in professional activity

see also

Explanatory notes

Links to sources

1. Dictionary of foreign words included in the Russian language. Chudinov A. N., 1910
2. "Explanation of 25,000 foreign. words that have come into use in the Russian language, with the meaning of their roots. Michelson A. D., 1865
3. Anne Myers, Christine Hansen.. - Wadsworth, 2012. - P. 27. - 640 p. - ISBN 978-0-495-60231-6.
4. I. M. Nakhov "Physiognomy as a reflection of the method of typification in ancient literature" Questions classical philology, vol. IX. M.: Publishing House of Moscow State University, 1987. S. 69-88
5. "Dictionary of the Russian language": In 4 vols / USSR Academy of Sciences, Institute of Russian. lang.; Ed. A. P. Evgenieva. 2nd ed., Moscow: Russian language, 1984.
6. Jaspers K. "General psychopathology" / K. Jaspers; Per. L. O. Akopyan. - M.: Practice, 1997. - 1053 p.
7. Social psychology: Reader: Textbook for university students / Comp. E. P. Belinskaya, O. A. Tikhomandritskaya. - M: Aspect Press, 2003.- 475 p.

From a psychological point of view, physiognomy is defined as "a field of knowledge that allows, through the perception and" reading "of a person's face, to obtain information about his personal characteristics that determine behavior and reflect the individuality of life" . And, for example, the definition of physiognomy in the dictionary of foreign words in Russian, edited by Popov M. from 1907:

"The ability to judge the internal qualities of a person by appearance and especially by the face, to draw a conclusion about his character."

“Although physiognomy has a long history, a single terminology describing physiognomic phenomena has not been developed, there is no unambiguous prescription for the semantic components of terms.” In general, physiognomy is an esoteric and occult teaching (for example, in ancient Greece “it was interpreted as a chimerical art, since the sophists who studied it defended a close connection between a person’s external appearance and his internal qualities, but could not prove this position”); is part of the structure of non-verbal communications.

Fundamentals of understanding physiognomy

Etymology

XVIII century - the time of the formation of Russian fashion vocabulary

Initially, the word “physiognomy” was used, which came to Russian from French (fr. physionomie, facial expression < фр. physiognomy, the art of recognizing a person's character traits and inclinations by the features of his face < лат. physiognomia < лат. physiognomonia < греч. Φυσιο + Greek γνωμονικά ) in the 18th century, was used in the meaning of "the art of recognizing the features of a person's character and inclinations by the features of his face", then - in the meaning of "facial expression", was a synonym for the word "physiognomy". Today, the physiognomy is called the “face of a person” with a negative connotation, and to make it more expressive, instead of “physiognomy”, the word “physiognomy” is used.

The origin of the term according to I. A. Sikorsky

In his work "General Psychology with Physiognomy in an Illustrated Presentation" ( ib., 1904) Ivan Alekseevich wrote: “The term Physiognomy comes from the Greek words<...>hence physiognomy - the art of recognizing character and inclinations by external signs; the most recognizable signs were called physiognomonica(plural of Φυσιογνωμονιχόν ). By abbreviation, physiognomy turned out from physiognomy. Terms: Φυσιογνωμονίη, Φυσιογνωμονιχόν we already meet in Hippocrates and in medieval authors<...>The term: physiognomy received its final meaning - the recognition of mental properties by facial features, by the movement of the hands and by other movements ... "

Neologism of N. M. Karamzin (version)

The role of the face as a category in human communication

The question of scientific character and interdisciplinary connections of physiognomy

Many scientists tried to prove the need to study physiognomy, for example, Charles Darwin, answering the question: “What is scientific in the so-called science of physiognomy?”, wrote “Each individual reduces mainly only certain muscles of the face, following his personal inclinations. These muscles can be more developed, and therefore the lines and wrinkles of the face, formed by their usual contraction, can become deeper and more prominent, ”but things did not go beyond words. And physiognomy "reached the finish line in. in an indefinitely dual, confused state ": on the one hand, physiognomic representations are systematized, they can be logically studied, since they are based in some of their "research" on centuries of experience, but on the other hand, "... most scientists deny a direct relationship between traits face and personality traits. And they add that the occult teaching, as physiognomy, is opposite to science, but the occultists themselves believe that science and occultism have a common beginning. At the same time, “the data obtained in physiognomy are used in the psychology of communication, in managerial practice, in career guidance work in the selection of personnel for various positions. In psychiatry and forensics, there is a huge amount of data confirming the usefulness of referring to physiognomy. For teachers and doctors, actors and politicians, businessmen and managers, the ability to instantly remove information from the face of a business partner, interlocutor, subordinate is very useful. Systematic research on the human face continues in many directions:

Directions for studying the face
Psychological	determination of the dependence of facial expressions on emotional and intellectual stress
Psychiatric	research in both clinical and psychological aspects
Forensic medical	in this direction, the person is studied as an object of forensic science
Clinical	here the face is the object of clinical intervention in diseases of the skin, eyes, nose, teeth; in this case, the face can be used to judge the state of health, the resistance to diseases, based on centuries-old observations called pathophysiognomy. The famous surgeon and anatomist Pirogov N. I. in the middle. 19th century “... even compiled an atlas“ The face of the patient ”, where he argued that almost every disease leaves its characteristic mark on a person’s face” .
anatomical	study the structure of a person's face, shape, proportions, contours, composition, proportionality, relief; determine gender, age, constitutional differences in the structure of the face, create the foundation for understanding the laws of its structural organization
physiological	in theoretical and practical terms, it is important to find out what influences the growth and development of the face, what determines its mobility, how expressiveness is regulated, as well as the influence of the nervous and endocrine systems on facial functions
Anthropological	deciphering the ethnic features of the structure of the face and its expressiveness, as well as the development of the face in anthropogenesis
evolutionary	the study of evolutionary changes in the human face, which allow us to establish that the expressiveness of the face has its own history, rooted in the world of instinctive reflex reactions of human animal ancestors
genetic	determination of the hereditary continuity of the structure and expressiveness of a person's face, formed in the process of individual development, and the degree of influence of congenital characteristics. "however, the maximum similarity with parents is noted in 35% of cases". also, in order to know a person’s face, it is necessary to study his individual development in the prenatal period, which will help explain all the deviations in his structure

“Physiognomy, which has been studying the relationship between the structure of the face and character traits for thousands of years, has accumulated a huge array of observations and hypotheses, most of which, however, do not withstand serious scientific verification.” Therefore, nevertheless, it is “... defined not as a science, a psychophysiological test or a diagnostic technique, but ... as an art”, since understanding human faces is an inexplicable skill, which is a natural property of a person. Gaspard Lavater argued that "physiognomic flair is a gift from God" and warned against blind imitation.

Types of interpretation (systems) or types of physiognomy

1. Depending on the distinctive features of the terms:

In turn, a number of sources attribute exclusively static signs of appearance to physiognomy, while dynamic ones recognize either “pathonomics” or “kinesics” as the subject of study, or consider them within the framework of the psychology of non-verbal behavior. Many researchers refer to physiognomy the doctrine of the constitution, phrenology, while others exclusively facial signs. But it is worth noting that " dynamic characteristics are much more significant than static ones, that is, facial movements are more indicative than its shape".
2. From the main approaches to determining the psychotype of a person in socionics, it can be distinguished by non-verbal signs, where typing can be divided into two approaches:

• subjective impressions of non-verbal behavior (facial expressions, bodily motor skills);
• according to objective static signs of the body (features of the face - physiognomy, body structure).

3. Russian zoologist and anthropologist Bogdanov A.P. in his work “Anthropological physiognomy” (g.) distinguished:

• active physiognomy, in terms of giving one form or another;
• passive or observant physiognomy, in which judgments are made about the values ​​and properties of known physiognomic data.

4. As you know, “facial expressions can be studied from two points of view: facial expressions, on the one hand, and physiognomy, on the other. The latter is understood as ... "ingrown facial expressions"". In this connection, from excerpts from popular literature and some sites on physiognomy, the following three components can be distinguished:

5. The following types of physiognomy are distinguished:

Fundamentals of the methodology of physiognomy

Rules and stages of face reading

Analysis of each facial feature

goes through the following

Directions:

• the size;
• the form;
• location;
• skin tones (color);
• marks, moles, bumps and dents,

warts, pimples and even bruises,
as well as wrinkles and lines that
appear on or near them.

“We sometimes quite rightly judge about
person on first impression
basis, perhaps, and unconscious
accumulated experience, due to
associations guessing in a person those
or other qualities. And so he immediately
becomes us either nice, or-
more antipathetic ... We believe that
this is explained to a certain extent
peni intuition - unconscious on-
by itia, by that gift of guessing, do not say
zhu clairvoyance ... ".

Faith in physiognomy should not consist solely in the contemplative concept of its plausibility - it must certainly be based on the internal (personal experience, intuition, bioenergetics) and spiritual (moral values; good breeding - ethics of behavior, manner of communication) impression that leaves in your soul a person, since the appearance of a person as a whole, can have an immediate and profound effect on how other people perceive him and how he views himself. This is evidenced by the results of many psychological and sociological studies of what is today called the word "lookism" ( lookism), which translates as evaluation or discrimination of a person solely on external data (Patzer, 2002) . Therefore, it is worth noting that physiognomy by facial features determines not so much the actual character and possible behavior, but how a stranger (or a group of people) perceives a person for the first time in most cases.

Research methods

There are certain methodological limitations on the knowledge of a person by external signs, since difficulties arise in connection with the need to determine to what extent and to what extent the objective represents the inner world of a person. However, there are two assessment methods, depending on the aspects of the analysis of the external features of the face:
1. microanalysis- analysis of external signs of facial features, in order to identify psychological qualities and compiling personality characteristics. This approach has been used since ancient times.<...>But with the development of psychology as a science and the emergence of various typologies of character, attempts were made to combine facial features with a certain typology of character”;
2. macroanalysis or "macroperspective"- revealing the relationship between the external features of the face and the prospects of a person in the profession, family, luck. Such an analysis, presumably, allows one to get an idea of ​​the fate of a person and understand what period of life a person is in. In this case, the structure of the face is considered in the form of its “zoning”:

Symmetry and asymmetry

There are no absolutely symmetrical or absolutely asymmetric objects in the world. Therefore, in any object there is always a unity of symmetry and asymmetry. A striking example of asymmetry is the face of a person, which is associated with "functional (uneven development of the cerebral hemispheres) and morphological (skull asymmetry is noted already in the prenatal state) asymmetries." Such changes, occurring due to various reasons of an internal and external nature, create one-sided differences in the shape of the face, which, within the limits of physiological asymmetry, are an expression of individual personality traits. However, there is an opinion that morphological (anatomical) asymmetry is the structural basis of functional asymmetry, but evidence of this has not been obtained so far. Evidence for the asymmetry of a normal human face is the method of creating an image of the same face from two left and two right halves, the rule of bilateral symmetry. Thus, two additional portraits are created with absolute symmetry, but significantly different from the original. “Comparing two images - “hard” and “soft”, taken from the same face, you can ... establish very interesting relationships.

“Let's try to do the following: take a picture of the well-known standard of beauty - the face of Venus de Milo, then divide it into two parts with a vertical line. Add its mirror image to the left half, and do the same with the right. The faces obtained as a result of adding such two strictly symmetrical photographs will not look like Venus. One, wide, rounded, at best, will resemble Pushkin's Olga, and the other, narrow, long, vaguely looks like the image that we attribute to Pushkin's Tatyana. Neither Olga nor Tatyana claimed to be universally recognized beauties. But Aphrodite, sculpted by the great master of ancient Greece, with her both “right-sided” and “left-sided” halves of her face, is out of competition. The conclusion suggests itself: strict symmetry kills human beauty. By the way, this is why the faces of dolls are so lifeless, in which the sides of the face are the same repeatability. Another thing is that our asymmetry should and usually is moderate, because if one eye is somewhere near the forehead, and the other climbs onto the cheek, then puppetry is better, ”wrote Doctor of Medical Sciences, Professor L. E. Etingen .

Such a face division system is called video-computer psychoanalysis (VKPA), developed by Avtandil Anuashvili (patent No. 2201131) or “Method for determining the mental state” by A.K. Zhuravlev and S.V. V. V. Kupriyanov and G. V. Stovichok (1988), who at one time believed that the objective parameters of the face could be expressed only with the help of scientific methods, the search for new methods for studying the face that could increase the diagnostic value of facial expressions, solve the problems of measuring individual signs face, since only with their strict identification it is possible to continue the analysis and reveal the correlation between mental potencies and physical transformations of the face (phenotypology is one of the methods of application today). “Objective scientific analysis of the face is certainly real,” the scientists say. - It is necessary to use a variety of means to obtain accurate quantitative indicators. How great their predictive function will be is currently difficult to assess. However, it is unlikely that there will be disagreements about the advisability of posing and developing this problem. The prospect of differentiation of the patient's face alone can interest and inspire the researcher. However, the fact of asymmetry in the external structure of the face and body of a person was known even to the ancient artists and sculptors of the ancient world, and was used by them to give expressiveness and spirituality to their works.

Varieties of facial asymmetries
Asymmetry in the width of the face	the best development of the left half of the skull can be observed in mentally active people, but the right half - in creative people (artists, artists, sculptors, writers)
Asymmetry in the length of the face	most often seen in the vital area (for example, one side of the chin may be longer or shorter than the other)
Relief asymmetry (depth)	uneven deepening of the eyes, nasolabial folds, folds at the root of the nose, etc.
Asymmetries in the intellectual zone	characterized by a different arrangement of wrinkles between the eyebrows and asymmetries concerning the eyes (for example, one eye may be located deeper than the other, or they may be of different sizes)
Asymmetries in the emotional zone	curvature of the shape of the nose to the left or to the right
Asymmetries in the vital zone	determined by the shape of the mouth and lips

Principles or basic provisions of physiognomy

Physiognomy is based on the following basic principles and they are as follows:

• the principle of internal and external emphasizes the relationship between the visible and the invisible, points to the relationship of form and content, physical and mental, morphological features of the structures of the face with the internal content of the personality;
• the principle of integrity implies that the whole is always more than just the sum of its parts. The stronger the connections of various elements, the greater and better the integrity. Based on this principle, each part of the body can carry information about the whole. But this information will be somewhat incomplete. Therefore, information obtained only on diagnostic data cannot give a complete picture of the personality;
• the principle of subjectivity indicates that any information is read by a person only at the level to which he has grown, and with the accuracy and integrity that he is capable of due to his capabilities and competence (development);
• the principle of selectivity states that everything that corresponds to the personality - its worldview, values, thinking, orientation, etc. - is perceived faster, better. The subjective assessment of perception is highly dependent on the motivation, interests and needs of the person;
• the principle of balance manifests itself through the balance and proportions of the physical and mental. Any imbalance testifies to disharmony, internal struggle, conflict with oneself;
• the principle of ratios is fundamental when reading information. The ratio of shapes, colors, hard and soft tissues and other signs of parts of the face.

"Difficulties in translation", or factors that make it difficult to "read" a person

Physiognomy is an integral system, since facial features are closely interconnected. And the accuracy of the result of "reading" depends on the ability to evaluate all the factors that affect the person, which, in turn, are divided into the following groups:

Aging of the human face: this is a decrease in muscle volume, tougher skin, hair loss.

1 . depending on the effects on the person's face:
"modern physiognomists believe that any change in facial features is associated with significant internal and emotional changes." Such changes are possible by two factors or groups of influences:

2 . depending on cultural characteristics:

3 . depending on the method of identifying the psychological parameters of the human personality in the context of analytical psychology:

4 . depending on attribution errors leading to social distortion or effects of subjective social perception of a person's face:

The reliability of physiognomic conclusions, however, is very controversial and they are based on percentages of probability, which means that there are no postulates in the correlations of appearance and personality. The idea that, knowing some regularities, one can draw an accurate conclusion about the character of a stranger by the face is one of the typical misconceptions of the authors of the so-called popular literature. “Of course, everyone wants to learn how to read a person like a book. But this is impossible: there are too many factors to consider in order to draw conclusions.” Therefore, there is not so much to say about a person whom you see for the first time - there is a great risk of making a mistake. “Nevertheless, despite these difficulties, physiognomy has several attractive features. Her research is holistic (non-reductionist), phenomenological (experiential-descriptive), and interdisciplinary.

History reference

Physiognomy of the East

The main ideas of physiognomy originated in antiquity on the basis of the idea of ​​the predestination of the mental (moral) in a person and the bodily by what is prescribed for him by nature. Physiognomy was especially revered in the East, believing that the whole life path of a person can be predicted by the face.

In China, F. was considered a full-fledged branch of medicine. Xiangfa相法 (“laws of appearance”), xiangshu 相术 (“the art of divination by appearance”) or xianzhenshuo 相人說 （“the art of predicting fate by appearance”） were based on the idea of ​​the relationship between the fate and character of a person with his physical characteristics . The first mention of physiognomy is found in the annals of Zuozhuan (5th century BC). However, Xun Tzu (3rd century BC) proves both that F. already existed as a system, and that its practicality was questioned (Ch. Feixiang, "Negation of Physiognomy"). Du Mu 杜牧 (803-852) also spoke among the Chinese deniers of F..

“Cisets Kuai Tong, realizing that the fate of the Celestial Empire is in the hands of Han Xin, decided to shake [his intentions] with the help of a cunning plan. He began to instruct Han Xin, proceeding from the teachings of Xiangzhenshuo. He said: "I have mastered the art of guessing a person by appearance." “How do you determine the fate of a person by the face?” Han Xin asked. Kuai Tun answered: “The nobility and meanness of a person are reflected in the structure of his bones, worries and joys are concentrated in his appearance, accomplishments and failures are manifested in his determination. The one who takes all this into account will not make even one mistake in ten thousand deeds.

“Schemes and terms were used in the physiognomic practice of China. Physiognomic terms "5 peaks" (forehead, nose, chin and cheekbones), "3 courtyards" ("upper courtyard" - from the border of the hair to the bridge of the nose, "middle courtyard" - from the bridge of the nose to the tip of the nose and "lower courtyard" - from the tip nose to chin), etc. marking the location of parts of the face. All the variety of parts of the face was reduced to several types: eight types of noses, six types of eyes, etc., each type was associated with a hieroglyphic analogue and a certain writing technique. The contours of the face were determined by eight hieroglyphic similarities (“8 norms”): a square face was compared with the hieroglyph tian (“field”), a face expanding in the lower part was likened to the hieroglyph feng (“wind”).

The main points that divination practices in China were addressed were abundant offspring, material well-being and career advancement. For example, "physiognomists - Confucians tried, first of all, to detect the presence or absence on the face of signs of such moral qualities as respect for parents, decency, devotion to their master, loyalty to the authorities." At the same time, symmetry and harmony of facial features were especially important, promising a good fate. Large, regular features, a square face in men and a round face in women (a symbol of fullness, prosperity in the family) served as a sign of wealth and nobility. Any asymmetry of features, as well as a narrow forehead, a small chin, were called “deviations” and either testified to some kind of health disorder or portended troubles. Forehead - "if its bulge is like a standing wall, it is wide, straight and high - this is the appearance of a noble and long-term person"; ears - “they herald longevity if they are thick and strong, raised and long”; folds near the eyes - "when they go up - wealth and happiness in a continuous series"; nose - "should be thick and dense - you will live for many years"; chin - "if the chin is sharp or pressed down, you will not occupy an honorable position"; cheekbones - "should be prominent, if they do not protrude, are not noticeable, then the person is insignificant and will die early."

Physiognomy of the West

Ancient physiognomy

Physiognomy of the Middle Ages and Renaissance

Subsequent studies in physiognomy belong to the Middle Ages. During this period in Europe there was a separation of physiognomy from science. Under such conditions, physiognomy degenerated into anti-scientific speculative trends, akin to black magic, astrology and palmistry. However, the Central Asian philosopher and physician Ibn Sina (980-1037) shared the views of Aristotle, although he only referred to his works when it came to facial expressions. At the same time, in his practice, he analyzed in detail the facial expressions of patients and attached the results of observations to other arguments in making a diagnosis and assessing the patient's condition.

XX century in the history of physiognomy

Visual psychosemiotics

Physiognomy can help a person analyze facial features in order to interpret them at various levels and gain a deep understanding of both his own personality and the personality of other people. You can start at any time and do it almost anywhere: on the bus, at work or on the street. However, it is better to start reading faces at home, and the easiest way is to look in the mirror. After reading your own face, it's time to focus on other people's faces. The habit of observing faces and associating their features with certain forms of behavior significantly increases the ability (skills) of social communication.

All features, from the forehead to the chin, can reveal important information about the wearer's personality and health. Visual psychosemiotics involves the division of all facial features into four groups:

• face type - face shapes (profile and full face) and head, complexion, the concept of classical proportions;
• hairline (head hair, eyebrows, mustache, beard and sideburns, eyelashes);
• natural openings of the face (mouth - lips and teeth, nose, ears, eyes);
• other reliefs (bone protrusions of the face: forehead, cheekbones, chin; soft covers: cheeks and wrinkles and features of human skin - moles).

face type

Face and head shapes

Characteristics of the oval of a person's face and profile, according to various authors of popular literature
According to V. B. Shapar about the oval of the face	Self-confidence, conservatism and purposefulness, physical activity, softness and rigidity, physical and mental energy, adventurism, authoritarianism, greed, tendency to idealization, responsiveness, susceptibility to mood swings, understanding, leadership
According to V. B. Shapar about the profile	Representativeness, mentality, leadership ability and dependency, gullibility and skepticism, musicality, perseverance, insight, physical activity
According to S. Brown about the shape of the face	The shape of a person can provide you with vital information about whether the wearer is overall more Yin or Yang. If you find this definition difficult ... pay special attention to the forehead and jaw line

Scientists add that people with ideal facial proportions may have good health.

hairline

Hair is present on almost the entire surface of the skin, in particular, on the head. And from the point of view of physiognomy, each sign of hairline can tell a lot about how a person wants to express himself and be perceived by other people, but also how he perceives the world around him. They are considered according to the following criteria:

• by type - dry and oily hair, normal and mixed, soft and hard, thick and thin, healthy and depleted;
• in appearance - fluffy, bristly (eyebrows, eyelashes) and long hair (hair of the head, beard, mustache);
• by color - blondes or blonds (blond, fair-haired, golden, etc.), redheads, brown-haired, brunettes;
• in shape - smooth or straight hair, wavy and curly;
• by perception - in physiognomy, the general perception of the shape of various hair is important - hairstyle.

Natural openings of the face

Anatomical examination of the face involves the allocation of two groups of muscles: chewing, mimic and suboccipital. The definition of the functions of the latter depended on the direction of the muscle bundles, and it was important to determine what caused the tension of the skin at the site of fixation of the bundles of one or another muscle to it. It turned out that the ends of the muscles are attached to the skin, located around the circumference of one of the natural openings on the face, namely around the orbits of the nose, mouth, ears and eyes. Thus, the mimic muscles either expand the entrance to these natural openings, or narrow it, or at least somehow change its shape. These muscles determine facial expressions, which is a good addition to the study of physiognomy in the complex.

Eyes

The eyes are the main indicator of a person's mood. Special attention is paid to the eyes in physiognomy.

One of the most beautiful components of the face are the human eyes. Among the people, the eyes are associated with the “mirror of the soul” (although this Latin saying is associated with the face, and not with the eyes, expressed by Cicero: “Imago animi vultus est”), physiognomists say that this is the “mirror of thought”, but the ancient oriental (in in particular, the Chinese) physiognomists called them "the mirror of the mind." Russian poet - satirist Don Aminado subtly remarked:

"The eyes are the initials of the soul."

The eyes are the most difficult to study and interpret. From the point of view of evaluating the eyes as a material structure (shape, cut, color, etc.), a spiritual evaluative component is also acceptable to them - a look. The eyes have always determined the internal experiences of people, perhaps that is why the ancient Chinese physiognomists, like the Japanese, consider the eyes to be the most important part of the face, and if they are “favorable”, then this circumstance outweighs the negative properties of all other details of the face. A number of signs are used to evaluate the eyes: size, fit, profiling and length of the palpebral fissures, gaze, focus, color (a classification of psychological types has been developed according to the criterion of eye color, which is not strictly scientific in nature and arose mainly on the basis of everyday observations. Therefore, it should be used carefully, better - in combination with the interpretation of other signs), the nature of the structure of the eye sockets, eyelids, their folds and eyelashes. “And that's not all. There are more than a hundred such characteristics. An essential addition to the characteristics of the eyes are the eyebrows.

Mouth

In determining the character and destiny of a person, the mouth is one of the main ones that supports the life of a person, since the body receives water and food through the mouth. The mouth acts as a speech apparatus and expresses a person’s thoughts, revealing his character warehouse and, finally, the size and shape of the mouth help determine the internal energy of a person. The characteristic of the mouth comes from the following features - lips, teeth and a smile.

The dentist William Rogers (La Buccomancie, 1851) wrote: "Show me only the lips of the face, and I will tell you what it was, what it is, and what it will be."

Nose

“... there are ten types of noses: straight
mye, humpbacked, squeezed, with convex
lost above or below the middle, orly-
nye, even, snub-nosed, rounded and
sharp; they are good because speech
it's about the profile. Front noses are
eleven types: even, thick in
middle, thin in the middle, thick
with a stiff end and a thin place attached
leniya, with a thin end and a thick mess
attachment volume, with wide and narrow
wings of the nose, with high and low
nostrils open or obstructed
end of the nose. And you will also find
licia in other parts ... "

Ash. I, 26 v. 15th century

The architectural center of the face is the nose, which consists of a bone base and cartilaginous tissues that form the nasal cavity. In all newborns, regardless of hereditary characteristics, the noses are small and snub-nosed, but subsequently acquire dominant features: hump, flattening, shape, length, and others. The noses are characterized by the shape, width, length, tip, bridge of the nose, wings of the nose, base and back. A variety of all possible combinations of these signs can be easily traced in everyday life and has ethnic and geographical features of structure and configuration. Physiognomists consider the angle formed by the nose and upper lip to be an important indicator of the level of intelligence. In this regard, they distinguish - a right angle, with a horizontal line of the nostrils; nose, located at an obtuse angle with respect to the upper lip, raised slightly up and down, forming an acute angle. Among other signs, the nostrils are essential. In general, when analyzing the nose as an important detail of the face, one should compare its size, shape and other features with the whole face, and only in comparison speak of harmony, proportionality and proportionality.

The nose is characterized by pronounced age-related changes, which are manifested in an increase in the severity of the back, omission of its base and tip of the nose, in a decrease in the nasolabial angle against the background of deepening of the nasolabial folds.

Bony protrusions of the face

The skeleton of the face represents its basis. Therefore, no matter how developed the muscles and subcutaneous fatty tissue of the face, its appearance is largely determined by the design and shape of the bone base.

Soft covers and features of the skin of the human face

Applied aspects of physiognomy

The face of forensics

Identification of a person by the signs of appearance is the establishment of the identity or difference of a particular person by describing the features of appearance according to a certain system and using special terminology. The identification of a person according to the signs of appearance is possible due to the fact that each person has an inherent individual set of signs that distinguish him from other people and even close relatives (the uniqueness of shapes, sizes, etc.), as well as their relative stability (the shape of the head, profile line, nose, cheekbones). Various displays of the features of a person's face in the form of a description of a person's features ("verbal portrait") and a subjective portrait - habitoscopy, plastic and graphic reconstructions of the face from the skull are used in the practice of crime investigation and biometrics.

face in medicine

“The face of a person throughout the history of mankind has been given close attention. Scientific interest in the study of the human face in different periods was characterized by various specific features and intensity.<...>Currently, there is a steady increase in the number of such studies in various fields of science, starting with the traditional areas of psychological science.<...>, including medical and ontopsychology, in which the features and features of a person's face are used as additional evaluation criteria to identify a predisposition to the formation of pathologies (L. Sondi, L. V. Kulikov, K. Tepperwein) and to differentiate psychosomatic states (G. Durville, A. Durville, A. Meneghetti, etc.)<...>» In this regard, «scientific and traditional medicine has developed several approaches based on establishing links between facial features and human diseases»:

• the psychosomatic approach studies the influence of psychological factors on the occurrence of a number of somatic diseases;
• The pathophysiognomic approach, which represents the Western view of the signs of diseases, involves the diagnosis of diseases by external signs on a person's face.

face in art

Physiognomy in the personnel service

Person in professional activity

see also

Explanatory notes

Links to sources

1. Dictionary of foreign words included in the Russian language. Chudinov A. N., 1910
2. "Explanation of 25,000 foreign. words that have come into use in the Russian language, with the meaning of their roots. Michelson A. D., 1865
3. Bogomolov A. S. “Dialectical Logos. The formation of ancient dialectics. - Moscow, 1982. - 263 p.
4. McCarthy P. "Secrets of fate - in the faces of people" / trans. from English. G. A. Khen. - M.: AST Moscow, 2009. - 28|5 p.
5. I. M. Nakhov “Physiognomy as a reflection of the method of typification in ancient literature” // In: Living heritage of antiquity. Questions in Classical Philology, vol. IX. M.: Publishing House of Moscow State University, 1987. S. 69-88
6. Shtaerman E.M. "The Crisis of Ancient Culture". M.: 1985. - 44-74 p.; She is. "Man and space in the world of Rome" // VDI. 1992. No. 3. 179-211 p.
7. "Dictionary of the Russian language": In 4 vols / USSR Academy of Sciences, Institute of Russian. lang.; Ed. A. P. Evgenieva. 2nd ed., M.: Russian language, 1984.
8. Jaspers K. "General psychopathology" / K. Jaspers; Per. L. O. Akopyan. - M.: Practice, 1997. - 1053 p.
9. Social psychology: Reader: Textbook for university students / Comp. E. P. Belinskaya, O. A. Tikhomandritskaya. - M: Aspect Press, 2003.- 475 p. ISBN 5-7567-0236-9
10. Labunskaya V.A.: Non-verbal behavior (social-perceptual approach). - Rostov-on-Don: "Phoenix", 1988. - 246 p.
11. L. P. Parshukova, V. M. Karlyshev, Z. A. Shakurova "Physiognomy" / Series "Higher Education". - Rostov n / a: Phoenix, 2004. - 384 p.
12. Popov M. "A complete dictionary of foreign words that have come into use in the Russian language." M: g.
13. Feizov E. Z., Isaeva A. Yu. "Personality in the physiognomic projection." Cheboksary: ​​Publishing House of ChGU, . - 142 p.
14. Ravensky N. How to read a person. Facial features, gestures, posture, facial expressions. - M.: RIPOL classic, 2007. - 416 p.

The physiognomic type, meaning by this expression not only facial features, but also the impression caused by the general structure of the body and the nature of certain body movements from an astrological point of view, is determined by the following circumstances, which I cite in the order of their meaning:

1. being in the 1st house of certain planets;
2. the nature of the owner of the 1st house;
3. the natures of planets casting aspects on Ascendens;
4. the nature of the Sign of the Zodiac, which accounts for Ascendens;
5. nature of the Master of the entire horoscope;
6. other horoscope data.

In this brief outline of physiognomy, we do not have the opportunity to deal with the influence of the Zodiacal Signs. We will speak only of those features (anatomical, physiological, and partly astral and mental) that are determined by the planetary influences listed under numbers 1, 2, 3 and 5.
These influences are always (or almost always) mixed; in order to speak of them, artificially imagine seven pure planetary types, theoretically corresponding to the influence only one planets per subject.

This is how Tradition characterizes these "Planet Types".

Type of Saturn

Characteristic features of this type are: high growth; excellent development of the skeleton; pallor of the face, often taking on earthy tones; dryness and roughness of the skin; black thick hair, partly falling out in adulthood, without leaving, however, bald patches and bald spots. Saturnians usually bend their knees when walking; they move slowly, lowering their eyes to the ground. The heads are elongated, with sunken cheeks, long ears, thin pointed noses, and a large mouth fringed with thin lips, from which the lower one protrudes noticeably. Saturnian teeth are white and short-lived; gums are pale; beard black, sparse. The lower jaw is very massive and protrudes forward; The Adam's apple is highly developed. The chest is covered with hair; shoulders are high; hands are narrow and bony. Leg tendons and veins are very prominent.

Saturnians are prone to motion fatigue; they fade early. Of the unpleasant accidents they are characterized by: falls with broken bones and all sorts of dislocations. Of the diseases they are characterized by: nervous diseases, paralysis, rheumatism, diseases of the legs, teeth, ears and hemorrhoids.
Saturnians are distrustful in everything; independence of judgment, with some, however, a tendency to superstition.
Of the professions suitable for them: mathematics, law, agriculture, mining.
They love black color in clothes; stingy; seek solitude and are prone to melancholy.

Jupiter type

Persons of medium height with fresh, pinkish skin tone, good complexion, moderately overweight; they have large cheerful eyes, wide arched eyebrows, chestnut-colored hair, a straight nose of moderate size, a rather large mouth, fleshy lips (the upper one closes the lower one), large teeth (the incisors especially protrude), full cheeks, an elongated chin with a dimple, tightly fitting to the head ears, a graceful neck and a powerful nape.
They are distinguished by a clear sonorous voice, a tendency to early baldness. Sweat easily (especially forehead).

They show arrogance, love for festivities, officialdom, noisy feasts and conversations. Great gastronomes and drink connoisseurs; hunters before official performances; proud; love to patronize others; working, they always count on remuneration in one form or another. Differ in lively temperament; sometimes quick-tempered, sometimes vain, but, in general, they show good-heartedness; they value religious and family traditions, are always friendly and easily make and keep friends.
The most typical illnesses of Jupiterians: congestion of blood to the brain and apoplexy.
Jupiters make good administrators, convinced masters of ceremonies, good chairmen of large assemblies.

Mars type

Martians are taller than average, with a strong physique, a small broad head, a high forehead, round ruddy cheeks with a swarthy complexion; red hair growing like a brush; large sparkling, often bloodshot eyes; sideburns darker than the hair on the head; a large mouth with thin lips and a wide lower jaw; small wide yellowish teeth; a strongly protruding chin, covered with a short and stiff beard; beak-shaped twisted nose, small protruding ears and a very broad and prominent chest. Often have a red spot on the instep of the right leg.
Their voice is commanding; cutting movements; walk with big steps; love to dress up red; are fearless; great lovers of any weapon and any noise and din; wasteful; willingly lead a tavern life; they love raw meat and strong drinks; easily offended; very irritated; capable of becoming enraged and prone to violent actions.

Of the professions, Martians are suitable for military service, theatrical and decorative work, surgery, and fire fighting.
The diseases characteristic of them are: all kinds of inflammatory processes (most of all pneumonia; blood diseases; diseases of the cervical vessels).
Because of their natural inclinations, Martians are more exposed than other types to the danger of injury, concussion, and the like.
A parody of the pure type of Mars we have in the figure of the traditional Open.

Sun type

People of the Solar type have a beautiful appearance, medium height, a yellowish-swarty complexion, a lush beard, long thin, most often blond with a golden hue, hair; low but prominent forehead; large beautiful eyes with a moist sheen, expressing either softness of character or extreme severity; fleshy cheeks, a thin straight nose, long arched eyebrows covering the eyes, a medium-sized mouth, moderate lips, off-white teeth, a round prominent chin, medium-sized ears and a long, muscular neck. They are broad-shouldered and distinguished by the grace of somewhat elongated limbs, in particular very graceful thin feet. Their voice is very clear; in the gait shows nobility, often along with clumsiness.

The solar type greatly appreciates the respect of others, is prone to irascibility, which, however, it easily moderates; everyone seems very nice, but does not know how to make reliable friends.
Sun type men are often deceived by their own wives and abandoned by their own children. They love walking, reading; religious, gullible, proud and self-important, dress original but elegant, love jewelry and adornments. Very prone to Occultism.

By profession, most often inventors in the field of technology, good commentators and industrialists, and even more often artists.
Of the diseases this type is characterized by: heart disease, eye disease and heavy bleeding.

Type of Venus

People of this type are very similar to Jupiterians, differing from them in beauty and tenderness of constitution. They have a whitish-pinkish transparent skin; small in stature; they are distinguished by a beautiful little plump face, full cheeks with a dimple in one of them and a beautiful, although small, round forehead. Have lush eyebrows; wonderful black or chestnut hair, a graceful nose with a rounded tip and flared nostrils, large, cheerful dark eyes, a thick pink mouth with a swelling on the right half of the lower lip, well-colored gums and white, regular teeth. Their chin is round, fat, with a dimple; the ears are small and fleshy. The neck is mostly full and white. Venusians are round-shouldered, narrow-chested; Venusians also, which does not prevent them from having some fleshy breasts with their typical sagging, which so gracefully appears on antique statues of Venus. Small legs complete the ensemble of a type who loves bright colors in clothes, premiers in love, etc., which does not prevent them from sometimes being impeccable behavior and even being naive.

The Venusians judge and invent best by first impressions. They adore flowers and perfumes, they are lovers of fine gastronomy, in music they give preference to melody over harmony, they hate quarrels and scolding, they are distinguished by courtesy and friendliness; gullible to the extreme, and compassionate and merciful to the extreme.
Of the diseases, venereal and female are assigned to this type.

Mercury type

This type is characterized by short stature with a proportional build, something childish in appearance, an elongated, pretty, pale, slightly yellowish face, moreover, easily blushing, rich dark curly hair, soft skin, high forehead, short typical chin covered with sparse dark vegetation, narrow long fused eyebrows, sunken, restless, but penetrating eyes, a long straight nose with a rounded tip, thin lips (the upper one is thicker than the lower one and protrudes forward), miniature teeth, a powerful neck, broad shoulders, a well-formed chest and a strong but flexible spine. The bones of the arms and legs are very thin, but delicately shaped. The voice is weak. They differ from nature in liveliness, agility, dexterity and sharpness.

Mercurians are soft in circulation; in trade they are inventive for all kinds of speculation; prone to competition. Cheerful disposition; they love jokes, they are distinguished by their domesticity and love of children. By profession - speakers, professors, doctors, astrologers. Prone to magic. Skillfully engaged in trade. They manage other people's affairs well, but do not deserve unlimited trust.
Women of this type are unsympathetic. They are distinguished by coquetry, precocity, cunning and a tendency to betrayal and deceit.
Of the pathological phenomena, this type is characterized by: diseases of the liver and gallbladder and some disorders of the nervous system.

Lunar type

This type is characterized by high stature, a round head, too wide at the cheekbones, a white matte (rarely reddish) complexion, flabbiness of the muscular system and extreme scarcity of vegetation. People of the Lunar type are long-haired, most often blond, short-nosed, have a small mouth, thick lips, long, wide, somewhat irregular yellowish teeth, pale high gums, large round transparent bulging, slightly watery eyes of greenish-bluish tones, inconspicuous but converging blond eyebrows, wide fat chin, ears close to the head, a rather long beautiful white neck, broad shoulders. The chest of men is fleshy; in women, the breasts are very underdeveloped. The lunar type is characterized by a swollen belly and thin legs with knotted knees.

Representatives and representatives of this type are very fickle, easily succumb to moods, frivolous, distinguished by selfishness, coldness, laziness, a tendency to melancholy, a lack of love for family life and a thirst for travel, mainly sea travel. The picture is completed by their love for drugs, constant concern for their own health, love for the fantastic direction in art, commitment to reading romantic literature, easy inspiration; a tendency to mysticism, the ability to clairvoyance, prophetic dreams; love for the use of animal magnetism and a constant search for the company of mature and experienced people.

The lunar type produces many poets, many occultists of the lower degrees of Initiation, many travelers and adventurers. Meet among its representatives and high mystics.
Diseases of the Lunar type are: dropsy, disorders of the visual apparatus, up to blindness; disorders of the kidneys and bladder (of course, and the whole class of gouty diseases) and all kinds of diseases of the uterus.

Of course, it is tricky to meet a person who fits exactly one of the described types. We almost always meet with a mixture of types, but with a predominance of certain planets, the nature of which we must take into account. When deciding questions about the abilities of the subject, about his choice of profession, etc. It is most interesting for the occultist to know how the abilities for individual branches of esotericism and the inclination for one or another of its practical applications are distributed between types.

Of course, on the high levels of the circle of initiates, it is desirable to deal with a synthetic type that has absorbed the influxes of all seven Secondary Causations and harmoniously distributed them in itself. This will not prevent us from making a few specific indications.

AT teachers esotericism requires Saturn, Mercury and Venus. The presence of the Sun is desirable: Mars is sometimes appropriate.
For senior figures in Freemasonry Jupiter, Venus and Mars are important.
Magu Saturn, Mercury and Mars are needed.
Theurgiu You need the Sun and Venus.
Kabbalist theorist, like an armchair astrologer, Saturn with Mercury is necessary.
Clairvoyants, psychometers, fortune tellers etc. always possess a solid moon.
For experiments with mediums, hysterics, sensitives, etc. it is most desirable to deal with patients of the type of pure mixture of Venus with the Moon, and in the absence of such, of the pure type of Venus. The latter are very susceptible to all kinds of suggestions.

In the Initiatory Chains, among the representatives of the lower degrees of Initiation, there is always an abundance of young people with a predominant Lunar influence. At first, they obey the Masters not badly, make good progress, but almost always subsequently fight off the Initiatory Chains due to the inherent susceptibility to extraneous influences inherent in the Lunar type.
Regarding the pure or almost pure Solar type, I will say that Priestly studies are very suitable for him without the complication of such by the Magisterium.
Pure Jupiter is very suited to study the history of Esotericism.