1. Formation of the Old Russian state.

2. Political and socio-economic structure of Kievan Rus.

3. Christianization of Russia and its historical significance.

4. Feudal fragmentation in Russia.

1. Formation of the Old Russian state. The main written sources on the topic are ancient Russian chronicles, among which the most important is The Tale of Bygone Years", created Nestor, a monk of the Kiev Caves Monastery, around 1113. Information about Ancient Russia is also contained in foreign sources – by Byzantine authors Procopius of Caesarea, Constantine Porphyrogenitus, eastern, primarily Arab, - al-Masudi, Ibn Fadlan, in Western European chronicles, incl. Bertine Annals of the Franks. Important are a archaeological sources - excavation materials in Kyiv, Novgorod, other ancient Russian cities, incl. Novgorod birch bark letters.

The question of the origin of the Old Russian state is closely related to the problem ethnogenesis of the Eastern Slavs- the people who created the first state formation on the territory of our country. There are different theories of the origin of the Slavs. IN. Klyuchevsky and a number of other historians believed that the ancestors of the Slavs - Scythian farmers about which Herodotus wrote. In accordance with Carpathian theory- their ancestral home is located between the Danube and the Carpathian mountains. At present, there are two most common points of view on the question of the place of the ethnogenesis of the Slavs. According to one, it was the territory between the Oder and the Vistula, according to the other - between the Oder and the Middle Dnieper. Great Migration, which began in the first centuries of the new era and was caused by the movement of the Goths in the north of Europe and the nomadic Huns led by Attila from the east, led to the disintegration of the Proto-Slavic community into three branches - southern, western and eastern Slavs.

In the VI - VIII centuries. Eastern Slavs settled along the banks of the Dnieper. According to the annals, it is possible to establish the existence by this time of about 14 tribal associations. Glade and Drevlyane settled the territory of modern Ukraine and Belarus; krivichi settled along the Dnieper and Dvina; street, tivertsy- in the Black Sea region, along the Dniester; Vyatichi- on the Oka; radimichi– modern Central Russia; Slovenia - the area of ​​Lake Ilmen, around Novgorod, etc. The most developed of them are Polans and Slovenes, which formed two centers - Kyiv and Novgorod, - the union of which served as the beginning of the Old Russian state.

By the time of settlement in the Dnieper region, the Slavs lived tribal system. The main social unit was genus- a group of relatives who jointly owned land, pastures, worked together and equally divided the results of labor. At the head of the family were elders, the most important issues were decided by the people's assembly - veche. Several genera united in tribe.

In the 7th - 9th centuries. Slavs enter the period military democracy- the decomposition of the primitive communal system and the emergence of the beginnings of social inequality. With the development of the productive forces, private property is born. All adult men of the tribe still participated in the popular assembly and military campaigns, but wealth and power are gradually concentrated in the hands of the leaders and elders. To solve military problems, there are tribal alliances and superunions (unions of unions) headed by princes, which, according to Academician B.A. Rybakov and some other historians, meant the collapse of the tribal system and the transition to the state.

State- this is a mechanism of political power: 1) in a certain territory; 2) with a certain system of governing and coercive bodies; 3) with a certain legal framework; 4) existing through the collection of taxes.

The question of the origin of the Old Russian state is debatable, the central place here is occupied by Norman problem . For the first time, the Norman question was raised by German historians who worked at the Russian Academy of Sciences in the second half of the 18th century. - G. Bayer, G. Miller, A. Schlozer, who argued on the basis of The Tale of Bygone Years that the Scandinavians (Normans, Varangians) founded the first ruling dynasty in Russia.

opposed them M.V. Lomonosov who became the founder anti-Norman (Slavic) theories of the origin of the Old Russian state. He tried to substantiate the Slavic origin of the name "Rus" - from the river Ros(south of Kyiv) and a Slavic tribe with the same name.

However, the leading Russian historians (N.M. Karamzin, V.O. Klyuchevsky, S.F. Platonov and others) were Normanists to one degree or another. Among modern domestic historians, the opinion prevails that the state among the Eastern Slavs finally took shape in connection with the emergence of land ownership, the emergence of feudal relations and classes at the turn of the 8th - 10th centuries. However, the influence of the subjective factor - the personality of the Scandinavian prince Rurik - in the formation of the state is not rejected. There is nothing unusual in the very fact that foreigners are on the throne (Frenchman William the Conqueror, and later the Scottish Stuart dynasty, became English kings; Russian tsars after Peter turned more and more into ethnic Germans, etc.). This question has nothing to do with patriotism. Statehood cannot be brought in from outside , if the internal prerequisites for this have not matured. From The Tale of Bygone Years it follows that the Slavs invited the Varangians (Scandinavians) to end internal strife, as an external neutral force (“Our land is great and plentiful, but there is no outfit [order] in it”). Another probable reason for calling the Varangians was the desire of the Slavs with their help to get rid of dependence on the part of the Khazar Khaganate, to which tribute was paid. In addition, the Varangian squad could become a force capable of assisting local princes in collecting tribute, in polyudie. However, it is quite possible to assume that the "calling" of the Varangians (on contractual terms) turned into a "conquest" for the Slavs.

On the other hand, the coming of the Scandinavians to Russia is also explained by internal reasons in Scandinavian society itself. The Viking Age begins in Europe (end of the 8th - 11th centuries). viking- "warrior", the word comes from the common Scandinavian root " vic”, i.e. settlement, bay, trading (or other) coastal place, camp. Thus it is not ethnonym, not the name of the people, but the designation of the military squad. In Europe they are also called Normans(northern people), and in Russia - Varangians. Ethnically, in Europe, these are Norwegians, Danes, and in Russia - Swedes (partly Norwegians). (At the same time, the Scandinavian sagas say little about campaigns against Russia, it is only mentioned as the designation of Russia, Gardarika- country of cities.

Reasons for the campaigns of the Normans: an increase in the population in Scandinavia, where there is little land suitable for cultivation (in Norway and now only 3%), as a result, the excess population was “thrown out” of these countries, primarily adult men capable of carrying weapons. In order to feed themselves and their families, they formed a militia (“ledung”) led by a military leader (“king”) and went to conquer and impose tribute on other countries, or were hired to serve the rulers of Western European countries, Byzantium, Russia. They formed settlements and entire states on a vast territory - from Greenland and Britain to Sicily, besieged Paris. Their invasions terrified the peoples of continental Europe (there was even a Catholic prayer - "Save us from the fury of the Normans, Lord", "De furror normanorum libre nos, Domine"). 500 years before Columbus, in the 9th century, the Scandinavians probably reached North America (King Leif Eiriksson). In the east they reached the Volga region. The level of socio-economic development of the Scandinavians and Slavs was approximately the same, which also contributed to their ethno-political synthesis, while the peoples of Western Europe had already significantly advanced.

The same " vocation of the Varangians", in accordance with the message of the Tale of Bygone Years, happened as follows: in 862, the ambassadors of the Ilmen Slavs, Krivichi and Chud invited the Varangian prince to stop internal strife. Three brothers came Rurik, Sineus, Truvor(according to another version, Rurik came with a retinue and relatives) , – and began to reign, respectively, in Novgorod ( or in Staraya Ladoga), on the Beloozero, in Izborsk. At the same time, in Kyiv, the glades began to reign Askold and Dir. Most likely, they ruled at different times, but the chronicle connects them together.

The whole story about the calling of the Varangians is semi-legendary, not supported by indisputable historical facts, but probably has a certain historical basis - the invitation of the Scandinavian squads. As a result, two tribal superunion - northern (Novgorod) and southern (Kyiv).

Actually history united ancient Russian state begins when Rurik's successor Oleg in 882 . came at the head of the army from Novgorod to Kyiv, killed Askold and Dir and became the prince of Kyiv. Kyiv was proclaimed mother to Russian cities". Thus, the unification of Northern and Southern Russia at the end of the 9th century. became the starting point for the creation Kievan Rus. In the future, the activities of the Kyiv princes will be directed to the expansion of the Kyiv principality.az. This happens mainly during the X century. Under Oleg, the Drevlyans, northerners, Radimichi were attached, under Igor - the streets and Tivertsy, under Svyatoslav and Vladimir - the Vyatichi.

Thus, the East Slavic state was formed at the turn of the 9th - 10th centuries, when the Kyiv princes gradually subordinated the unions of tribal principalities to their power. Played a leading role in this process military service nobility- squad of Kyiv princes.

The territorial basis of the unified state was the path " from Varangians to Greeks”, i.e. from the Baltic to Byzantium. The ships descended along the rivers - the Neva, Volkhov, then dragged to the upper reaches of the Dnieper, then reached the Black Sea and sailed to Constantinople. This path was the pivot around which the Old Russian lands were consolidated.

The Norman question is also related to the problem of the origin of the term " Rus". Some historians (for example, the Ukrainian historian M.S. Grushevsky at the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th centuries) associated this word only with Kyiv, the Dnieper, believing that it came from the name of the river Ros(a tributary of the Dnieper, south of Kyiv), and only later did the northern Slavs appropriate this name for themselves.

There is another concept (modern historians E.A. Melnikova , V.Ya. Petrukhin). Before the arrival of the Scandinavians, the Slavs did not have a tribe or union of tribes called "Rus". The meadows that lived around Kyiv were also never called "Rus" before the arrival of Oleg. Probably, this term comes from the common Scandinavian (or Finnish) word ruotsi - “ row, rower, oar” and originally denoted the Varangian squad, which sailed on ships. Then it acquires a social meaning, because there is a merger of the alien Varangian nobility with the local Slavic and there is "Rus"- a new multinational elite of society - which is separated from the " Slovenian"(the rest of the population). Finally, after the creation of a single state, this designation extends to the entire territory subject to the Kyiv prince, and to all the population living there. It is important that the term "Rus" was not originally associated with any tribal name, it is neutral, and therefore became a means of uniting the tribes.

2. Political and socio-economic structure of Kievan Rus. The time of existence of Kievan Rus is the end of the 9th - the beginning of the 12th centuries. By political structure This was union of tribal principalities, city-states under the supreme authority of the prince of Kyiv. At the first stage, subordination to the Kyiv prince was expressed in the payment of tribute, then the tribal principalities were directly subordinate, that is, the local reign was liquidated, and a representative of the Kyiv dynasty was appointed as viceroy. Territories within a single state, ruled by princes - vassals Kyiv ruler, received the name parish.

1) the unification of all Slavic (and part of the Finnish) tribes under the rule of the Kyiv prince;

2) the acquisition of overseas markets and the protection of trade routes;

3) protection of the borders from the attack of the steppe nomads;

4) internal function - collection of tribute.

founder of the state Oleg (882 - 912) makes campaigns against Constantinople in 907 and 911. In 911, a Russian-Byzantine trade agreement was concluded - the first official written monument in Russia - which granted Russian merchants the right to trade duty-free in Constantinople. At the same time, this agreement also ensured the political interests of Byzantium, the Slavs were obliged to provide troops to fight the main enemy of the Byzantine Empire in the East - the Arab Caliphate.

Oleg's successor on the throne of Kiev becomes Igor (912 – 945). In 945, he demanded additional tribute from the Drevlyans, but they rebelled and killed the greedy prince. Igor's wife Olga (945 – 957 ), being a regent for her young son Svyatoslav, cruelly avenged the Drevlyans for the death of her husband. However, for the first time she streamlined the collection of tribute, setting its size - lessons and collection points churchyards. In 957 Olga traveled to Constantinople, where she was probably baptized.

Svyatoslav (957 - 972)- a prominent commander, conducted a number of successful campaigns, incl. to the North Caucasus, conquered the Yases (Ossetians), Kasogs (Circassians or Chechens). Campaigns were especially successful in 965, when he defeated the Khazars (as a result, the Khazar Khaganate ceased to exist), defeated the Danube Bulgarians, and even wanted to transfer the capital from Kyiv to the Danube. But in 971 Svyatoslav was defeated by Byzantium. He was forced to leave Bulgaria, accepted the obligation not to attack Byzantium, and joint actions against common enemies were envisaged.

The heyday of Kievan Rus occurs under one of the younger sons of Svyatoslav - Vladimir the Red Sun (Saint) (978 – 1015 ). Under him, the territorial structure of the state is finally formalized. He planted his sons to reign in the nine largest centers of Russia.

Relatively socio-political structure and forms of government in the Old Russian state, there are different points of view. The first is based on the fact that in the IX - X centuries. still remained in Russia three-stage control model"- the people's assembly ( veche), council of elders (" the elders of the city”, i.e. urban), prince. The tribal elite (elders) and the prince were part of the community on the terms of the agreement (“ row”), largely depended on it. The people's assembly continued to resolve the most important issues (judicial, military, etc.), there was still no big separation of power from the people and differentiation among free people. In addition, at the heart of relations, in many respects, there are still tribal ties, the former territory of the settlement of tribes. True, there was already an older and younger squad (“boyars” and “lads”), but it did not completely oust the people's militia.

Based on this V.V. Mavrodin, AND I. Froyanov and some other historians believe that the socio-political system of Kievan Rus is not feudalism, but the highest stage in the development of tribal relations. The prince is a tribal leader and, therefore, Ancient Russia - tribal super union. Feudalism finally takes shape only after the Mongol conquest in the 13th century.

However, most historians are of the opinion that Kievan Rus - early feudal monarchy . By the 11th century noticeable changes are taking place in the social structure of ancient Russian society, which fixes " Russian Truth"- the first Russian code of laws (code of laws). Its oldest version is created under the son of St. Vladimir - Yaroslav the Wise (1019 – 1054 ), contains a total of 17 articles; the main thing in it is the restriction of blood feud around the immediate family. Second edition - The Truth of the Yaroslavichs”, i.e. sons and descendants of Yaroslav (1072). Here, the fine for killing a noble person is 15 times more than for killing a simple community member. Third edition at Vladimir Monomakh(1113) - "Charter on purchases and interest" - supplemented by articles on new economic relations (usury, etc.).

Russkaya Pravda mentions various categories dependent population: servants- household servants serfs- slaves stinks- community members (free and dependent), purchases- became dependent on the received loan (“kupa”), Ryadovichi- worked on a "row", a contract. Special category - outcasts, i.e. people expelled from the community. Thus, society is social stratification.

Gradually begins to form private ownership of land the economic basis of feudalism. However feudal fiefdom(hereditary land ownership of princes, boyars, old tribal nobility), according to V.O. Klyuchevsky, was at that time only "an island in the sea of ​​free communal land tenure." From the 11th century appear appanage principalities- estates of individual princely families.

There is a formation political organization Kievan Rus. Great Kyiv prince represented monarchical element of the state, but he did not have the full autocratic power. In fact, the whole family of Rurikovich ruled, the eldest in the family was on the throne of Kiev ( next order of succession, by seniority). The prince of Kyiv had to hold council with Boyar Duma(boyars, i.e. servants of the prince, his vassals), which included senior warriors, the old tribal nobility (clan aristocracy), the urban elite. The control apparatus is being formed - posadniks, governors, thousand, mytniks, tiunas appointed by the prince to perform military, judicial functions, collect taxes, etc. The first set of laws is being created - "Russian Truth". At the same time, the emerging institutions of the state were combined with the remnants of former tribal relations - popular assembly and militia.

Based on this characteristic of socio-economic and political relations in Kievan Rus, the opinion was established that it is early feudal monarchy. It was the initial stage feudalization. Feudalism- an agrarian society of the Middle Ages, which is characterized by: 1) large landed property with a small peasant economy subordinate to it; 2) a closed class organization; 3) natural economy; 4) the dominance of religion in the spiritual sphere.

3. Christianization of Russia and its historical significance. According to legend, the apostle was the first to bring Christianity to the Slavs. Andrew the First-Called. In the 1st century n. e. he allegedly erected a cross on the site of the future Kyiv. The Tale of Bygone Years tells about this, but its path, in fact, is “from the Varangians to the Greeks”, i.e. description of the usual route of the Byzantines to Russia.

For the first time, the presence of Christians among the Rus was mentioned after their campaign against Constantinople in 860, in the message of the Patriarch of Constantinople Photius. He argues that already under Askold and Dir, the barbarians join the faith, and in 866. accept baptism. Probably, here the desired is presented as real, but, on the other hand, it was during this period that the first attempts to Christianize the Slavs were apparently made.

In the agreement between Oleg and Byzantium in 911. the Rus are still entirely pagans, opposed to the Christian Greeks. Igor's treaty of 944 already distinguishes pagan Rus from Christians. The first Christian church of St. Elijah and the first Christian community, which consisted mainly of merchants who traded in Byzantium, mercenary soldiers and foreigners who served there. Along with the Christian there were Muslim and Jewish communities. Christians, like all the inhabitants, were sacrificed by lot to the pagan gods.

In the struggle to strengthen the central government, the Kyiv princes use, incl. religion. In 980 Vladimir holds "pagan reform". Six idols (idols) were placed “outside the terem yard”, i.e. outside the princely estate, on a hill (Perun, Horos [Khors], Dazhbog, Stribog, Simargl, Mokosh). This was an attempt to establish Perun as the main deity surrounded by other tribal gods. " Setting idols»- a means to keep the conquered tribes, to preserve the unity of the state. True, O.M. Rapov believes that it was simply about creating a new place ( temple) for the administration of a pagan cult. Be that as it may, at the beginning of Vladimir's reign, paganism still completely prevails. In 983, there is a clash between pagans and Christians, including the mass extermination of the latter.

However, paganism gradually ceased to meet the interests of the prince and the nobility. A new religion is being established Christianity. Historians have different opinions regarding the reasons for its adoption in Russia. Most believe that, since the process of feudalization was underway, a new religion was needed to justify the centralization of power and the obedience of ordinary community members to the feudal elite. AND I. Froyanov and his supporters believe that this was an attempt to finally consolidate the dominance of the Polyans and the Polyan tribal nobility over the rest of the Slavs. , to prevent the collapse of the tribal union under the rule of Kyiv. Thus, in their opinion, the reason for Christianization is not the strengthening of new feudal, but the conservation of old tribal relations. Objectively, this retarded the development of society and had no progressive significance.

However, in reality, Christianity, to a greater extent than paganism, corresponded to the changed socio-political situation. As society and the state developed, a religion with more complex dogma and cult than in paganism was needed. The unification of different peoples under the rule of Kyiv accelerated , more in line with the centralized state monotheism(monotheism), ideologically supporting the autocracy of the Kyiv prince. The international relations of Russia were strengthened, it joined the ranks of the civilized European peoples, thanks to Christianization, Russian history was included in a single world, biblical, history. It became possible to enter into dynastic marriages with foreign rulers who agreed to give their daughters in marriage only to Christians.

Vladimir's desire to conclude a dynastic marriage with Anna Komnina(sister of the Byzantine emperor Basil) and became a direct impetus for his baptism (in 986 or 987). He wanted to intermarry with the Byzantine emperors, to become equal with them. However, before making the final decision on the Christianization of all of Russia, Vladimir, according to The Tale of Bygone Years, held " test of faith", i.e. listened to representatives of different religions. Probably, the speeches of the messengers themselves, their content is a fantasy, a later insertion into the text of the chronicle, but this message also had a real basis. Indeed, at that time there were missionaries of various confessions in Kyiv, and there was a problem of choosing a faith that would be most acceptable both for the Kyiv elite and for the whole society.

However, even after that, Vladimir doubted, and at the meeting they decided to send ten "wise and glorious men" to different countries so that they themselves could see how the preachers' speeches corresponded to reality. Most of all, the envoys from Kyiv liked the beauty of Greek (i.e. Byzantine) temples and worship, after which Vladimir inclined towards the adoption of Eastern (Byzantine) Christianity. Thus, according to the chronicle, his choice was based on aesthetic criterion. Probably, this is also a later insertion into the text of the chronicle, but one cannot completely deny the influence of such a circumstance on the thinking of the pagan, on the emotional impressions of the barbarian, who perceived, first of all, the external side of phenomena.

However, there were also quite real reasons for the adoption of Christianity precisely from Byzantium: 1) closer political, cultural, trade ties between Russia and Byzantium than with Western countries, the need for their further strengthening; 2) Pecheneg raids on the southern borders of Russia became more frequent, so a military alliance with Byzantium was also needed; 3) dependence of the Byzantine church on the emperor, while in the West the popes sought to assert their priority over secular power; The “Byzantine model” of the relationship between church and state suited Vladimir more as a secular ruler; 4) certain democracy of the Byzantine church, tolerance for pagans, which facilitated the spread of Christianity; 5) national, not Latin language of worship understandable to everyone. In addition, Bulgaria had already been baptized, it was possible to use liturgical literature on Church Slavonic (Old Bulgarian) language. Later, the Byzantine version of Christianity in Russia began to be called Orthodoxy.

The baptism of the people of Kiev took place in 988 g. with great resistance or, according to I.Ya. Froyanov, voluntarily, because was of no importance to them. In most other lands, baptism was carried out by force, “with fire and sword,” which Froyanov also admits, but considers this evidence of the opposition of other tribes to the power of the glades. Most historians believe that the reason for the opposition is the persistence of pagan beliefs, it is noted " dual faith”(the term of academician B.A. Rybakov) even in the XI - XII centuries.

The point of view of A.P. Novoseltseva: the final approval of Christianity occurred only after the Mongol invasion in the 13th-14th centuries, when the foreign yoke was reinforced by a foreign religion (at first the Mongols were pagans, then they converted to Islam); then in Russia there was a desire to ideologically oppose itself to the conquerors. It was after this that Christianity truly became the religion of the Russian people. The concept of "Christian" peasant"(peasant) began to denote the bulk of the population, while the Russian nobility willingly became related to the Tatar nobility, erected their genealogy to it and, thereby, laid the foundation for some famous noble families - the families of the Yusupovs, Kutuzovs, Urusovs, etc.

Significance of Christianization. The process of unification of the Slavic tribes into a single state accelerated. The international prestige of Russia was strengthened. There is a flourishing of culture - writing, book business, art. Christianity also approved a new moral ideal - "God's ten commandments". Within the framework of a single state, a single faith, the formation of the Old Russian people, the Old Russian language took place. In general, it was a civilization western type, because in its main features (albeit with a lag), it corresponded to the development of the countries of Western Europe at that time.

4. Feudal fragmentation in Russia. After the death of St. Vladimir between his sons there were civil strife. Svyatopolk declared himself the Grand Duke of Kyiv, occupying the throne in 1015-1019. On his orders, his younger brothers Boris and Gleb were killed (later canonized and became the first Russian saints). Svyatopolk, for his atrocity, received the nickname "Cursed". He was then defeated by his brother Yaroslav.

Yaroslav the Wise (1019 – 1054 ) established close dynastic ties with the rulers of Europe, gave his daughters in marriage to influential European kings (Anne - for the French, Elizabeth - for the Norwegian, Catherine - for the Hungarian). The creation of Russkaya Pravda is associated with him, but also the beginning political fragmentation. Before his death, he divided his possessions between his five sons, then his descendants ruled. Giving land to their sons and grandsons, the princes of Kyiv kindled civil strife, which the nomads took advantage of (from 1061 to the beginning of the 13th century - 46 Polovtsian invasions). The princes themselves in the internecine struggle resorted to the help of the Polovtsian khans.

Princely congresses are convened to end strife and settle disagreements. In 1097, at a congress in Lyubech, a decision was made - “everyone and keep his fatherland”, i.e. for the first time the principle is legally fixed feudal fragmentation.

Yaroslav's grandson Vladimir (Vsevolodovich) Monomakh (1113 – 1125 ) managed to stop the strife. He was called to Kyiv by the local boyars during the popular uprising of 1113, inflicted a crushing defeat on the Polovtsy, and for a short time reunited the Russian principalities. Then conflicts flare up with renewed vigor. Political fragmentation finally takes shape after the death of the eldest son Monomakh Mstislav the Great ( 1132). By the middle of the XII century. there were already 15 independent principalities, by the beginning of the XIII century. - about 50.

Reasons for fragmentation. Economic: the growth of estates and the economic independence of the feudal lords, the dominance of natural economy, which led to the economic isolation of the territories. Political: the increase in power and military power of the princes in the field. These reasons are common to all of Europe, and in general, fragmentation is a natural stage in the development of any feudal state.

However, fragmentation in Russia had its own specific features. The power of the Grand Duke of Kyiv was weak, because. the order of succession to the throne of Kyiv by seniority led to constant conflicts. At the same time, the political role of Kyiv is weakening due to the loss of its importance as a trading center due to the raids of nomads and changes in trade routes in Europe (in the Eastern Mediterranean, after the Crusades, a new route appeared from Europe to the Middle East, so the route "from the Varangians to the Greeks" lost previous value). In addition, the victories of Vladimir Monomakh over the Polovtsy temporarily weakened the external danger, and the local princes became less in need of Kyiv's help.

Consequences of fragmentation. Positive: flourishing of new urban centers, economy, culture under the auspices of local princes. Negative: the vulnerability of individual principalities to external danger, which soon manifested itself during the Mongol invasion.

Main principalities:

Vladimir-Suzdal(North-Eastern Russia). Favorable position on the Volga trade route. On the one hand, the connection is with the Baltic, the North-West, on the other hand, with the Volga region, the East, the Bulgars and the Finno-Ugric peoples. Capital: until the middle of the XII century. - Rostov the Great (Rostov-Suzdal Principality); then - Suzdal, from the second half of the XII century. - Vladimir. princes: Yuri Dolgoruky (1125 - 1157), under whom the city of Moscow was founded (first mentioned in the annals - 1147); Andrei Bogolyubsky (1157 - 1174); Vsevolod the Big Nest (1176 - 1212).

Galicia-Volyn. From Polissya to the Carpathians, i.e. the territory of modern Western Ukraine and Western Belarus. It had the greatest connection with Europe - Poland, Hungary, the Czech Republic. Capital: Galich. princes: Yaroslav Osmomysl (1152 - 1187); Daniil Romanovich (1221 - 1264) - most successfully fought against the Mongols, defended the independence of these lands. Almost the only principality in Russia (except for the Novgorod and Pskov lands) that actually did not fall under the rule of the Mongols.

Novgorod land. From the Baltic to the Northern Urals. It had trade relations with the West and the East. feudal republic. The main role is vecha, where, however, noble families ruled. It chose posadnik- the head of the local government and thousandth- the head of the military militia. The role of the head of the church is great - archbishop, who was in charge not only of church affairs, but also of the city treasury and external relations. Prince- only the leader of the military squad, he was invited and expelled by the veche. AT Pskov there was also a republic, the political system was close to that of Novgorod.

Chernihiv, Polotsk, Kiev and other principalities. This is the territory of modern Ukraine and Belarus. A fierce struggle continued for the throne of Kyiv as for the old center of the state, it remained prestigious, although it no longer gave real power. So, Yuri Dolgoruky captured Kyiv, became the Grand Prince of Kyiv, but did not "sit" in Kyiv, he went back to Suzdal. Andrei Bogolyubsky, having seized the throne of the Grand Duke, gave Kyiv to his squad for plunder. Ultimately, Kyiv was destroyed both by civil strife and by the Mongol pogrom of 1240. In 1246, the Italian traveler Plano Carpini noted the presence of only 200 houses in Kyiv (and even in the 12th century there were several dozen churches).

In different principalities there was a different political system. In Kyiv, Vladimir - monarchical rule was established; in Novgorod everything was determined by the veche; in the Galicia-Volyn principality, the boyars, the highest aristocracy, and the oligarchy played an important role. However, everywhere, along with the right to inherit the princely throne, the right of the community and the veche to call and expel the prince is preserved.

Thus, in Russia in the XII - XV centuries. united state is replaced political fragmentation (specific period), those. the existence of independent principalities. This period conditionally continued until 1485, when under Ivan III, after the Tver principality was annexed to Moscow, the process of gathering Russian lands around Moscow was basically completed.

The historical phenomenon of Russia was formed in its main features under the conditions of the Muscovite state. At the same time, the very name of the country, which exists to this day, was born and fixed. However, the phenomenon of Russia has deep historical roots that are common to all peoples: Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian. The origins are connected with the era of Kievan Rus, which covers the 9th-12th centuries.

There is every reason to say that in ancient times on the territory of Kievan Rus, development followed a progressive path. The Eastern Slavs, as an independent branch, separated from the Slavs in the 6th century. and gradually settled the European plain. They were a mixture of various racial lines: Indo-European and Aryan, with a tangible addition of the Ural-Altaic branches of the Mongolian, Turkic and Finnish peoples. They considered themselves as part of the European world, realized their closeness to it. Agriculture, crafts developed, cities arose. Broad trade relations can be traced both with the West and with the East. An important step in the path of social progress was the emergence of the state. Statehood in antiquity began to take shape in several regions. Kyiv was the first to initiate the unification of the lands. Here the dynasty of Kievichi, descendants of the founder of the city, ruled. At the beginning of the ninth century the foundations of statehood appeared in the land of the Vyatichi, in the North-East. It was formed from the union of tribes, headed by the hierarchy of the aristocracy headed by the "bright prince". The North-Western lands called for the reign of the Varangian king Rurik and his brothers. After the death of Rurik in 882, another Varangian king, Oleg, seized Kyiv by deception, uniting the lands. An ancient Russian state appeared, which is usually called Kievan Rus after the name of the capital. The Kievan state gradually became large and prosperous. From the west, it bordered on Christian and pagan peoples, who gradually joined Christianity. In the east, its neighbors were the Volga Bulgaria, which converted to Islam, the Jewish Khazar Khaganate in the interfluve of the Volga and the Don. In the northeast, the territories were inhabited by Finnish tribes. The Azov and Caspian steppes represented the world of nomads. The owners of the steppe expanses were the Pechenegs, who converted to Islam, and then the pagan Polovtsians came here. Thus, initially the geopolitical space, which will become the field of the historical activity of the Russians, was located at the junction of different worlds. The population of Ancient Russia was under the powerful influence of multidirectional civilizational factors, primarily Christian and Muslim.

However, ancient history is currently the subject of heated debate. Not everyone shares the opinion that the state in the eastern part of Europe arose before the calling of the Varangians.

The Tale of Bygone Years says: “And three brothers were elected with their clans, and took all of Russia with them, and came to the Slovenes first, and cut down the city of Ladoga, and the oldest Rurik sat in Ladoga, and the other, Sineus, on White Lake , and the third - Truvor - in Izborsk. And the Russian land was nicknamed from those Varangians. " The Varangians laid the foundation for the grand ducal dynasty of Rurikovich. Since the time of M.V. Lomonosov, passions boil around this provision of the chronicle. In Soviet times, when everything foreign was rejected, the episode with the calling of the Varangians was interpreted as insignificant, not having any impact on the development of the Eastern Slavs. The Varangians were eventually assimilated: so it was claimed.

Thus, it is proved that Ancient Russia, developing similarly to Western Europe, simultaneously approached the boundary of the formation of a large early medieval state. The call of the Varangians stimulated this process. Therefore, the episode of the call of the Varangians proves that Ancient Russia developed in the same way as Europe.

However, other historians tend to think otherwise. They raise the question: are the Varangians really Scandinavians, more specifically, Normans, Swedes? In Soviet times, it was believed that the population of Kievan Rus was made up of Eastern Slavs (Polyane, Drevlyans, Ilmen Slavs, etc.). They were called ancient Russians. The indications of historical documents, primarily the ancient chronicle "The Tale of Bygone Years", that along with the Slavs lived here, were relegated to the background. The names Rus, Russians, were derived from the name of the river Ros, along the banks of which the dews lived. However, this situation is not so clear now. Researchers have long pointed out that the concept of "Rus" is found in documents quite often, regardless of the Slavs episode with the calling of the Varangians. The word "Rus" was common in Europe, including Eastern. Rugs, Russ - the name is often found in the Baltic states (the island of Rug of Southern Germany (Reisland existed on the border of Saxony and Thuringia until 1924), and in the territories along the Danube. Whether the Ruses were a Slavic tribe or not, there is definitely no reason to say. But obviously, that the Russians lived next to the Drevlyans, glades and were of European origin.

The chronicle calls the Varangians Russ. In the Middle Ages, any mercenary squads were called Varangians, regardless of where they came from. Mercenary work was common in the Middle Ages in Europe. Mercenary squads were invited to participate in wars, to protect cities. One of these squads were the Rus, invited by the Slavs. Some historians are more inclined that the Varangians are a tribe from the shores of the Southern Baltic. The closeness of the Baltics and the Slavs, who lived nearby and had much in common, is especially emphasized. L.N. Gumilyov expressed the opinion that the Rus are rather a tribe of southern Germans. This dispute is unlikely to be resolved. The circle of sources is narrow. It's about hypotheses. It is difficult to say which Slavic and non-Slavic tribes were part of the Kievan state. However, whoever the Vikings are, the Russians, pay attention: they bind, bind Ancient Russia to Europe.

Initially, the Rus and the Slavs lived without mixing, the Russian princes not only defended Russia, but also hunted mercenaries throughout Europe. Russian squads even crossed the Pyrenees in search of military success. Warlike Russ fought with the troops of the Arab Caliphate. “May Allah curse them!” wrote the Arab author with horror about the courage and aggressiveness of the Rus.

But the main and broad basis for entry into European society was created, of course, by the adoption of Christianity. The Baptism of Russia became an important and in many ways a turning point. Christianity began to penetrate into the Eastern Slavic lands long before baptism. Church tradition dates the beginning of Christianization to the 1st century. AD The annals mention the journey of the brother of the Apostle Peter Andrew the First-Called to Russia. Being engaged in missionary activity, he got to the Kyiv mountains and predicted the emergence of a great Christian state here. However, serious stories consider this episode a legend that appeared in the annals under pressure from church leaders.

The first reliable information about the penetration of Christianity into Russia dates back to the 9th century. Christians were among the warriors of Prince Igor, Princess Olga was a Christian. However, the date of the Christianization of Russia is considered to be 988. Kyiv Prince Vladimir persisted in paganism for a long time. However, when he was about to marry the Greek princess Anna, the sister of the Byzantine emperors, he was baptized Korsun (Sevastopol). Returning with his young wife to Kyiv, he baptized its inhabitants. This is the chronicle version. In 990, Novgorod was baptized not without resistance. Then Christianity spread to other cities and villages. Violence, indeed, was widely used. People who did not want to be baptized went into the forests and engaged in robbery. However, let's look at it from the other side. Changing spiritual and moral priorities is a difficult process in any country. He was not petim for Russia either. Life-loving, optimistic paganism was replaced by a faith that required restrictions, strict adherence to moral principles. The adoption of Christianity meant a change in the whole structure of life: from family relations to social institutions. Let's look at a simple example, what profound changes the new religion brought. Paganism did not forbid polygamy. The Grand Duke Vladimir in pagan times, according to the chronicle, had five wives and a myriad of concubines ("three hundred in Belgorod, two hundred in Berestov ...", etc.). The customs were cruel. Upon the death of the owner, wives and concubines were killed to accompany him in the afterlife. Of course, an ordinary worker could not support such a number of wives as the Grand Duke, but that's not the point. Now it was proposed to move on to other foundations of life. Christianity considers the family as a sacred religious union of a man and a woman who are bound by mutual obligations for life. Polygamy was categorically excluded. Children were recognized as legitimate only if they were born in a marriage consecrated by the church. This example shows that the adoption of Christianity was a profound revolution in all spheres of life. And she couldn't get through without a fight.

The change of faith in Russia took place without foreign intervention. It was her internal affair, and she made her own choice. Most of its western neighbors adopted Christianity at the hands of missionaries or crusaders. Christianity established itself in Russia, mainly in 100 years. This is a short period for such a cardinal change. Christianity created a broad basis for the unification of ancient Russian society, for the formation of a single people on the basis of common spiritual and moral principles. With the adoption of Christianity, paganism did not lose its perspective in the Russian lands. It organically merged with Christianity. Brownies, foresters, mermaids coexisted peacefully with Christian apostles and saints. Christian holidays were combined with pagan ones. The level of development of Ancient Russia for its time was high.

New knowledge has been accumulated. Scientific materials confirm the high level of spiritual development of Ancient Russia. This is recognized by many Western historians. Until recently, it was widely believed abroad that philosophy was borrowed by Russia from the West in a relatively recent era, in the 18th or even in the 19th centuries. However, opinion is now changing. Thus, the famous English philosopher F. Copleston refers the origin of philosophical thought to the period of Kievan Rus. Moreover, it is rightly asserted that Kievan Rus cannot be separated from the European West. The origins of philosophical culture now date back to the first half of the 11th century. They are associated with the outstanding religious-philosophical work "The Word on the Law" of Grace, the author of which is Metropolitan Hilarion of Kyiv (the first Russian metropolitan, formerly the Greeks).

It is curious that Illarion unwittingly testified to the high culture of Kievan Rus. He wrote: "For what is written in other books and you know, then to state here is empty insolence and a desire for glory. After all, we do not write to the ignorant, but to those who are overflowing with the sweetness of the book ...". Enlightenment, thanks to the international relations of the ancient Russian state, especially with Byzantium, was developed relatively widely in the country. Significant spiritual and secular literature has come down to us - "words", sermons, teachings, such a world-class pearl as "The Tale of Igor's Campaign", etc. A number of state and legal documents have come down to us from this era: treaties with the Greeks and Germans, charters about church courts, the first legal code "Russian Truth", "The Pilot Book", etc. Extensive libraries arose at princely palaces and monasteries. The works of foreign authors, which were translated into Russian, were copied in many copies and distributed among the inhabitants of the cities. Literacy was widespread, the princes spoke foreign and ancient languages ​​​​(Latin). It is known that the son of Yaroslav the Wise knew five languages. It is possible that some Russian people studied at foreign universities.

European civilization is urban. Ancient Russia developed in the same vein. Its capital - Kyiv - was a large, cultural city with beautiful wooden and stone churches, chambers, schools and book depositories, with developed trade and crafts. German authors compared Kiev with Constantinople, the capital of the Byzantine Empire. In addition to Kyiv, there were a number of cultural centers where urban life was even more lively than in the West. The Scandinavian sagas called Russia "a country of cities". The wide economic ties of the ancient Slavs with Europe (the path from the Varangians to the Greeks), as well as cultural, political, dynastic ties - all this makes it possible to speak of Ancient Russia as a part of Europe, formed according to its type, and in some ways overtaking it. The legal code of Russkaya Pravda, which has come down to us, amazes with a high level of lawmaking, a developed legal culture for its time. All the monuments that have come down to us testify to the high level of cultural development in Ancient Russia.

However, along with the presence of general trends. Ancient Russia demonstrated a number of significant features in its development in comparison with Europe. |

1. In Ancient Russia there was a process of class formation. Already in the XI century. the allocation of private property began: church, princely, private individuals. But still, the processes of social class differentiation were weakly expressed in comparison with Europe at that time. Large private property (patrimony) had a slaveholding character. Slavery (servants, serfs) in Russia, as well as throughout Europe, was widespread until the 15th century. Only after the collapse of the Golden Horde did the slave trade die out without an influx of slaves. During the wars, the main prey were captives, who were either sold in the slave markets of the Crimea and the Caucasus, or brought with them as war booty. The patrimony for a long time was based on the labor of slaves and semi-free. In general, the patrimony did not play a leading role in the economy of Ancient Russia. They were islands in a sea of ​​free agricultural communities based on collective ownership. It was the community members who dominated Kievan Rus.

2. The main cell of the social structure was the community. This is a closed social system that organizes all types of human activity: labor, ritual, cultural. The community is multifunctional, based on the principles of collectivism and equalization, was the collective owner of land and lands. Her inner life was organized on the principles of direct democracy:

election of elders, collective decision-making.

3. The ideal of people's rule dominated - collective community management. You can call it the veche ideal. The prince in Kievan Rus was not in the full sense of the word a sovereign (neither in the eastern version, nor in the western one). The state was built on the principles of a social contract. Arriving in one or another volost, the prince had to conclude a "row" - an agreement - with the people's assembly (veche). And this means that he, too, was an element of communal power, designed to look after the interests of society, the collective. The state structure rested on the contract of lands and princely power, which provided for mutual obligations. The people's council had great rights. It was in charge of issues of war and peace, disposed of the princely table (throne), financial and land resources of the volost, authorized collections of money, entered into the discussion of legislation, removed the administration, etc.

The composition of the veche is democratic. The ancient Russian nobility did not have the necessary means to subdue him. With the help of the vecha, the people influenced in the XI - early XIII centuries. in the course of social and political life.

4. There were many cities in Ancient Russia. But their role was somewhat different than in Europe. There the city is a center of trade, crafts and culture. In Russia, the city was a political center, to which the district gravitated. It was a kind of city-state. The life of the Russian Slavs was organized on a democratic basis, in contrast to Western Europe - more democratic. Democracy was similar in type to the Hellenic, to the democracy of the ancient city-states. Just as in Hellas, democracy was limited. Women and slaves were excluded from its sphere.

Please note: Kievan Rus developed along a path close to the ancient one. In fact, it was closer to a progressive type of development than medieval Europe. But still this is not Ancient Greece. The most important problem of the relationship between the individual and society was resolved in favor of the collective. Individualism could not be born out of a collectivist social system.

5. Another feature is the general arming of the people. The ordinary population of Ancient Russia was armed. Not only the prince and the squad. The armed people were organized according to the decimal system (hundreds, thousands). This is the people's militia. It was this that decided the outcome of the battle. The people's militia was subordinated not to the prince, but to the vech. This tradition was formed under the influence of constant military danger, primarily from the nomadic steppe.

The features of Ancient Russia were still quite compatible with the progressive type of development. And some of them have already begun to outlive themselves. So, for example, the veche as a practical democratic institution already in the 11th century. lost its dominant role, although it still existed for a long time. Only in Novgorod and Pskov, included in the system of republican democratic institutions, did the veche retain its power for centuries, although contemporaries were aware of the shortcomings of this institution (solving issues in fisticuffs, etc.). It would seem that Russia should be part of Europe. However, the situation has changed radically in the expanses of the Russian plain.

The Kievan state began to disintegrate at the end of the 11th century. Many sovereign lands - principalities arose, and their number increased. By the middle of the XII century. formed 15 principalities, by the beginning of the XIII century. there were already about 50 of them. The Old Russian state disappeared. The process of fragmentation of a large early medieval state was natural. Europe also went through a period of disintegration of early medieval states, fragmentation, local wars, so that later the process of formation of secular nation-states, which still exist, developed. We can conclude that Ancient Russia, having gone through a period of decay, could come to a similar one. Here, in the future, a national state could arise, a single people could form. However, this did not happen. Development went differently.

The turning point in the history of Ancient Russia, as well as in Europe, was the 13th century. But if Europe since that time has been actively advancing along the path of introducing a progressive type of development, then Russia faced another problem. In 1237, the Mongol-Tatars appeared within the Russian borders. They brought mass deaths of people, the destruction of cities, the destruction of what had been created over the centuries. However, the danger came not only from the East, but also from the West. Strengthening Lithuania was advancing on the Russian lands, as well as the Swedes, Germans and Livonian knights. Fragmented Ancient Russia faced the most difficult problem: how to preserve itself, how to survive? She found herself, as it were, between the millstones of East and West. Moreover, it is characteristic: from the East, from the Tatars there was ruin, and the West demanded a change of faith, the adoption of Catholicism. In this regard, the Russian princes, in order to save the population, could bow to the Tatars, agreed to a heavy tribute and humiliation, but resisted the invasion from the West. The Mongol-Tatars swept through the Russian lands like a tornado.

1. Formation of the Old Russian ethnos: classical and non-classical concepts (migratory and autochthonous). Prehistoric and historical time of Russia.

2. The principle of power in a tribal system.

3. The principle of management among the ancient Slavs.

4. Vedic religion of the ancient Slavs; ancient worldview.

Main literature:

1. History of Russia in questions and answers / ed. Kislitsyna S.A. Rostov-on-Don, 2001.

2. History of Russia / ed. Radugina A.A. M., 2004.

3. Ionov I.N. Russian civilization IX - early XX centuries. Saratov, 2002.

4. Russia and the world. Part I M., 1995.

5. Russian history / ed. Dvornichenko A.Yu. SPb., 2001.

6. Semennikova L.I. Russia in the world community of civilizations. M., 2008.

Additional literature:

1. Skvortsova E.M. Theory and history of culture. M., 1999.

2. Markova E.N. Culturology. M., 1999.

3. Ivanov V.V., Toporov V.N. Slavic mythology // Myths of the peoples of the world. Encyclopedia. T.2. M., 1992.

4. Rybakov B.A. Kievan Rus and Russian principalities of the XII-XIII centuries. M., 1993.

In preparation for the first question you need to remember what constitutes a historical source, its types. To explain the concepts of “prehistoric and historical time”, it is necessary to single out periods in the history of Ancient Russia based on legends and tales (prehistoric) and on material and written sources (historical). Considering the ethnogenesis of the Slavs, it is important to know the belonging of the Slavs to the Indo-European (Aryan) language group, the stages of separation from it (Proto-Slavic, Proto-Slavic, Slavic, Russian), places of settlement and main occupations (on the example of the corresponding archaeological cultures), features of assimilation.

It should be remembered that the problem of the origin and settlement of the Slavs is still debatable. There are several hypotheses: the Danubian, the Carpathian, the hypothesis of two Slavic ancestral homes, the Vistula-Oder, Vistula-Dnieper, neo-Danubian. The studies of historians, archaeologists, anthropologists, ethnographers and linguists make it possible to give priority to the Vistula-Dnieper theory: most historians consider Central and Eastern Europe to be the area of ​​settlement of the Slavic tribes.

According to academician B.A. Rybakov, 4 stages can be distinguished in the formation of the Old Russian ethnos:

1. 25th - 10th centuries BC,. - Proto-Slavic period. Indo-European unity took shape in the 5th-4th millennium BC. in the northeastern part of the Balkan Peninsula and in Asia Minor. At the turn of the 3rd and 2nd millennia BC, with the development of cattle breeding, the tribes settled widely in Europe, some went to the Middle East, North India, and Central Asia. The Proto-Slavic tribes were the carriers of the archaeological culture of Corded Ware and the Trypillia culture.

2. 10th c. BC - 4th c. AD - Proto-Slavic period. At the turn of II and I millennia BC. the division of the Indo-Europeans into ethno-linguistic groups began: Celtic, Germanic, Romanesque, Slavic, Greek, Iranian, Baltic. At the same time, the Proto-Slavs occupied part of Central and Eastern Europe: from north to south with a length of about 400 km (from the Baltic to the Dniester), and from west to east about 1.5 thousand km (from the Sudetes and Carpathians to Pripyat). This period includes the archaeological cultures of the burial fields, Chernyakhov and Zarubinets.

3. 4th - 6th centuries AD - Slavic period. From the 3rd - 4th centuries. AD Slavs join the Great Migration of Nations. In the middle of the 1st millennium AD. there is a separation of separate branches of the Slavs: western, southern and eastern. Eastern Slavs are the ancestors of Russians, Ukrainians, Belarusians. They occupied the territory from the Carpathian Mountains in the west to the Middle Oka and the upper reaches of the Don in the east, from the Neva and Lake Ladoga in the north to the Middle Dnieper in the south. Mastering the East European plain, the Slavs came into contact with the Finno-Ugric and Baltic tribes. There was a process of assimilation of peoples. As a result of the migration of the Slavs to the zone of settlement of the Germanic tribes, a branch of the Western Slavs arose, and those who settled the Balkan Peninsula laid the foundation for the branch of the Southern Slavs.

4. 6th - 8th centuries AD - Old Russian period. The Slavs enter the world historical arena. By the 7th-8th centuries AD. they settled over a vast territory along the Dnieper and its tributaries, reached the Western Dvina, Lake Peipsi, the Lovat River, Lake Ilmen, Volkhov and Neva, reached the White Lake and the Volga, Moscow and Oka rivers. Along the waterways they built cities and villages. By the 8th century the Eastern Slavs were already very different from their kindred tribes that lived beyond the Danube and the Carpathians. "The Tale of Bygone Years" names a dozen tribal principalities, which were a union of 100-200 tribes united around the strongest. He gave the name to the whole union. Considering this period, it is necessary to characterize the tribes of the Eastern Slavs mentioned in the Tale of Bygone Years (name, place of settlement, features of life).

Next, you should pay attention to the origin of the names "Vendi", "Antes", "Sklavins", "Slavs", "Rus" and, based on sources, correlate them with the time when the Slavs were separated from other peoples. It should be noted that the very first name of the Slavs was "Scythians-chipped", which means "sun worshipers", which was used by Herodotus in the 5th century. BC. Later ancient authors - Polybius (III-II centuries BC), Titus Livius (I century BC - I century AD), Strabo (I century AD) and Tacitus (I-II centuries AD) - they called the Slavs a common ancient name "Vendi" ("Veneti") and placed among the Scythian and Sarmatian tribes in the Vistula region. Authors of the 6th century the Slavs were known under three names derived from the same root - Wends, Antes and Sklavens (Slavens, Slovenes). In the era of Slavic colonization of Europe in the VI-VII centuries. the widespread spread of the ethnonym "Slavs" to all Venedian tribes. Usually, its etymology is raised to the term "word", believing that the Slavs called themselves tribes that understood each other's speech. B.A. Rybakov believed that the ethnonym “Slovenes” means a combination of two concepts: “representatives of the Wends”, or “ambassadors of the land of Vene”.

Question about the origin of the name "Rus" does not have a unique solution. One of the first Kievan chroniclers considered the tribe of Polyans to be "Rus". He retold the legends about how the Slavs, oppressed by the Volohs, and among them the glade-Rus, left Norik, the Roman province (present-day Western Hungary). The Slavs dispersed to different lands and settled in new places. Glade-Rus at the same time occupied the forest-steppe region in the Middle Dnieper. When that was, the chronicler did not know. In Novgorod, another version arose: Russia is the Varangians and the Novgorodians themselves come from the Varangian family. The Varangians-Rus come from the Varangian (Baltic) Sea, first to the northwestern lands and only then descend to the Middle Dnieper. And the first "Russian" prince was not at all Kiy, as the Kievan chronicler assured, but Rurik (r. 862-879). Thus, two versions of the origin of the Rus appeared: northern and southern, and both of them have an annalistic basis.

Other theories of the origin of the Slavs. "Danube", or "Balkan" appeared in the Middle Ages, it was recognized by S.M. Solovyov, V.O. Klyuchevsky and other historians. According to her, the Slavs moved from the Danube to the Carpathians, “the history of Russia began in the VI century. on the northeastern foothills of the Carpathians. From here, part of the Slavs settled to the east and northeast to Ilmen Lake in the 7th–8th centuries. Followers of the other "Scythian-Sarmatian" theories, argued that the ancestors of the Slavs moved from Western Asia along the Black Sea coast to the north and became known as the "Scythians", "Sarmatians", "Alans", "Roksolans". Gradually, the ancestors of the Slavs settled from the Northern Black Sea region to the west and southwest. original theory of two ancestral homes Slavs were nominated by a prominent historian and linguist academician A.A. Chess. In his opinion, the first ancestral home of the Slavs was the basin of the rivers of the Western Dvina and the Lower Neman in the Baltic. From here at the turn of II-III centuries. Slavs under the name of the Wends advanced to the Lower Vistula. Shakhmatov considered the Lower Vistula to be the second ancestral home of the Slavs.

The opposite point of view is that the Slavs were the indigenous inhabitants (autochthonous) where they have lived since ancient times. Initially, separate small scattered ancient tribes took shape on a certain vast territory, which then formed into larger tribes and their associations, and, finally, into historically known peoples that form nations.

Considering second question of the topic about the principle of power in the pre-state period, it is necessary to find out the structure of power, the features of the functioning of the people's assembly (veche), the powers of the prince, the relationship between them. At the stage of the tribal system, the Slavs had democratic principle of power based on direct democracy (election of elders, collective decision-making). All adult free men had the right to participate in tribal and tribal property, represented the armed forces (militia) and took a direct part in the management of the community. Mandatory norms for all were approved the people's assembly - vechem. Veche was in charge of issues of war and peace, elected a prince (commander), disposed of the financial and land resources of the community, approved tax collections, appointed and dismissed officials (headman, thousand), performed judicial functions. At the same time, the democracy of the veche was of an archaic and unformed nature: there was no fixed time for gathering, an accurate count of votes, and the opinion of the minority was not taken into account. Veche allowed to resolve issues at the community level. The structure of power in the tribal system had a three-stage character: prince - council of elders - veche. The prince was the bearer of authoritarian power, but at this stage this principle is weakly manifested.

Exploring the third question one should start with identifying the geographical features (location, climate, population density) of the ancient Russian civilization and their influence not only on economic relations, but also on the national mentality. To reveal such features of the agrarian system as extensive land use, community, constant colonization. Name the main stages of colonization, their common and special aspects. It should be remembered that the main among the natural factors of the zone of settlement of the Eastern Slavs was its continental character. Common to the developed territories is relative uniformity of natural factors, which led to the uniformity of economic activity in all zones. The large expanse of the settlement zone and the relatively low density extensive type of management, which is characterized not by an improvement in the quality of labor, but by an increase in the areas involved in economic turnover. The basis of the economy of the Slavs was arable farming. It was labor-intensive, because. was carried out on an extensive basis by shifting and slash-and-burn method. Plowed implements with iron working parts were used – ralo( in the southern regions) plow(in the north). The Slavs had two forms of ownership - personal (household land, house, livestock, inventory) and public (arable land, meadows, forests, reservoirs, fishing grounds). Cattle breeding, hunting, fishing, beekeeping. The economic unit was predominantly a small family. Families united in a neighboring (territorial) community - rope.

Consideration of the fourth question, it is necessary to start with the definitions of "worldview", "paganism", "Vedic religion"; on the example of the Vedic religion of the Slavs, to show the features of the mythological worldview (the inseparability of the world of man and the world of spirits, imagery of thinking, faith in a good and evil beginning). It is important to remember that the Vedic culture of the Slavs is rooted in the culture of other Indo-European peoples, but at the same time it has its own special features (abstract deities, the idea of ​​collectivism, the absence of fatalism) expressed in Russian folklore. The religion of the ancient Slavs is called Vedic(Vedas - sacred knowledge). The main cultural monuments of Slavic antiquity are sacred songs, myths, and legends. The most famous religious written monument - Veles book. According to the book, the ancient Slavs had an archaic Trinity - Triglav: Svarog (Svarozhich) - the heavenly god, Perun - the thunderer, Veles - the god of the destroyer of the universe. Maternal cults were widespread, personifying the world of love, either heavenly (Slavic Lele) or earthly (Slavic Mother Earth cheese). The Slavs described the existence of the world through the struggle of two principles: dark (Chernobog, Nav) and light (Belobog, Yav). Reality, "white light" is the current, that which is created by the universal fair law of Rule. Nav, the power is dark, passive, a symbol of the "other world". The continuous struggle and alternate victory of the light and dark forces of nature are represented in the views of the Slavs on the cycle of the seasons. Its starting point was the offensive New Year- the birth of a new sun at the end of December. This celebration was called by the Slavs - carol. At the beginning of 1 thousand AD. e. the deities take on an anthropomorphic form. Chief among them are the gods of the Sun, Sky and Fire - Svarog, Dazhdbog and Horos, Wind - Stribog, domestic animals and wealth - Veles (Volos). The patrons of ancestors, family and hearth were also revered - Rod and Rozhanitsy, the god of fertility Yarilo, the female deity Mokosh. The cult of ancestors was of great importance. Worship and sacrifices to pagan cults took place in special cult sanctuaries – temples . Folk holidays: New Year, Shrovetide, "Mermaid Week", Ivan Kupala were accompanied by incantatory magical rites and were a kind of prayer to the gods for general well-being, harvest, deliverance from thunder and hail. The Zbruch idol (9th-10th centuries) became the most famous cult monument of paganism. . An important place in the Slavic rites was occupied by a funeral rite (deposition or burning), which is associated with ideas about the afterlife.

The sacred knowledge of the ancient Slavs thus possessed some features of monotheism, but at the same time had much in common with the primitive forms of religion: totemism, fetishism, animism and magic.

test questions

1. How did relations develop between the Slavs and neighboring tribes? Give examples.
2. What does the ethnonym "Slavs" mean? Describe the various interpretations.
3. What were the functions of the prince among the Slavs in the pre-state period?
4. How do natural and geographical factors influence the mentality of the people?
5. What is "Vedism"?
6. What role did the cult of ancestors play in the Slavic worldview?

The formation of ancient Russian civilization

The collapse of slave-owning Rome and the revival of a free peasant community in large areas of Europe was only a stage in the transition to feudal relations. Having destroyed the rotten world, the barbarians to a large extent imbued themselves with the ideology and life norms of class society. Unable to use slave labor on a large scale, they either sold masses of captured prisoners or forced them to work out their freedom within the normal labor cycle of an agricultural community. The first gave them money, and with it inevitable inequality. The second is the habit of using other people's labor in the specific conditions of agricultural production. The peasant community itself, providing the farmer with a certain protection in the face of an external threat from his own or someone else's nobility, gradually becomes dependent on the emerging state power. Dependence on a king or prince becomes a price to pay for the right to get bread relatively quietly in the sweat of one's brow.

The nature of the emerging statehood was greatly influenced by various forms of the community. Byzantine authors, not without surprise, noted the specifics of the Slavic community: prisoners are not kept there in slavery, but are either released for a ransom or offered to remain as an equal member of it. In the literature, the territorial community is usually considered as a stage of development after the consanguineous community. In fact, they coexisted for centuries and even millennia. Most often, the territorial community was formed among the settled agricultural population, and the consanguineous - among the nomadic steppe. But in the course of numerous displacements and mixtures, mixed variants arose, respectively. In principle, in the territorial communities, management was built from the bottom up, and the well-known “Sentence” on June 30, 1611, adopted on the initiative of Prokopy Lyapunov by the First Militia during the Time of Troubles, can serve as an illustration of this principle. According to the "Sentence", the boyars were elected by the zemstvo and could be recalled by them. The relationship between "Earth" and "Power" is the core of the internal political history of many peoples, especially the Slavs.

HE. Trubachev, analyzing the specifics of the appearance of ethnonyms among different peoples, pointed out a fundamentally important fact: among the Slavs and Celts, the tribes were usually named according to the territory they occupied (glade, Drevlyans, Dregovichi, streets (near the "bow" of the river), encouraged (along the banks of the Odra-Oder ), etc. The Celtic Armorica in Brittany is equivalent to the Slavic Pomerania in the Baltic. The ethnonyms Varins (Varangs, Varangians, Warings) in the Baltic and Morins on the coast of the North Sea are also explained from Celtic as "Pomeranians". From the name of the river (Rur, Raura ) there is a tribe of Rurik-Rauriks. The Germanic and many other tribes of Europe most often took their name from the ancestor or some real or legendary ancient ancestor, like the Venetian Palemon. And the Slavic tribes of the Vyatichi and Radimichi, who came from the Polish Pomerania, apparently were influenced of the same Veneti: it was in the South-East Baltic that the cult of Palemon later manifested itself.Many self-names simply meant "people". Such are the Slavs mentioned by Liutprand - people." Such are the "manns", "ings", "huns". Often the names were given from outside and over time were assimilated by those who were nicknamed one way or another by the neighbors. Often this was associated with one or another ritual, such as the mentioned "multi-colored" Rus.

Since “there weren’t and aren’t pure peoples,” as the followers of historical materialism liked to repeat some time ago in disputes with adherents of racist theories, the original forms of community life were inevitably subjected to external influences. Invasions of nomads often raised the question of survival, forcing either to fight, or to negotiate, or to look for new places of settlement. At the same time, as a rule, territorial communities easily assimilated foreigners and quite easily perceived the neighborhood of other tribes. In the middle of the XIX century. two authors, far from each other, noted a characteristic feature of Slavic-speaking Russians: the ability to assimilate other peoples. The French publicist and historian A. Tocqueville notes that Russia (unlike America), having reached the Pacific Ocean, did not destroy a single people. F. Engels also spoke about this unique ability of Russia in a letter to K. Marx (dated May 23, 1851).

Cauldrons depicting Sirins

The specific features that distinguish Old Russian culture are formed mainly in the Middle Dnieper region. It is the processes that took place here that leave that special stamp that distinguishes Old Russian from common Slavic. Here the forest and the steppe and the various forms of farming associated with the natural factor came into contact. From here there were connections with the cultural centers of the Danube, the Black Sea and the Mediterranean, and through the Baltic states with the countries of the European West and North-West. For many centuries, the southern periphery of the Middle Dnieper region was the movement of tribes from east to west. In some periods there were also oncoming movements. These especially intensified in the last centuries BC. e. and in the first centuries A.D. e. Growing Rome, as it were, blocked the possibilities of settling to the southwest, and shifts in the social structure and, perhaps, climatic changes forced many tribes to come into motion.

The era of the great migration of peoples was accompanied by the emergence of state associations, which at first are still very fragile and are supported not so much by production processes as by external incentives: the existence of a common enemy or the hope of rich booty. Class stratification brings the social elites of different tribal unions closer together and deepens the contradictions within them. The state now assumes its main functions: ensuring a certain "order" by legitimizing the system of domination and subordination in the territory brought together by internal development or external influence. 6th-8th centuries in Europe, this is the era of a kind of streamlining of a new social structure and a significantly updated ethnic map. New nations and new states are being formed in Europe. This process was bound to take on a pan-European character, since the expansion of the strong against the weak neighbors could stop only when they met with appropriate opposition. In other words, the process of class formation and the emergence of new states in Europe had to involve all tribes and all territories. In practice, this meant that there were no tribes left in Europe that did not pay tribute to anyone.

Ruyan Island (Rügen) and Arkona (close-up)

Eastern Europe, of course, was no exception. Here, too, the process of class formation is intensively going on and the uneven development is having an effect. State formations here also arise in different places and on a different ethnic basis, while some tribes become dependent on others. In addition to the traditional Black Sea centers of civilization, individual Iranian and Turkic-speaking peoples are moving to statehood. Statehood arises among the Alans, Khazars, Volga Bulgars. Statehood also takes on a stable character among the Slavs. And they have several centers, between which there has been a struggle for a long time. Participation in this struggle of non-Slavic elements (usual for the transitional period among all European peoples) gave rise to an extremely contradictory interpretation of the very process of formation of ancient Russian statehood. For a long time, the boundaries of the new formation changed significantly: some lands fell away, others were included, while in the 9th - 10th centuries. finally, the circle of territories, tribes and traditions, with which the concept of Old Russian proper is associated, is more or less stabilized. The struggle between Normanism and anti-Normanism in later historiography is only a reflection and simplification of the extremely complex and contradictory process of the formation of ancient Russian civilization, in which people from different lands and tribes actually participated.

Plan of the sanctuary in Arkona and its reconstruction

The formation of ancient Russian civilization is carried out in the course of interaction mainly between the Slavs and the Rus, and both of them themselves turn out to be complicated relics of other ethno-cultural associations, and their various tribes differ more or less significantly from each other. The Rus also initially represented ethnic groups of different origin. And the interaction of Slavs and Russ manifests itself in various forms in almost all the main areas where different "Rus" inhabit. The Ruthenian-Venedian population of the Baltic states, and Black Sea Rus, partly the Rus of the Alans of the Don region, not to mention Rus itself in the Dnieper region, where the Rus appear from the birth of the Chernyakhovsk culture, and, apparently, both of its main types (rugi-horns and rosomones) are subjected to Slavicization . But naturally, in the course of interaction, the Slavs were also imbued with some features characteristic of Russia or other tribes and peoples (in particular, Iranian ones) that participated in the formation of a new statehood and culture. In this regard, it is of considerable interest to identify the components that make up a new ethnic group and new traditions.

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Topic 1.

Dmitry Ivanovich Donskoy (1350 – 138 9) - son of Ivan the Red, Prince of Moscow (1359), Grand Duke of Vladimir (1359), nicknamed Donskoy for the victory over Mamai in the Battle of Kulikovo, founder of the white-stone Moscow Kremlin. During his reign, the Moscow principality became the main center of the political unification of the ancient Russian lands, and the Vladimir principality became the hereditary possession of the Moscow princes.

Andrey Kurbsky (1528 - 1583) - an outstanding Russian commander during the Livonian War, politician and writer, one of the closest associates of Ivan the Terrible. Oprichnina opponent. Fleeing from the treachery of the king, he fled to Lithuania. He remained in the memory of posterity thanks to the correspondence with Ivan the Terrible, in which he denounced the abuses and vices of the tsar.

Ermak Timofeevich (c. 1532-1542 - 1585) - Cossack chieftain, conqueror of the Siberian Khanate .

Ivan Fedorov (c. 1520 - 1583) - one of the first Russian book printers. Published the first printed book "Apostle". However, the mistakes made in the publication aroused a rebellion, supported by scribes who saw in I.F. competitor. Fleeing from the wrath of ill-wishers, he fled to Lithuania, where he recreated his printing workshop.

Patriarch Nikon ( 1605 - 1681) - Moscow Patriarch, came from the environment of the rural clergy. Subsequently, a friend and closest adviser to Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich. For a long time he enjoyed the great confidence of the tsar, was awarded the title of "great lord and sovereign", similar to that worn by the father of Mikhail Fedorovich Romanov, Patriarch Filaret (boyar Fedor Romanov). The organizer of the largest church reform, designed to unify the ancient Russian church life according to Greek models. The reform ended with the emergence of the Schism and the Old Believers. He pursued a policy aimed at elevating ecclesiastical authority over secular. He was accused of abuse of church power, ill-treatment of the clergy, an attempt to usurp the powers of the king, was deprived of his dignity and exiled to a monastery. Shortly before his death, he was forgiven, justified and restored in his dignity by Feodor Alekseevich.

Stepan Timofeevich Razin (Stenka Razin) (c. 1630 - 1071) - Don Cossack from the village of Zimoveyskaya, who declared himself king, the leader of the largest uprising in the history of pre-Petrine Russia in 1670-1671. Simeon Polotsky ( 1629 - 1680) - an outstanding figure of East Slavic culture, a monk, a graduate of the Kyiv Academy, a spiritual writer, theologian, poet and playwright. Teacher of the children of the king Alexey Mikhailovich from Miloslavskaya: Alexei, Sophia and Fedor. Artworks S.P. had a significant influence on the formation of Russian literature not only at the end of the 17th, but throughout the 18th centuries.
Questions for independent work:

1. 
   What civilizations and peoples had a fundamental influence on the formation of ancient Russian civilization?
2. 
   What common socio-political and cultural features did Ancient Russia have with Europe?
3. 
   How and to what extent did the new geographical discoveries, the invention of printing and the development of universities, private and monastic schools contribute to social changes in Europe? Have these processes affected the cultural and social processes in Russia?
4. 
   How can one explain the despotic forms of government in Russia in the 16th century, and to what extent did this phenomenon fit into European political processes?
5. 
   Can Russia be considered XV-XVII centuries. European power?

Workshop:

1. 
   While the Christian life of Kievan Rus was guided mainly by the religious patterns of Byzantium, the political processes in the ancient Russian state largely corresponded to what was happening in Western Europe. How can this phenomenon be explained?
2. 
   In the X-XIII centuries. Western European rulers, ambassadors, travelers and missionaries perceived the expanses of Ancient Russia as part of the European political and cultural space. How can one explain the fact that already in the XIV century the assessments changed, and in the eyes of the Germans, the French and even the Poles, and the Hungarians, the territories of the Vladimir Grand Duchy were assessed differently, being considered as part of Asia?
3. 
   Grand-princely, and then royal power in Ancient Russia was considered sacred. The commoner did not even have the right to freely see the rulers of the state and the heirs to the throne. The ruling stratum was small, its representatives were connected by close family and service relations. As a result, it was extremely difficult to take on someone else's name and impersonate someone else. How could it arise in such conditions at the beginning of the 17th century. imposture, which relatively easily received the support of broad sections of Russian society, enlisted the blessing of the largest church hierarchs, and eventually reached the royal throne?

Test

Ancient Russia (IX-XVII centuries)
East Slavic peoples are

Poles

Serbs
Russians
The Slavs are
Zyrians

Volynians

Circassians
The tribal union of Novgorod Slovenes was formed

on the banks of Ilmen Island and the Volkhov River

on the banks of the Oka river

in the upper reaches of the river Volga
The main branch of the economy of the Eastern Slavs in the VI-VII centuries.

beekeeping

nomadic pastoralism

intermediary trade

slash-and-burn agriculture
The main city of the glades was

Novgorod

Chernihiv
Smolensk
The rudiments of statehood appeared earlier than others in

drevlyans

Krivichi

Vyatichi

glades and novgorod slovaks
The theory according to which statehood was brought to Russia by the Varangians is called