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4.6.2. Interpretation of St. Quiz Petavisky - a sealed book as a symbolic testament (testament) In paragraph 4.4.1. It has already been noted in this chapter that St. Victorinus understands the book of Revelation 5:1 as the Scripture of the Old Testament. His interpretation of St. Victorinus begins by stating that

5.3.2. Approaches to the interpretation of Revelation 11: preterist, futuristic, idealistic (symbolic interpretation) Chronological identification of the events of Revelation 11:1-13 - the precedence of the coming of the Kingdom of God (Revelation 11:15-19). In the command to measure the temple (Revelation 11:3-13 ) and in

5.3.3. Symbolic interpretation of the narrative of Rev. 11:1-13 as a prophecy about the fate of the people of Israel (according to A. Feya) Interpretation of the exclusion of the outer court of the temple and the trampling of the holy city (Rev. 11: 2) as a symbolic rejection of unbelieving Jews. In Rev 11:1-2

A metaphor is an expression or a word in a figurative sense, the basis of which is a phenomenon or an object that has a similarity with it. In simple words, one word is replaced by another that has a similar sign with it.

Metaphor in literature is one of the oldest

What is a metaphor

Metaphor has 4 parts:

1. Context - a complete passage of text that combines the meaning of the individual words or sentences included in it.
2. An object.
3. The process by which the function is executed.
4. Application of this process or its intersection with any situations.

The concept of metaphor was discovered by Aristotle. Thanks to him, now a view has been formed on it as a necessary accessory of the language, which makes it possible to achieve cognitive and other goals.

Ancient philosophers believed that the metaphor was given to us by nature itself and was so established in everyday speech that many concepts do not need to be called literally, and its use replenishes the lack of words. But after them, it was assigned the function of an additional application to the mechanism of the language, and not to its main form. It was believed that for science it is even harmful, because it leads to a dead end in the search for truth. Against all odds, the metaphor continued to exist in literature because it was necessary for its development. It was mostly used in poetry.

Only in the 20th century was metaphor finally recognized as an integral part of speech, and scientific research using it began to be carried out in new dimensions. This was facilitated by such a property as the ability to combine materials of different nature. in literature, it became clear when they saw that the extended use of this artistic technique leads to the appearance of riddles, proverbs, allegories.

Building a Metaphor

Metaphor is created from 4 components: two groups and properties of each of them. Features of one group of objects are offered to another group. If a person is called a lion, then it is assumed that he is endowed with similar characteristics. Thus, a new image is created, where the word "lion" in a figurative sense means "fearless and mighty."

Metaphors are specific to different languages. If the Russians "donkey" symbolizes stupidity and stubbornness, then the Spaniards - diligence. A metaphor in literature is a concept that may differ among different peoples, which should be taken into account when translating from one language to another.

Metaphor Functions

The main function of metaphor is a vivid emotional assessment and figuratively expressive coloring of speech. At the same time, rich and capacious images are created from incomparable objects.

Another function is nominative, which consists in filling the language with phraseological and lexical constructions, for example: bottle neck, pansies.

In addition to the main ones, the metaphor performs many other functions. This concept is much broader and richer than it seems at first glance.

What are metaphors

Since ancient times, metaphors have been divided into the following types:

1. Sharp - connecting concepts that lie in different planes: "I'm walking around the city, shot with my eyes ...".
2. Erased - so commonplace that the figurative character is no longer noticed ("Already in the morning to me people were reaching out"). It has become so familiar that the figurative meaning is difficult to grasp. It is found when translating from one language to another.
3. Metaphor-formula - its transformation into a direct meaning is excluded (the worm of doubt, the wheel of fortune). She has become a stereotype.
4. Expanded - contains a large message in a logical sequence.
5. Implemented - used for its intended purpose (" Came to my senses, and there again a dead end).

It is difficult to imagine modern life without metaphorical images and comparisons. The most common metaphor in literature. This is necessary for a vivid disclosure of images and the essence of phenomena. In poetry, the extended metaphor is especially effective, presented in the following ways:

1. Indirect communication using or history using comparison.
2. A figure of speech using words in a figurative sense, based on analogy, similarity and comparison.

Consistently disclosed in the text fragment: “ A fine rain with dawn washes the dawn», « The moon gives New Year's dreams».

Some classics believed that a metaphor in literature is a separate phenomenon that acquires a new meaning due to its occurrence. In this case, it becomes the goal of the author, where the metaphorical image leads the reader to a new meaning, an unexpected meaning. Such metaphors from fiction can be found in the works of the classics. Take, for example, the Nose, which acquires a metaphorical meaning in Gogol's story. Rich in metaphorical images where they give characters and events a new meaning. Based on this, it can be said that their widespread definition is far from complete. Metaphor in literature is a broader concept and not only decorates speech, but often gives it a new meaning.

Conclusion

What is metaphor in literature? It has a more effective effect on consciousness due to its emotional coloring and imagery. This is especially evident in poetry. The impact of the metaphor is so strong that psychologists use it to solve problems related to the psyche of patients.

Metaphorical images are used when creating advertisements. They spark the imagination and help consumers make the right choice. The same is also carried out by society in the political sphere.

Metaphor is increasingly entering everyday life, manifesting itself in language, thinking and action. Its study is expanding, covering new areas of knowledge. By the images created by metaphors, one can judge the effectiveness of a particular media.

In the literary language, as, indeed, in the spoken language, we often use a variety of figures of speech, sometimes without even realizing it. Few people think: “Hmm, but now I’ll screw in such a metaphor ...” But sometimes it’s very useful to know, to be able to find different artistic elements in someone else’s speech and use in your own. This diversifies speech, makes it more lively, rich, pleasant to the ear and original. In this article, you will learn about one of the most common speech tropes - metaphor.

Trope

First, let's figure out what we are talking about. What are these trails and where do they lead?

Trope (from the Greek τρόπος - turnover) is a word or expression that is used figuratively to enhance, diversify speech. If there were no tropes, our speech would look like a dictionary entry or, even worse, some kind of normative acts.

Here in these cases, the paths are not used at all, because laws, dictionaries, all sorts of instructions, deeds and references should not be figurative, but as specific as possible, not allowing for discrepancies. In all other cases: in conversation, in literature, in journalism, the authors saturate speech with a variety of tropes and figures. This makes speech more artistic, expressive, interesting, rich.

Tropes include such techniques as metaphor - we will talk about it in detail below, as well as metonymy, epithet, hyperbole, comparison, euphemism, and so on.

So, let's move closer to the topic. The concept of metaphor is given yet, and that was quite a long time ago. Then lexicology and philology were born. And most of the terms are borrowed into the modern Russian language precisely from ancient Greek.

Aristotle defined metaphor as "the comparison of an unnamed object with another on the basis of some common attribute." And the word μεταφορά itself is translated from ancient Greek as “figurative meaning”. To make it immediately clear to you, here is an example that is probably familiar to everyone:

Simple as boots (like three rubles, like slippers).

This is the same metaphor. But back to Aristotle. He generally understood all art as "imitation of life." That is, as one big, capacious metaphor. Later, other scientists narrowed down this huge concept, highlighting hyperbole (exaggeration), synecdoche (ratio), simple comparison, and some other tropes into separate categories.

Metaphor Functions

Lexicologists do not just need to define a concept. They still need to describe in detail what functions it performs, for what purpose it is used and exists. In his study in 1992, V.K. Kharchenko singled out as many as 15 (!) functions of metaphor. The main ones, as the high school course says, are text-forming, genre-forming and style-forming functions.

In other words, with the help of metaphors, it is possible to give the text a coloring inherent in some particular genre, style. As for the text-forming function, there is an opinion according to which it is metaphors that create the subtext (content-subtext information) of any work.

Metaphors can have different functions in different contexts. For example, in poetic texts they most often have an aesthetic function. Metaphor should decorate the text and create an artistic image. In scientific texts, metaphors can have a heuristic (cognitive) value. This helps to describe, to comprehend a new object of study through knowledge of known, already described objects.

AT recent times in linguistics, political metaphor is also distinguished (some researchers single out this function of metaphor separately), which is designed to give ambiguity to statements, veil sharp and controversial points, “minimizing the responsibility of the speaker for a possible literal interpretation of his words by the addressee” (I.M. Kobozeva, 2001). A new, manipulative function of metaphor appears. This is how the language and the science about it develops.

How to create a metaphor?

To create a metaphorical expression, you need to find points of comparison or comparison in objects. It's that simple. For example, take the subject "dawn". What would you compare it to? Scarlet dawn, bright, burning ... Let's compare it with fire! And it will turn out what millions of writers did before us: “the fire of the dawn”, “the sunrise burns”, “the fire flared up in the east”. Indeed, this is much more interesting than just writing "the sun was rising."

In fact, writers and poets spend hours to find a good metaphor: apt, figurative, whole. It is no coincidence that we so admire the works of the classics of literature. For example, take the famous poem:

Blew north. Weeping grass
And branches about the recent heat,
And roses, barely awake,
The young heart sank.

She sings - and the sounds melt,
Like kisses on the lips
Looks - and the heavens play
In her divine eyes.

As you can see, both quatrains do not just tell about some phenomenon or person, but create its voluminous, vivid image, embodying the author’s thought, conveying it colorfully and artistically.

So that's what metaphors are for - to create images! With metaphors, we do not just decorate speech, but create a picture for the listener or reader. Imagine a speech without metaphors as a pencil sketch, but enriched with expressive means as a three-dimensional image, and you will understand the meaning of the metaphor.

What are the metaphors?

In modern linguistics, there are two types of metaphors: diaphora and epiphora.

Diaphora (harsh metaphor) is a metaphor that combines very contrasting concepts. In such metaphors figurativeness is clearly visible, they are more figurative. The word itself in ancient Greek means "dispute".

Examples of diaphora: “flower of the moon”, “honey lips”, “pour balm on the soul”. It can be seen that the concepts for comparison are taken from different areas, so such statements cannot be taken literally, but in the context of the work, their meaning will become clear, adding expressiveness and beauty to the text.

Epiphora (erased metaphor)- this is a familiar expression, often clichéd, which we no longer always perceive as metaphorical. For example: “forest of hands”, “like clockwork”, “grow to the place”.

The metaphor-formula is close to the epiphora - an even more stereotypical construction, which can hardly be made non-figurative. Examples: “door handle”, “toe of a shoe”, “spruce paw”. Metaphors also differ in composition into detailed and simple:

Simple metaphors consist of one word used in a figurative sense, or phraseological unit: “make ends meet”, “your eyes are an ocean”.

Expanded metaphors- these are whole phrases or even paragraphs in which one metaphor entails a whole chain of others related to each other in meaning. These examples can be found in any work of the classics. For example, the lines of the poem known to everyone from childhood: “The golden grove dissuaded with a cheerful birch language ...”

Other tropes that are metaphorical

Metaphorical tropes are those that use the transfer of meaning from one word to another.

Hyperbole (exaggeration):“I repeat for the hundredth time”, “millions of people cannot be wrong”. These are exactly the cases when we resort to deliberate exaggeration to strengthen the message. We didn't count if we were really saying something for the hundredth or just the tenth time, but using a large number makes our message seem to be more weighty.

Simple comparison:“This house is like a castle.” We see in front of us just a house that just looks like a castle.

Avatar:"The moon modestly fled behind a cloud." We endow a deliberately inanimate object (the moon) with human qualities (modesty) and attribute human behavior (ran away). A huge number of children's fairy tales with all their Mikhail Ivanovichs, Chanterelles-sisters and Runaway Bunnies are based on this technique.

Synecdoche:“The whole minibus fell down with laughter.” This technique is akin to hyperbole. He attributes to the part the properties of the whole. He is loved by the authors of numerous network stories - the example given here, I think you have seen more than once. Synecdoche is also called the opposite technique - the transfer of the name from the particular to the general. It can often be recognized by its use of the singular instead of the plural, such as "a Soviet soldier returns victoriously from the war" or "the average person spends 8 hours a day sleeping". This technique is loved by journalists and publicists.

Sometimes allegory is also referred to as metaphorical tropes. Many scientists do not agree with this, placing it in a separate category. Nevertheless, we can mention it here, because an allegory is also a representation of one concept through another. But allegory is more comprehensive, for example, almost all mythology is built on it. An allegory is a representation of a concept or idea through a certain artistic image. All ancient gods are essentially allegories. Thunder and lightning are Perun, Zeus, Jupiter; war - Ares, love - Aphrodite, the sun - Yarilo and so on. Many works are allegories. For example, many scholars believe that the Bible and the Quran are pure allegories that cannot be taken literally.

The metaphor can be simple, consisting of one expression used in a figurative sense (instead of a beehive - "wax cell"), and expanded. An example of an expanded metaphor is the following excerpt from the introduction to V. Mayakovsky's poem "Out loud", in which the poet likens his position to a formidable weapon:

Parade unfolding my troops pages

I'm walking along the line front...

Metaphor characterizing a particular object, phenomenon, concept is divided into several types: individual-author's, anthropomorphic, genitive, zoomorphic, synesthesia (kinesthesia).

Your sun with clawed paws

Clawed into the soul like a knife .;

Like I'm a spring echoing early

Riding a pink horse...

2. Anthropomorphic metaphor - human properties are attributed to either animals or inanimate objects.

The sea laughed;

Dustbin Monk.

3. Genitive metaphor - one of the components is used in the form of R. p.

Reed masts

4. Zoomorphic metaphor - the properties of an animal are attributed to a person, or to an inanimate object

Conscience is a clawed beast;

Sobakevich was a real bear.

5. Synesthesia (kinesthesia) is a linguistic metaphor, but sensory signs are semilated.

Bitter thoughts, sweet dreams, cold heart, hot love.

It is known that four components are involved in the construction of a metaphor - these are two rich objects, the main and auxiliary, correlated with each other (they are called subjects of the metaphor), and the properties of each of them. A metaphor is created by predicating the main subject of the signs of an auxiliary subject. If there are no objects or signs, then metaphorical transfer does not occur. It is believed that general evaluative words (good / bad), including affective ones (beautiful / magnificent, trashy / disgusting, etc.), cannot have metaphorical meanings, since they do not denote descriptive features of objects, but only express the attitude of the subject ratings for her object. In other words, they lack the semantic basis of metaphorization.

Of course, the general assessment "good / bad" is usually derived on the basis of descriptive features of objects, but these features themselves do not contain general evaluative words in their semantics.

Being a multifaceted phenomenon, metaphor is the subject of study of a number of branches of knowledge and sections of linguistics. As a certain type of tropes, metaphor is studied in poetics (stylistics, rhetoric, aesthetics), as a source of new meanings of words - in lexicology, as a special type of speech use - in pragmatics, as an associative mechanism and an object of interpretation and perception of speech - in psycholinguistics and psychology, as way of thinking and cognition of reality - in logic, philosophy and psychology

The metaphor has been most fully studied in lexicology. Both main types of meaningful words - the names of objects and designations of signs - are capable of metaphorizing meaning. The more multi-attribute, informatively rich and undifferentiated the meaning of a word is, the easier it is to metaphorize. Among the names, these are, first of all, specific nouns - the names of natural genders, realities and their parts, creating metaphorical paraphrases (minion of fate, pet of abuse). Among the indicative words are adjectives denoting physical qualities (prickly answer), descriptive verbs (conscience gnaws, thoughts flow), etc. Sometimes the highlighted metaphor is generated by an analogy between whole situations (do not throw words to the wind).

According to the method of influence on the addressee, the metaphor is divided into epiphora and diaphora. For the former, the basis is an expressive function (an appeal to the imagination), for the latter it is a suggestive one (an appeal to intuition). According to the cognitive function, metaphors are divided into secondary (side) and basic (key). The former determine the idea of ​​a specific object or a particular category of objects (conscience is a clawed beast), the latter (these are always diaphors) determine the way of thinking about the world (the picture of the world) or its fundamental part (the whole world is a theater, and we are its actors)

Metaphorization of meaning can occur within the same functional category of words, or be accompanied by a syntactic shift. A metaphor that does not go beyond the specific vocabulary is used for the purposes of nomination. The function secondary to the metaphor serves as a technical device for the formation of the names of objects (the white of the eye, the leg of the table). Nominative metaphor often generates amonymy. Metaphorization of the meaning of characteristic words consists in highlighting in an object (the corresponding class of objects) signs that are likened to a sign inherent in another class of objects (a dull knife and a dull pain, a dull awl and a dull student). This type of metaphor has heuristic, cognitive value and serves as a source of word polysemy. The patterns of expanding the compatibility of characteristic words are reduced to the movement from concrete to abstract and to the action of the principles of anthropophysism and zoomorphism. Metaphorization of meaning may be accompanied by the transition of a noun from a nominal portion to a predicate one. This type of metaphor has as its goal the individualization of the object. The figurative metaphor introduces synonyms into the language (shy and hare). The reverse process of the transition of an attribute value into the category of a specific vocabulary described is not typical for a metaphor.

To clarify the nature of a metaphor, it is important to determine its syntactic properties. A sentence with a metaphorical predicate is syntactically similar to an identity statement in the following ways:

• 1) it expresses a factual judgment (a metaphor, like an identity, is stated);
• 2) indicates an ungraded (static) feature;
• 3) gives a constant characteristic of the object;
• 4) does not allow syntactic distribution by indicative words indicating the measure of similarity.

It differs from identity sentences in the following ways:

• 1) the truth of a metaphorically expressed judgment cannot always be logically established;
• 2) a predicate (figurative) metaphor cannot be coreferential to its subject;
• 3) the metaphorical sentence is asymmetrical, i.e. does not allow inversion of its members.

These properties bring metaphorical sentences closer to statements of similarity, similarity. Synthesizing the identity and similarity concentrates, sentences with a substantive metaphorical predicate are closest to classifying sentences (You are a rose and This flower is a rose). A metaphorical predicate accepts negation only in the context of a direct expression.