Pedagogical psychology- This is a branch of psychology that considers psychological mechanisms, patterns, factors in the development of the psyche in the conditions of training and education.
Pedagogical psychology is the science of the formation and development of the psyche in the educational space.
The beginning of the formation of this science dates back to the last third of the 19th century. The term "pedagogical psychology" itself appeared in 1877, it was introduced by the Russian psychologist and teacher P.F. Kapetev. He wrote the book "Pedagogical psychology for folk teachers, educators and educators." After the publication of this book, educational psychology was recognized as an independent scientific direction. The epigraph of this book was taken by Pestalozzi's statement "I want to reduce all learning to psychological grounds." Today, this problem is extremely relevant, very popular among researchers, but still ambiguous, having a number of contradictions that need to be addressed.
The subject of educational psychology is the psychological basis of personality formation in the process of training and education.
Tasks of educational psychology:
Identification of patterns of development of the psyche in the process of training and education;
Establishment of the conditions for the success of the development of the psyche in the educational space;
Determination of the main mechanisms of the functioning of the psyche in the process of training and education;
Establishment of factors influencing the psychological sphere of the individual in the course of training and education;
Creation and development of methods and techniques for studying the features of the functioning of the psyche in the process of education and upbringing;
Popularization of scientific knowledge in society.
Sections of educational psychology:
- psychology of learning;
This direction is engaged in the study of the psychological patterns of cognitive activity of students. One of the most important problems in this area is the issue of mental development of students. An important issue is the individualization and differentiation of the learning process. Today, a student-centered approach in the process of teaching and educating schoolchildren is very in demand and applied. This approach contributes to the solution to a certain extent of the problem of the development of human creative abilities. For teachers and educators, the issue of diagnosing mental development and the issue of developing methods aimed at improving the productivity of students' cognitive activity are extremely relevant.
- psychology of education;
This section studies the main psychological mechanisms and patterns of formation of students' personal parameters within the framework of the educational process.
This section is aimed at identifying factors that affect the system of relations:
Student - student;
Teacher - student;
Parents - student;
Teacher - administration;
Parents - school;
Student - administration;
Adults are children.
This section examines the psychological conditions for the formation and development of morality, worldview, personality orientation. A very important aspect is the psychology of self-development and self-education of a person.
- The psychology of the teacher.
This direction studies the features of the functioning and development of the teacher's psyche in the course of his professional activity. Of particular importance are the studies of the pedagogical abilities of individual typological qualities of a person that affect professional activity, the issue of the formation of pedagogical skills, as well as the psychological aspects of professional interaction.
All three areas of educational psychology are developing very actively, having a significant impact on the holistic educational process.
The main patterns of the formation of the child's personality
It is well known and indisputable that a personality is formed throughout life, and personal formations can appear at any age.
The basis of personality formation, according to Alexei Nikolaevich Leontiev, is socialization- appropriation by a person of social experience in ontogeny.
It should be noted that socialization is an objective process. (I invite everyone to answer for themselves why).
Any society prefers that its citizens acquire the desired social experience that does not contradict social norms and moral principles. Despite the fact that gaining such experience is an individual process subject to certain laws:
- recognition of education as the basis for the formation of personality;
Upbringing- this is a targeted impact on a person in order to form her desired personal parameters.
Those changes that occur in the personality and will be the result of education.
Without the process of upbringing, spiritual change, observance of traditions, development of norms of behavior and communication is impossible, that is, that qualitative change in the personality is impossible, which will ensure her comfortable stay in society.
- recognition of the child as the subject of the educational and training process;
The independent activity of the child is one of the characteristics of the subjective attitude to the world. This means that only a personal desire, a personal desire for a particular action leads to a positive result.
Without individual activity, the process of personality formation is extremely inefficient. Therefore, the attitude to the developing personality of a person as an object of development does not bring the desired results.
The educator must remember that he is obliged to organize the child's activities in such a way that he is convinced that he himself wants it. The role of the teacher, according to Vygodsky, is only to organize the conditions, the environment, and to control the results of the child's independent activity.
- inclusion of the motivational-need sphere of the child;
In the life of any creature, needs play a huge role. In addition to natural needs, a person also has socially significant ones. They arise against the background of specific socio-economic relations, formed interests and internal stimuli.
Depending on the motives, personality traits are formed. The basis for the practical implementation of motives is activity.
Thus, the scheme is implemented: Activity à Need à Motive à Activity à Need à house-house à
For a teacher, a parent, an adult who influences a developing personality, the basis is the formation of needs and motives.
- taking into account the "tomorrow of the developing child";
These are the potential, objectively existing, reasonable possibilities of the child, on which the parent, teacher, and educator should be guided.
In this case, the process of personal development becomes purposeful, individual, manageable and productive. Moreover, knowledge of this regularity makes it possible to design the development of the personality and painless, without great mental stress of its development.
- taking into account the principle of psychology: the development of the psyche occurs only in activity.
A teacher, parent, educator should remember that not any activity develops a personality, contributes to the emergence of new formations of the psyche, but only the leading activity of its age period of development.
Psychology of learning
Questions:
The subject of the psychology of learning, characteristics of learning;
Psychological theories of learning, development and organization of learning activities;
Psychological components of knowledge acquisition;
Psychological reasons for the failure of children.
Thorndike's theory was to recognize the identity of the processes of development and learning. His followers still believe that every step in learning is a step in development, every step in development is the result of training and education. Moreover, representatives of this direction still believe that there is no difference in the learning (and development) of humans and animals. Over time, this trend developed into behaviorism.
Representatives (for example, Skinner, Maslow and their followers) believe that the basis of human development is the formation of behavioral skills. They are the basis of human socialization, adaptation and intellectualization. These scientists believe that even intellectual skills can be instilled, which will gradually develop into skills. In this way, for example, the skill of being attentive, the skill of thinking, etc. can be instilled.
The theory of Jean Jacques Piaget.
Piaget theoretically substantiated and practically tried to prove that development is absolutely independent of training and education. These processes, in his opinion, are like rails - absolutely parallel, nowhere and never intersect. Moreover, Piaget believed that development goes ahead of learning and pulls it along.
- The theory of two factors.
Proposed and substantiated by Soviet scientists. The theory is based on the teachings of Vygotsky as his cultural and historical concept.
The essence of the theory is that development and learning are equivalent processes that are closely intertwined and constantly influence each other.
In the formation of a personality, a biological factor is important, that is, a certain natural predisposition to a particular activity. No less important is the social factor, that is, the possibility of mastering the necessary knowledge, skills and abilities required by society.
"If a person has a natural hearing loss, then, no matter how much we want, he will never become a composer, however, if a person never sees a musical instrument, he will also not be able to be a composer" Khrebkova.
The theory of Lev Semenovich Vygotsky Cultural-historical concept".
At a certain stage of a person's life, development is the predominant factor determining the formation of the psyche and personality. Starting with the complication of the self-concept of the individual (from 6 years old), education and upbringing gradually begin to lead development. From that time on, writes Lev Semenovich, training is simply obliged to go ahead of development and lead it along.
This theory of Vygotsky turned the content of the organization of the educational process upside down, but in order for it to work effectively, it must be remembered that our psyche constantly characterized by two levels:
Zone of actual development;
This is the level of development that is available at the moment, characterized by the ability of a person to independently, without any help, perform certain external and internal actions.
Zone of Proximal Development.
The dominant one is, of course, the second level, but without relying on the first, it makes no sense.
- Pedology.
The theory appeared in Russia in the 19th century and was very popular among progressive educators and psychologists.
Psychological components of assimilation
As a result of properly organized activity, the student acquires knowledge, skills and abilities, resulting in the mental development of the student. The main thing in this process is the assimilation and, in the future, the appropriation of previous experience.
Assimilation is an organized cognitive activity of a student, activating a number of mental processes.
Nikolai Dmitrievich Levitov singled out the main components of assimilation, which form the basis of personal mastery of knowledge, skills and abilities (assignment).
Assimilation is the main way for an individual to acquire socio-historical experience.
Components of assimilation:
- Positive attitude of the student to the learning process;
From the point of view of mental reflection, the effectiveness of any mental process will be quite high if the sthenic emotional background prevails. The speed and strength of assimilation will be based on non-negation of what a person is doing, that is, the psyche will not erect barriers, sometimes even in addition to the desire of the individual.
In recent years, there has been a sharp decline in the positive attitude of children towards learning. Why?
Unfavorable socio-economic relations;
Increasing the amount of required information;
Very frequent predominance of a negative emotional background.
For example, school fear is a condition that inhibits mental processes, which puts a barrier in terms of mastering and appropriating knowledge. Children, driven by fear, practically do not think, remember very poorly, and their attention is extremely scattered.
A positive attitude is formed:
Interest in knowledge and information;
Accepting the information as necessary;
Developing the ability to overcome difficulties.
A huge role in cognition is played by the feeling of satisfaction from obtaining knowledge, skills and abilities, as well as the presence of positive motivation, that is, an internal absolute conviction in the need to acquire knowledge, skills and abilities.
In this process, one cannot beg anyone's role: neither the student, nor close adults, nor the teacher.
- Activation of the processes of direct sensory familiarization with the material;
Consider only sensations and perceptions as the most effective for mastering the material.
The task of the teacher is to ensure that the student in the lesson not only looks, but also sees, not only listens, but also hears everything that happens in the lesson. This helps the child most fully and comprehensively create in the brain the image of the subject being studied.
The object of perception in the learning process is everything that surrounds the child. That is why every teacher should start by ensuring that the educational space does not include unnecessary objects that do not matter at a given moment in time.
If the teacher's speech suffers from any errors (such as speech defects, fast pace, high tone, unusual phonemic consonance), then the perception of meaning is significantly impaired. The appearance of the teacher (especially at the first meeting) is of great importance. Very often, sympathy or antipathy arises in the first minutes of communication. With long-term communication with the teacher, his appearance completely loses its meaning.
Everything that the teacher uses as visual material must meet the requirements:
Tables should be legible;
Contrast must be observed (for example, diagrams);
The best option for the board is a dark brown background and white chalk;
The main material should always be located in the center;
Familiar material should always be in the same place;
Educational films should be no more than 10 minutes long;
During the entire educational process, it is imperative to use almost all types of perception: hearing, sight, touch.
For most children, perception is best in a complex of sensations.
Theorized learning process is always less effective than a process with elements of practice.
- thought processanalysis as a process of active processing of the received information;
Thinking plays an important role in the process of learning.
A special place is occupied by:
Forms of thinking and the ability to master them;
The operations of thinking must be developed in accordance with age;
Types of thinking should also be at a level of development sufficient for a given age;
The development of the qualities of the mind.
- The process of memorizing and preserving the material;
As a rule, students with memory deficiencies study worse than those with a well-developed memory.
The following memory parameters are subject to development:
Types of memory (especially figurative = sensory memory);
Memory processes (especially memorization, assimilation, reproduction).
The types of memory, as a rule, do not change (there are four types: quickly remembered - quickly forgotten, quickly remembered - slowly forgotten, etc.). The teacher just needs to take into account what type of memory the child has and treat it with understanding.
- Attention as a necessary condition for the success of all previous components.
Attention is a mental state that ensures the success of all mental forms of reflection. Therefore, the formation and development of attention must be given special attention.
In the educational process, it is important to develop types of attention, especially secondary voluntary. To do this, it is necessary to involve the processes of awareness, motivation and the volitional sphere.
Reasons for the low level of assimilation:
Pedagogical reasons:
Weak teacher;
Overcrowding of classes (the norm for the beginning class is 15 people, for seniors - 17-22);
Imperfection of programs;
Very low level of textbooks and teaching aids;
Inefficient construction of the school day;
Ineffective forms of conducting classes.
Psychological reasons:
Failure to take into account the current level of personality development;
Developmental delay in accordance with the age norm - ZPR;
Insufficient development of mental forms of reflection (especially thinking, perception, memory);
Lack of reliance on individual typological personality traits;
Poor genetic inheritance;
Underdevelopment of the child's ability to self-regulation.
Psychology of educational influences
Upbringing and educational tasks in educational institutions are solved to a large extent depending on how the teacher is able to influence students.
Konstantin Dmitrievich Ushinsky once said: "Without the personal direct influence of the educator on the pupil, true education is impossible."
All educational influences affect the inner world of a person. That is why they must be built in accordance with the laws of the functioning of the psyche.
Types of educational influences:
- Impact "request";
This is one of the softest effects. The request does not imply any pressure on the child.
The main characteristic of the request is the consideration of the child's ability to fulfill it.
When making a request, it is important to remember:
The request must not exceed the capacity of the child;
The child should not be an intermediary between the teacher and the performer;
Failure to comply should not adversely affect the child;
Any request should be based on future gratitude for the fulfillment.
- Impact "requirement";
This is a tougher impact, which implies its mandatory implementation.
The requirement must be subject to some administrative regulation.
The requirement must be reasonable. The unreasonableness of the demand will cause opposition and non-compliance.
When making demands, one should not use a requesting tone, one should not allow lack of control and lack of evaluation.
Failure to comply with the requirements should carry any reprimand or punishment.
- Impact "order";
This is the most severe of the imposed impacts. That is why the order is always based on legally accepted provisions. These provisions are adopted at the level of institutions or government bodies.
The execution of the order is not discussed. It is mandatory for all participants in the process.
- Impact "score":
- Evaluation-praise;
The only difference between evaluation and praise: praise is a verbal encouragement, and true encouragement has a material basis. From the point of view of psychological perception, encouragement causes a positive emotional background.
- Evaluation-encouragement;
When applying incentives, you need to remember:
The business is encouraged, not the person;
Encouragement should be adequately done;
It is not necessary to encourage several times for the same thing;
Encouragement must necessarily cause the approval of others;
It is better to encourage and praise in public, and not tete-a-tete;
It is more often necessary to encourage melancholic and phlegmatic people, and not choleric people;
It is necessary to encourage even for the desire to do something;
Don't encourage too much.
- Evaluation-punishment.
Punishment is the opposite of reward.
Requirements for punishment:
It is better to punish one than in front of all;
It is impossible to punish for the unproved;
You can't just punish bad behavior;
The punishment must correspond to the measure of the offense;
You can not punish for the same thing several times;
You can not punish in haste;
It is impossible to punish with labor;
The punishment must be fair.
It is easy for a teacher to make a mistake when applying rewards or punishments.
Undeserved constant encouragement leads to arrogance, hostility from others. Improper punishment can cause humiliation of the individual, a feeling of anger and hatred towards the teacher. All this leads to a deformation of the child's personal growth.
- Impact "shortcut";
The teacher has no right to hang labels or invent nicknames for students. This has a very negative effect on children and others. Most often, such an action causes a similar reaction.
- Impact "suggestion".
Suggestion is a very complex type of influence, which is built on a significant reduction in a person's critical attitude to incoming information.
Among all people suggested - 70%. Therefore, the teacher must very carefully use suggestion as a measure of influence.
Suggestion is always deliberate, most often carried out verbally.
Suggestibility is affected:
Age;
The most suggestible are children and the elderly.
The state of the body;
Tired, weakened, sick people are more suggestible.
A large crowd of people acting in sync;
Level of intellectual development
The lower the level, the easier it is to inspire.
Traits;
Credulity-suspicion, kindness, simplicity…
Also, the effectiveness of suggestion depends on:
From the environment where the person inspires;
From the nature of social relations;
In a bullying society, suggestibility is stronger. Those who are in need are more suggestible.
The teacher must remember suggestion rules:
You need to look into the eyes of the suggested;
You need to stay absolutely calm, uninhibited and relaxed;
Speech should be clear, intelligible, slightly slowed down;
In no case should you show any nervousness.
Educational psychology as a science. The subject of educational psychology.
Educational psychology is an independent branch of psychological science, most closely associated with such branches as developmental psychology and labor psychology. Both of these sciences are close due to the common object of study, which is a person in the process of his development, but their subjects are different. The subject of pedagogical psychology is not just the mental development of a person, as in developmental psychology, but the role in this process of training and education, that is, certain types of activity. This is what brings pedagogical psychology closer to the psychology of labor, the subject of which is the development of the human psyche under the influence of labor activity. One of the types of the latter is pedagogical activity, which directly affects the development of the psyche of both the student and the teacher himself.
The subject of pedagogical psychology is also the facts, mechanisms and patterns of a person's assimilation of sociocultural experience and the changes in the level of intellectual and personal development caused by this assimilation. In particular, pedagogical psychology studies the patterns of mastering knowledge, skills and abilities, the features of the formation of active independent creative thinking in students, the impact of training and education on mental development, the conditions for the formation of mental neoplasms, the psychological characteristics of the personality and the activities of the teacher. The main problems of educational psychology have always been the following:
1. The relationship of conscious organized pedagogical influence on the child with his psychological development.
2. The combination of age-related patterns and individual characteristics of development and optimal methods of education and upbringing for age categories and specific children.
3. Finding and the most effective use of sensitive periods in the development of the child's psyche.
4. Psychological readiness of children for conscious upbringing and education.
5. Pedagogical neglect.
6. Ensuring an individual approach to learning.
The subject of each branch of scientific knowledge also determines its thematic structure, that is, the sections included in this science. Traditionally, there are three sections in the structure of educational psychology: 1) the psychology of learning; 2) the psychology of education; 3) the psychology of pedagogical activity and the personality of the teacher. However, such a classification excludes from consideration the personality and activity of the student himself. Indeed, the word “training” refers to the impact on the student by the teacher in order to assimilate knowledge and develop skills, i.e., the teacher is considered as an active party, the subject of activity, and the student as an object of influence. The concept of "education" also means the impact on the educator in order to form in him certain psychological properties and qualities that are desirable for the educator, that is, the child again finds himself in the role of an object that needs to be influenced in a certain way, and only a separate issue in this topic considered self-education.
Structure and tasks of pedagogical psychology.
Tasks of educational psychology:
1. - disclosure of the mechanisms and patterns of teaching and educating influence on the intellectual and personal development of the student;
2. - determination of the mechanisms and patterns of mastering sociocultural experience by students, its structuring, preservation in the individual mind of the student, its use in different situations;
3. - determination of the relationship between the level of intellectual and personal development of the student and the forms, methods of teaching and educating influence (cooperation, active forms of learning, etc.).
4. - study of the features of the organization and management of educational activities of students and the influence of these processes on their intellectual, personal development;
5. - study of the psychological foundations of the teacher's activity, his individual psychological and professional qualities;
6. - determination of patterns, conditions, criteria for the assimilation of knowledge;
7. - determination of the psychological foundations for diagnosing the level and quality of assimilation in accordance with educational standards.
The structure of educational psychology, those. sections included in this branch of scientific knowledge. Traditionally considered as part of three sections:
1. -psychology of learning;
2. - psychology of education;
3. -psychology of the teacher.
Or more broadly:
1. psychology of educational activity;
2.psychology of educational activity and its subject;
3.psychology of pedagogical activity and its subject;
4. psychology of educational and pedagogical cooperation and communication.
Psychological and pedagogical experiment: schemes for its implementation.
Experiment(from Latin eexperimental - “trial”, “experience”, “test”) - the most complex type of research, the most time-consuming, but at the same time more accurate and useful in cognitive terms. Well-known psychologists - experimenters P. Kress and J. Piaget wrote: “The experimental method is a form of mind approach that has its own logic and its own technical requirements. He does not tolerate haste, but instead of slowness and even some cumbersomeness, he gives the joy of confidence, partial, perhaps, but final.
It is impossible to do without an experiment in science and practice, despite its complexity and laboriousness, since only in a carefully thought out, properly organized and conducted experiment can one obtain the most conclusive results, especially those relating to cause-and-effect relationships.
The purpose of the experiment is to identify regular relationships, i.e. stable, essential, links between phenomena and processes. It is this purpose that distinguishes the experiment from other research methods that perform the function of collecting empirical data.
Experiment- this means studying the influence of independent variables on dependent ones with constant characteristics of controlled variables and spontaneous ones taken into account.
Scheme of the psychological and pedagogical experiment.
D. Campbell introduced the concept of an ideal experiment, which is satisfied by the following conditions:
1. The experimenter changes only one independent variable, and the dependent variable is strictly controlled.
2. Other conditions of the experimenter remain unchanged.
3. Equivalence (equality) of subjects in the control and experimental groups.
4. Carrying out all experimental influences simultaneously.
There are practically no ideal experiments.
General concept of learning.
Learningdenotes the process and result of the acquisition of individual experience by a biological system (from the simplest to man as the highest form of its organization in the conditions of the Earth).
In foreign psychology, the concept of "learning" is often used as an equivalent of "learning". In domestic psychology (at least in the Soviet period of its development), it is customary to use it in relation to animals. However, recently a number of scientists (I.A. Zimnyaya, V.N. Druzhinin, Yu.M. Orlov, etc.) use this term in relation to a person.
The term "learning" is used primarily in the psychology of behavior. In contrast to the pedagogical concepts of training, education and upbringing, it covers a wide range of processes for the formation of individual experience (addiction, imprinting, the formation of simple conditioned reflexes, complex motor and speech skills, sensory discrimination reactions, etc.).
In psychological science, there are a number of different interpretations of learning.
All types of learning can be divided into two types: associative and intellectual.
Characteristic for associative learning is the formation of links between certain elements of reality, behavior, physiological processes or mental activity based on the contiguity of these elements (physical, mental or functional). Varieties of associative learning:
1. Associative-reflex learning divided into sensory, motor and sensorimotor.
· sensory learning consists in the assimilation of new biologically significant properties of objects and phenomena of the surrounding world.
· motor learning consists in the development of new biologically useful reactions, when the sensory component of the reactions is mainly kinesthetic or proprioceptive, i.e. when sensory information arises in the process of performing a movement.
· sensorimotor learning consists in developing new or adapting existing reactions to new conditions of perception.
2. Associative Cognitive Learning It is divided into knowledge learning, skill learning and action learning.
· At learning knowledge, a person discovers new properties in objects that are important for his activity or life, and assimilates them.
· Learning skills consists in the formation of an action program that ensures the achievement of a certain goal, as well as a program for the regulation and control of these actions.
Learning action involves the learning of knowledge and skills and corresponds to sensorimotor learning at the cognitive level.
At intellectual learning the subject of reflection and assimilation are essential connections, structures and relations of objective reality.
Varieties of intellectual learning:
More complex forms of learning are related to intellectual learning, which, like associative learning, can be divided into reflex and cognitive.
1. Reflex intellectual learning It is divided into relationship learning, transfer learning and sign learning.
Essence relationship learning consists in isolating and reflecting in the psyche the relations of elements in a situation, separating them from the absolute properties of these elements.
· Transfer Learning lies in the "successful use in relation to the new situation of those skills and innate forms of behavior that the animal already possesses." This type of learning is based on the ability to identify relationships and actions.
· sign learning associated with the development of such forms of behavior in which "the animal reacts to the object as a sign, i.e., responds not to the properties of the object itself, but to what this object means" (Ibid., p. 62).
In an animal, intellectual learning is presented in the simplest forms; in humans, it is the main form of learning and proceeds at the cognitive level.
2. Intelligent Cognitive Learning It is divided into learning concepts, learning thinking and learning skills.
· Learning understanding of concepts lies in the assimilation of concepts that reflect the essential relations of reality and are fixed in words and combinations of words. Through the mastery of concepts, a person assimilates the socio-historical experience of previous generations.
· Learning thinking consists in "the formation in students of mental actions and their systems, reflecting the main operations, with the help of which the most important relations of reality are learned. Learning to think is a prerequisite for learning concepts.
. Learning skills is to form in students ways to regulate their actions and behavior in accordance with the goal and situation.
Theories of learning.
T. n. strive to systematize the available facts about learning in the simplest and most logical way and direct the efforts of researchers in the search for new and important facts. In the case of T. n., these facts are associated with conditions that cause and maintain a change in behavior as a result of the body's acquisition of individual experience. Despite the fact that some differences between T. n. caused by variations in the degree of importance they attach to certain facts, most of the differences are due to disagreements about how best to interpret the total body of evidence available. Theoret. an approach that calls itself an experiment. analysis of behavior, trying to systematize the facts on a purely behavioral level, without k.-l. appeal to hypothetical processes or physiology. manifestations. However, pl. theorists do not agree with the interpretations of learning, which are limited only to the behavioral level. Three things are often mentioned in this connection. First, the time interval between behavior and its premises can be quite large. To fill this gap, some theorists have suggested the existence of hypothetical phenomena such as habits or memory processes that mediate the observed premise and subsequent actions. Second, we often behave in different ways in conditions that outwardly look like the same situation. In these cases, unobservable states of the organism, often referred to as motivations, are invoked as hypothetical explanations for the observed differences in behavior. Finally, thirdly, a complex evolutionary and individual history of development makes it possible for highly organized reactions to appear in the absence of observable intermediate, transitional forms of behavior. In such circumstances, the previous external conditions necessary for the emergence of a habit, and the events that occur between the occurrence of a problem and the appearance of a response to it, are inaccessible to observation. In conditions of limited knowledge about events that precede the observed behavior, and a lack of knowledge about intermediate physiologists. and nervous processes, unobservable cognitive processes are involved in order to explain behavior. Owing to these three circumstances, the majority of T. n. suggest the existence of unobservable processes - commonly referred to as intermediate variables - which wedged between observable environmental events and behavioral manifestations. However, these theories differ as to the nature of these intermediate variables. Although T. n. consider a wide range of topics, this discussion will focus on one topic: the nature of reinforcement. Experimental analysis of behavior In behavior analysis, two procedures are recognized by which behavior change can be induced: respondent conditioning and operant conditioning. With respondent conditioning - more often called in other theories. contexts by classical or Pavlovian conditioning - an indifferent stimulus is regularly followed by another stimulus that already causes a reaction. As a result of this sequence of events, the first, previously ineffective, stimulus begins to produce a reaction, which may bear a strong resemblance to the reaction caused by the second stimulus. Although respondent conditioning plays an important role in learning, especially in emotional responses, most learning is related to operant conditioning. In operant conditioning, a response is followed by a specific reinforcement. The response on which this reinforcer depends is called an operant because it acts on the environment to elicit the given reinforcer. Operant conditioning is thought to play a more important role in humans. behavior, since, by gradually modifying the reaction, reinforcement is associated with a cut, new and more complex operants can be developed. This process is called operant generation. In the experiment In the analysis of behavior developed by B. F. Skinner, reinforcement is simply an irritant, which, when included in the system of connections determined by the use of respondent or operant procedures, increases the likelihood of behavior being formed in the future. Skinner studied the value of reinforcement for humans. behavior in a much more systematic way than any other theorist. In his analysis, he tried to avoid the introduction of c.-l. new processes that are inaccessible to observation in the conditions of laboratory experiments on animal learning. His explanation of complex behavior rested on the assumption that the often observable and subtle behaviors of humans follow the same principles as fully observable behaviors. Theories of Intermediate Variables supplemented the Skinner experiment. analysis of environmental and behavioral variables by intermediate variables. Intermediate variables yav-Xia theoret. constructs, the value of which is determined through their relationship with a variety of environmental variables, whose general effects they are designed to summarize. Tolman's expectation theory. Thorndike, influenced by Darwin's premise of the continuity of evolution biologist. species, began the transition to a less mentalistic psychology. John B. Watson completed it with a complete rejection of mentalistic concepts. Acting in line with the new thinking, Tolman replaced the old speculative mentalistic concepts with logically defined intermediate variables. As far as the subject of our discussion is concerned, here Tolman did not follow Thorndike's example. Thorndike considered the consequences of the response to be of the utmost importance in strengthening the association between stimulus and response. He called this the law of the effect, which was the forerunner of the modern. reinforcement theory. Tolman believed that the consequences of the reaction do not affect learning as such, but only the external expression of the processes underlying learning. The need to distinguish between learning and performance arose in the course of attempts to interpret the results of experiments on latent learning. As the theory has developed, the name of Tolman's intermediate learning variable has been changed several times, but the most appropriate name would probably be expectation. Anticipation depended solely on the temporal sequence—or contiguity—of events in the environment, not on the consequences of the response. Physiological theory of Pavlov. For Pavlov, as for Tolman, the contiguity of events was a necessary and sufficient condition for learning. These events are physiologist. are presented by the processes proceeding in those areas of a bark of a brain, to-rye are activated by indifferent and unconditioned irritants. The evolutionary consequences of the learned reaction were recognized by Pavlov, but not tested in experiments. conditions, so their role in learning has remained unclear. Molecular theory of Gasri. Like Tolman and Pavlov, and unlike Thorndike, Edwin R. Ghazry considered contiguity to be a sufficient condition for learning. However, coincident events were not determined by such broad events in the environment as Tolman claimed. Each molar environmental event, according to Gasri, consists of many molecular stimulus elements, to-rye he called signals. Each molar behavior, which Gasri called "action", in turn consists of many molecular reactions, or "movements". If the signal is combined in time with the movement, this movement becomes completely conditioned by this signal. Behavioral action learning develops slowly only because most actions require learning many of their constituent movements in the presence of many specific cues. Hull's drive reduction theory. The use of intermediate variables in learning theory reached its widest development in the work of Clark L. Hull. Hull made an attempt to develop a common interpretation of the behavioral changes resulting from both classical and operant procedures. Both the conjugation of stimulus and response and the reduction of drive were included as necessary components in Hull's concept of reinforcement. Fulfillment of learning conditions affects the formation of an intermediate variable - habits. Habit was defined by Hull as a theory. a construct summarizing the overall effect of a set of situational variables on a set of behavioral variables. Relationships between situational variables and an intermediate variable, and further between habit and behavior, were expressed in the form of algebraic equations. Despite the use in formulating some of his intermediate variables, the physiologist. terms, experiment. research and Hull's theory were exclusively concerned with the behavioral level of analysis. Kenneth W. Spence, Hull's collaborator, who made a significant contribution to the development of his theory, was particularly thorough in defining intermediate variables in purely logical terms. Subsequent development Although none of these theories of intermediate variables retained their significance in the second half of the 20th century, the subsequent development of T. n. influenced by two of their key features. All subsequent theories, as a rule, relied on mat. apparatus and considered a strictly defined range of phenomena - that is, they were "miniature" theories. Hull's theory was the first step towards creating a quantitative theory of behavior, but its algebraic equations served only to briefly formulate the basics. concepts. The first ones are really mate. T. n. were developed by Estes. Dr. quantitative theories, instead of using probability theory and math. statistics, relied mainly on the theory of information processing. or computer models. Within the framework of theories of intermediate variables, the most significant contribution to the development of the reinforcement principle was made by empirical research. Leona Karnin and related theorists. works by Robert Rescola and Alan R. Wagner. In the procedure of classical conditioning, an indifferent stimulus combined with c.-l. other effective reinforcement, does not acquire control over the reaction if an indifferent stimulus is accompanied by another stimulus, which already causes this reaction. At the behavioral level, a certain discrepancy between the response elicited by the reinforcer and the response that occurs during the presentation of this indifferent stimulus must be complemented by similarity if we want learning to occur. In addition, the nature of this discrepancy must be precisely determined. In terms of experiments. behavior analysis theoret. work mzh acquired more mat. character, although ch. arr. deterministic rather than probabilistic systems. Theoret. research here they developed in the direction from the analysis of a single reinforced reaction to many others. reinforced responses and the interaction of reinforced responses with other responses. In the broadest sense, these theories describe various reinforcers as causes that cause a redistribution of the body's responses within the range of possible behavioral alternatives. The redistribution that has taken place minimizes the change in the current reaction up to the establishment of a new operant contingency and is sensitive to the instantaneous value of the probability of reinforcement for each reaction. There are reasons to believe that the work carried out by representatives of the theory of intermediate variables in the field of classical conditioning and experiments. analysts in the field of operant conditioning, leads to a common understanding of reinforcement, in which behavior is modified in order to minimize the network of discrepancies associated with the action of all excitatory stimuli present in a given environment.
Types of learning in humans
1. Learning by mechanism imritinga , i.e. rapid, automatic adaptation of the organism to the specific conditions of its life using forms of behavior practically ready from birth. The presence of imriting unites a person with animals that have a developed central nervous system. For example, as soon as a newborn touches the mother's breast, he immediately manifests an innate sucking reflex. As soon as the mother duck appears in the field of view of the newborn duckling and begins to move in a certain direction, so, standing on its own paws, the chick automatically begins to follow her everywhere. This is - instinctive(i.e., unconditionally reflex) forms of behavior, they are quite plastic for a certain, usually very limited, period (“critical” period), subsequently they are not very amenable to change.
2. Conditioned Reflex Learning - a conditioned stimulus is associated by the body with the satisfaction of the corresponding needs. Subsequently, conditioned stimuli begin to play a signal or indicative role. For example, a word as some combination of sounds. Associated with the selection in the field of view or holding an object in the hand, it can acquire the ability to automatically call up in the mind of a person the image of this object or movement aimed at searching for it.
3. operant learning Knowledge, skills and abilities are acquired by the so-called trial and error method. This type of learning was identified by the American behavioral psychologist B.F. Skinner in addition to conditioned reflex learning. Operant learning is based on active actions ("operations") of the organism in the environment. If some spontaneous action turns out to be useful for achieving the goal, it is reinforced by the achieved result. A pigeon, for example, can be taught to play ping-pong if the game becomes a means of obtaining food. Operant learning is implemented in the system of programmed learning and in the token system of psychotherapy.
4. vicarious learning - learning through direct observation of the behavior of other people, as a result of which a person immediately accepts and assimilates the observed forms of behavior. This type of learning is partially represented in higher animals, such as monkeys.
5. verbal learning - the acquisition of new experience by a person through language. In this case, we mean learning, carried out in a symbolic form through a variety of sign systems. For example, symbolism in physics, mathematics, computer science, musical literacy.
The first, second and third types of learning are characteristic of both animals and humans, and the fourth and fifth - only for humans.
If the learning conditions are specifically organized, created, then such an organization of learning is called learning. Training is broadcast a person of certain knowledge, skills, abilities. Knowledge, skills and abilities are the forms and results of reflective and regulatory processes in the human psyche. Therefore, they can arise in a person's head only as a result of his own activities, i.e. as a result of the mental activity of the student.
Thus, education - the process of interaction between the teacher (teacher) and the student (student), as a result of which the student develops certain knowledge, skills and abilities.
Knowledge, skills and abilities will be formed only if the influence of the teacher causes a certain physical and mental activity.
Teaching (learning activity)- this is a special type of cognitive activity of the subject, performed in order to acquire a certain composition of knowledge, skills, intellectual skills.
The structure of learning activities.
Target- mastering the content and methods of teaching, enriching the personality of the child, i.e. the assimilation of scientific knowledge and relevant skills.
motives- this is what encourages learning, overcoming difficulties in the process of mastering knowledge; a stable internal psychological reason for behavior, actions, activities.
Classification of motives for teaching:
Social : the desire to acquire knowledge, to be useful to society, the desire to earn the praise of the teacher, the desire to earn the respect of comrades, the avoidance of punishment.
cognitive : orientation to mastering new knowledge, orientation to the learning process (the child finds pleasure in activity in this type of activity, even if it does not immediately bring certain results), result orientation (the child tries in the lesson to get "10", although the subject itself he is not interested).
Emotional: emotional interest.
What are the main motives learning activities of six-year-olds? Research shows that dominance children of this age have motives for learning that lie outside the educational activity itself. Most children are attracted by the opportunity to fulfill their needs in recognition, communication, self-affirmation. At the beginning of the school year, motives associated with learning itself, learning, have little weight. But by the end of the school year, there are more children with this type of learning motivation (obviously, under the pedagogical influence of a teacher, educator). However, the researchers warn: it is too early to calm down. Cognitive motives six-year-olds are still extremely unstable, situational. They need constant, but indirect, unobtrusive reinforcement.
It is important for the teacher to maintain and increase the interest of children in school. It is important for him to know what motives are most significant for the child at this stage in order to build his education with this in mind. Recall that a learning goal that is not related to motives that are relevant to the child, that has not touched his soul, is not kept in his mind, and is easily replaced by other goals that are more consonant with the child’s habitual motives.
Since at the age of six, the internal, cognitive motivation for learning is just being formed and the will (so necessary in learning) is not yet sufficiently developed, it is advisable to maintain the maximum variety of motives for learning (its polymotivation) when teaching children at school. Children need to be motivated- playful, competitive, prestigious, etc. - and emphasize it to a greater extent than is currently done in teaching six-year-olds.
learning task- this is what the child must master.
Learning action- these are changes in the educational material necessary for the child to master it, this is what the child must do in order to discover the properties of the subject that he is studying.
Learning action is formed on the basis of mastering ways of teaching (operational side of the doctrine) – these are practical and mental actions with the help of which the student masters the content of the teaching and at the same time applies the acquired knowledge in practice.
Practical actions - (actions with objects) - with images of objects, diagrams, tables and models, with handouts
mental actions : perceptual, mnemonic, mental (analysis, synthesis, comparison, classification, etc.), reproductive - according to given patterns, methods (reproducing), productive - creating a new one (carried out according to independently formed criteria, own programs, new ways, new a combination of means), verbal - a reflection of the material in the word (designation, description, statement, repetition of words and statements), i.e. performing an action in a speech form, imaginative (aimed at creating images of the imagination).
To learn successfully, a child needs certain skills (automated ways to perform actions) and skills (a combination of knowledge and skills that ensure the successful performance of an activity). Among them - specific skills and abilities necessary for certain lessons (addition, subtraction, phoneme selection, reading, writing, drawing, etc.). But along with them, special attention should be paid to generalized skills that are needed in any lesson, lesson. These skills will be fully developed later, but their beginnings appear already at preschool age.
Action of control (self-control) - this is an indication of whether the child correctly performs an action corresponding to the model. This action should be performed not only by the teacher. Moreover, he must specifically teach the child to control his actions, not only according to their final result, but also in the course of achieving it.
Assessment action (self-assessment)- determination of whether the student has achieved the result or not. Result educational activity can be expressed by: the need to continue learning, interest, satisfaction from learning or unwillingness to learn, negative attitude towards the educational institution, avoidance of studies, non-attendance at classes, leaving the educational institution.
Learning and its main components. Learnability – this is a set of fairly stable and widely manifested features of the child's cognitive activity, which determine success, i.e. speed and ease of assimilation of knowledge and mastery of methods of teaching.
Methods of influence in education
Consciousness formation method: story, explanation, clarification, lecture, ethical conversation; exhortation, suggestion, briefing, dispute, report, example. The method of organizing activities and forming the experience of behavior: exercise, teaching, pedagogical requirement, public opinion, educational situations. Incentive method: competition, reward, punishment.
Pedagogical impact- a special type of teacher's activity, the purpose of which is to achieve positive changes in the psychological characteristics of the pupil (needs, attitudes, relationships, states, behavior patterns).
The purpose of any psychological impact is to overcome the subjective defenses and barriers of the individual, restructuring his psychological characteristics or behavior patterns in the right direction. There are three paradigms of psychological influence and three strategies of influence corresponding to them.
First strategy - strategy of imperative influence; its main functions: the function of controlling the behavior and attitudes of a person, their reinforcement and direction in the right direction, the function of coercion in relation to the object of influence. The second strategy is manipulative - is based on penetration into the mechanisms of mental reflection and uses knowledge to influence. Third strategy - developing. The psychological condition for the implementation of such a strategy is dialogue. The principles on which it is based are the emotional and personal openness of communication partners,
Traditionally, in psychological science, two main types of pedagogical influence are distinguished: persuasion and suggestion.
Belief - psychological impact addressed to the consciousness, the will of the child. This is a logically reasoned impact of one person: or a group of people, which is accepted critically and carried out consciously.
Suggestion - psychological impact, which is characterized by reduced argumentation, is accepted with a reduced degree of awareness and criticality.
38. Methods of self-education and self-education
Self-education is the acquisition of knowledge through self-study outside educational institutions and without the help of a teaching person.
1. Pedagogical psychology as an independent branch of scientific knowledge has been formed:
2. The term "pedagogical psychology" introduced into scientific circulation:
4. Activities of L.S. Vygotsky in the field of educational psychology is associated with the formation of such a field of knowledge as:
5. Valuable in pedology was the desire to study the development of the child in the conditions of:
6. The third stage in the development of educational psychology is called theoretical due to the fact that during this period:
C) theoretical psychological concepts of the educational process were created
7. The structure of educational psychology includes all of the listed sections, except:
8. The object of educational psychology is:
9. Choose the wrong definition of the subject of educational psychology:
C) the subject of pedagogical psychology is the patterns and originality of the mental development of a person at different stages of ontogenesis
10. The method of pedagogical psychology, aimed at studying changes in the child's psyche in the process of the researcher's active influence on the subject, is:
12. Teaching is a process:
D) individual cognitive activity of a person
15. The dependence of the rate of formation of a connection on its compliance with the current state of the subject, according to behaviorism, is called:
17. Of the listed components, the structure of purposeful educational activity (according to D.B. Elkonin - V.V. Davydov) includes:
18. The type of learning motives, characterized by the student's orientation towards mastering knowledge - facts, phenomena, patterns, is called:
22. Didactogeny is:
D) the negative mental state of the student, caused by a violation of tact on the part of the teacher
23. The final stage of learning complex psychomotor skills is:
25. The concept of:
26. The level of actual development of the psyche is characterized by:
B) learning, education, development
28. The main goal of traditional education is:
A) the formation of knowledge, skills and abilities
29. The characteristics of traditional learning include all of the following except:
C) the main tactic of communication is cooperation
30. The characteristics of innovative learning include all of the following except:
B) the student is an object, not a subject of activity
31. The creator of the theory of the gradual formation of mental actions is:
32. Choose from the following sequences of formation of mental actions, according to the research of P. Ya. Galperin, the correct one:
A) 1. An orienting or cognitive basis for action is created;
2. the action is performed practically;
3. the action is performed in terms of speaking aloud;
4. the action is done in the mind.
33. The essence of programmed learning is that:
C) the material is divided into small parts, portions, and the student cannot take the next step in mastering the material without mastering the previous one
34. Consolidation of the correct reactions in programmed learning is achieved through:
35. The type of learning that stimulates the awareness of any contradiction in the process of activity, leading to the need for new knowledge, in that unknown, which would allow resolving the contradiction that has arisen:
36. The highest level of problem-based learning is characterized by:
B) self-formulation of the problem and the search for its solution
37. To the main psychological and pedagogical principles of the education system according to L.V. Zankov does not apply: A) the principle of accessibility of education
38. In the concept of developmental education, L.V. Zankov's high level of learning difficulty is determined by:
B) knowledge of the essential connections of phenomena
39. According to which psychologist, the assimilation of knowledge of a general and abstract nature should precede the acquaintance of students with more private and specific knowledge:
|
C) V. V. Davydov |
40. According to V.V. Davydova, the scientific-theoretical type of thinking is characterized by:
B) the formation of meaningful generalizations
41. A person's predisposition to educational influences is indicated by the term:B) upbringing
42. The direction of psychology, recognizing the external influence on the behavior of the individual as the main educational factor: D) behaviorism
43. From the standpoint of the activity approach, educational influence should be directed primarily to:B) motivational-need spherularity
44. Representatives of humanistic psychology believed that educational influence should be carried out, purposefully influencing:
46. The method of psychological influence, addressed to the consciousness and logic of the pupil:B) persuasion
47. The spontaneous mechanisms of personality formation (according to Yu.B. Gippenreiter) include all of the following, except: ) self-awareness
51. The structure of pedagogical activity includes all components, except for:D) perceptual
52. The selection and organization of the content of educational information, the design of students' activities and their own pedagogical activities is the essence of such a pedagogical function as:
54. The ability to penetrate into the inner world of the student, psychological observation, etc. are the essence:
58. The function of pedagogical assessment is not:A) planning
59. A situation that, according to B.G. Ananiev, the most negative impact on the activity and well-being of the pupil:
|
B) lack of evaluation |
60. The style of pedagogical leadership that is considered the most effective when working with adolescents:BUT) democratic
Lecture 1. Subject, tasks and methods of educational psychology 5
Plan................................................. ................................................. ............................... 5
1. Subject and tasks of pedagogical psychology. Psychology and Pedagogy.... 5
2. History of the development of educational psychology in Russia and abroad......... 6
3. The structure of educational psychology. The connection of educational psychology with other sciences .............................................. ................................................. ................................................. 17
4. The main problems of educational psychology and their brief description 19
5. General characteristics of the methods of educational psychology .................................. 21
Lecture 2. Psychology of pedagogical activity and the personality of the teacher 24
Plan................................................. ................................................. .............................. 24
1. The concept of pedagogical activity. Concepts of the pedagogical process and their psychological justification ......................................... 24
2. The structure of pedagogical activity ............................................... .............. 25
3. The functions of the teacher in the organization of the educational process ........... 27
4.Psychological requirements for the personality of the teacher .............................................. .28
5. Problems of pedagogical communication ............................................... ................... 31
6. The concept of an individual style of pedagogical activity 33
7. Psychological characteristics of the teaching staff .............................. 34
Lecture 3. Psychological service at school and its role in optimizing the educational process in school ...................... 36
Plan................................................. ................................................. .............................. 36
1. Fundamentals of the activities of the psychological service at school .............................. 36
2. Logic and organization of the psychological study of the personality of the student and the team of the school class ................................................. ................................... 38
3. The program for studying the personality of a student .............................................. .............. 38
4. The program of studying the collective of the school class .............................................. 42
5. Psychocorrective and educational activities of the psychological service 45
6. Psychological foundations of lesson analysis .............................................. ................ 46
Lecture 4
Plan................................................. ................................................. ............................... 48
1. The concept of the purpose of education .............................................. ......................................... 48
2. Means and methods of education ............................................... ................................. 49
3. The main social institutions of education .............................................. .... 52
4. Psychological theories of education. The problem of personality stability.. 54
Lecture 5 ................................................. ................................... 56
Plan................................................. ................................................. .............................. 56
1.Psychological conditions for the formation of personality traits .............................. 56
Activity, personality orientation and its formation ........................... 57
Development of the moral sphere of personality 60
2. Socio-psychological aspects of education .............................................. 61
Communication as a factor in education .............................................................................. 61
The role of the team in the education of students ............................................................... 63
Family as a socio-psychological factor in education .............................. 64
Education and formation of social attitudes of the individual ........................ 66
3. The problem of managing the upbringing of the individual .............................................. ...... 67
4. Indicators and criteria for the upbringing of schoolchildren .............................................. 71
Lecture 1. Subject, tasks and methods of educational psychology
1. Subject and tasks of pedagogical psychology. Psychology and pedagogy
2. History of the development of educational psychology in Russia and abroad
3. Structure of educational psychology. Relationship of educational psychology with other sciences
4. The main problems of educational psychology and their brief description
5. General characteristics of the methods of educational psychology
The subject of educational psychology is the study of the psychological patterns of education and upbringing, both from the side of the student, the educator, and from the side of the one who organizes this training and education (i.e., from the side of the teacher, educator).
Education and training represents different, but interrelated aspects of a single pedagogical activity. In reality, they are always implemented together, so it is almost impossible to define learning from education (as processes and results). Raising a child, we always teach him something, while teaching, we educate him at the same time. But these processes in pedagogical psychology are considered separately, because they are different in their goals, content, methods, leading types of activity that realizes them. Education is carried out mainly through interpersonal communication of people and pursues the goal of developing the worldview, morality, motivation and character of the individual, the formation of personality traits and human actions. Education (realized through various types of subject theoretical and practical activities) is oriented towards the intellectual and cognitive development of the child. Various methods of training and education. Teaching methods are based on a person's perception and understanding of the objective world, material culture, and upbringing methods are based on the perception and understanding of a person by a person, human morality and spiritual culture.
For a child, there is nothing more natural than to develop, form, become what he is in the process of education and training (S.L. Rubinshtein). Education and training are included in the content of pedagogical activity. Upbringing is a process of organized purposeful influence on the personality and behavior of the child.
In both cases, training and education act as specific activities of a particular subject (student, teacher). But they are considered as a joint activity of a teacher and a student, in the first case we are talking about educational activities or teaching (student). In the second, the pedagogical activity of the teacher and on the performance of the functions of organization, stimulation and management of the student's educational activities, in the third - on the process of education and training in general.
Educational psychology is an interdisciplinary independent branch of knowledge based on knowledge of general, developmental, social psychology, personality psychology, theoretical and practical pedagogy. It has its own history of formation and development, the analysis of which allows us to understand the essence and specifics of the subject of its study.
General psychological context of the formation of pedagogical psychology. Pedagogical psychology develops in the general context of scientific ideas about a person, which were fixed in the main psychological trends (theories) that have had and continue to have a great influence on pedagogical thought in each specific historical period. This is due to the fact that the learning process has always acted as a natural research "testing ground" for psychological theories. Let us consider in more detail the psychological currents and theories that could influence the understanding of the pedagogical process.
Associative psychology(starting from the middle of the 18th century - D. Hartley and until the end of the 19th century - W. Wundt), in the depths of which the types, mechanisms of associations were determined as connections of mental processes and associations as the basis of the psyche. On the material of the study of associations, the features of memory and learning were studied. Here we note that the foundations of the associative interpretation of the psyche were laid by Aristotle (384-322 BC), who is credited with introducing the concept of "association", its types, distinguishing two types of mind (nousa) into theoretical and practical, definitions feelings of satisfaction as a learning factor.
Empirical data from the experiments of G. Ebbinghaus (1885) on the study of the process of forgetting and the curve of forgetting obtained by him, the nature of which is taken into account by all subsequent researchers of memory, the development of skills, the organization of exercises.
Pragmatic functional psychology W. James (late XIX - early XX century) and J. Dewey (practically the entire first half of our century), with an emphasis on adaptive reactions, adaptation to the environment, body activity, and the development of skills.
The theory of trial and error by E. Thorndike (late 19th - early 20th century), who formulated the basic laws of learning - the laws of exercise, effect and readiness; who described the learning curve and the achievement tests based on these data (1904).
Behaviorism J. Watson (1912-1920) and neo-behaviourism of E. Tolman, K. Hull, A. Gasri and B. Skinner (the first half of our century). B. Skinner already in the middle of our century developed the concept of operant behavior and the practice of programmed learning. The merit of the works of E. Thorndike preceding behaviorism, the orthodox behaviorism of J. Watson and the entire neo-behaviorist direction is the development of a holistic concept of learning (learning), including its patterns, facts, mechanisms.
Subject, tasks and sections of educational psychology
Pedagogical psychology is an interdisciplinary and typically applied branch of psychological science that has arisen in connection with real requests pedagogical theory and expanding educational practice. The presence of systematic and mass education is one of the significant achievements of civilization and at the same time a condition for the very existence and development of mankind.
In the pedagogical, educational process, there is no special, reserved for him, special psyche, different from the one described in the previous chapters of the textbook. It's just that in the psyche and personality, only some of its aspects, the accents of functioning and development, due to the specifics of the educational process itself, stand out in relief. But since this process occupies one of the leading, decisive places in the life of a modern person, the need for the presence and practical application of educational psychology does not require special argumentation. Education needs a separate and systematic psychological support.
Educational psychology studies human psyche as a subjective reflection of objective reality, carried out in a special educational activity in order to implement other activities, for the whole life of a person.
The subject of educational psychology phenomena, laws and mechanisms of the psyche act subjects educational process: student(pupil, student) and teachers(teacher, lecturer). This involves a purposeful study of the structure and dynamics, formation, functioning of the mental image during and as a result of the processes learning and education.
Since the specifics of the content and numerous tasks facing educational psychology are objectively determined by the characteristics of the educational, or pedagogical, process, we first consider the original concept education as a process and result.
Education in the narrow sense of the word, this is the assimilation of knowledge, skills and abilities by a person, carried out in the process of learning, therefore, an educated person in everyday life is called a literate, knowledgeable, well-read person.
In a broader and proper psychological interpretation process and result of education take on a special meaning. creation person, his "education"as a whole as individuals, and not just an increment, an arithmetic increase in knowledge and skills.
This is a fundamental, qualitative change, a basic re-registration, a rearmament of the psyche and personality. Education is socially organized assistance the current and subsequent development of the personality, its self-realization and self-change, the whole being of a person. That is why the level of education of a person is not reduced to the sum of the years allotted for its education. Legalized questionnaire gradations of education: primary, secondary, specialized secondary, higher - are very conditional, changeable, relative. Education as a holistic result, it implies something different and much more than graduation certificates, certificates and diplomas, than a list of compulsory disciplines listened to by a person and passed during the period of study.
The amount of knowledge in itself does not change the consciousness of a person, his attitude to the world in which he exists. Real, truly human education is inseparable from the process of education. Form of a person - this means not only teaching him, but also helping to build image self, samples and models of social and professional behavior, being in general. Therefore, a competently, humanely organized educational process is indispensable educational, those. complex in essence, inseparable into separate and, as it were, successive components.
Despite the apparent obviousness of this provision, even in the modern history of Russian education, for example, new ideological slogans and direct orders to withdraw the education process from school and university practice have recently been proclaimed. Fortunately, it is almost impossible to realize even the most order-abiding official from the education system. Thinking and consciousness are inseparable, like the psyche and personality. In a particular person, training and education are impossible one without the other, although they are implemented by different psychological mechanisms. To ensure the effectiveness of each of these processes, special conditions are required, targeted social and pedagogical efforts, the state educational system and special professional training and skills of teachers are necessary.
Diverse and numerous tasks of educational psychology, can be reduced to five main ones, which in reality are interdependent, intersecting, interdisciplinary, i.e. not only psychological.
The first task is comprehensive study of the student's psyche(educated) involved in a single educational process. Such an organized, purposeful study is necessary to optimize and individualize education, to promote the formation of the necessary psychological and personal characteristics, to provide competent systematic psychological support and support for the processes of education and upbringing. Here there are many private and general psychological and socio-psychological tasks, the solution of which gives an answer to an interdisciplinary and practically important question about the main subject of the process: "who is learning(formed, brought up)?".
People are not the same from birth, with the possible exception of monozygotic twins. But the number and scope of individual differences (behavioral and psychological) increases with age. The younger the child, the more similar he is to his peers, although from a psychological point of view, there are not even two identical personalities on the planet.
To identify and take into account the psychological characteristics of the personality of each student, it may be useful to use all seven parameters identified in the psychological structure of the personality: needs, self-awareness, abilities, temperament, character, features of mental processes and states, mental experience of the individual (see Chapter 4), each of which can be decisive in the educational process.
The second task is psychological substantiation and selection of educational material to be mastered. The problems being solved here are designed to answer the never-ending and always debatable question: "what is it necessary to teach (educate, educate)?” These are complex issues of selecting the content and volume of educational material, the choice of compulsory (and elective, selective) academic disciplines.
Suppose it is necessary to study logic and Latin in a modern school (as earlier in gymnasiums)? How much study time should be devoted to geography and what sections of it should be taught? How to conceptually and logically build a course of Russian (or another) language from the first to the 11th grade? There are no unambiguous, universal and convincing answers to such questions. Everything depends on the level of civilization, cultural traditions, state educational ideology and policy. A professional driver, for example, pragmatically does not need knowledge about the structure of the nervous system of the lancelet. But why does someone "at the top" have the right to decide what is needed and what is not needed to know the same driver as a person, individual, citizen?
The school is designed to prepare people not only for work, but for all life. In addition, each person has the right not only to choose, but also to make a conscious, sometimes necessary change of profession. To do this, he must be sufficiently widely and comprehensively educated. Otherwise, mass education can become socially unfair, veiled caste, and therefore inhumane. It is impossible (and not necessary) to "teach everyone and everything", but it is absolutely necessary to contribute as much as possible in teaching the process of personal development.
- The third psychological and pedagogical task is to answer the most probably most popular question: "how to teach and educate?" in the development and psychological testing, verification of pedagogical methods, techniques and holistic technologies of education and upbringing. It can be said that the majority of pedagogical and psychological-pedagogical research is aimed precisely at such methodological problems and questions of the processes of education, training and upbringing. The following chapters of the textbook are devoted to their consideration (see ch. 39–41).
- The fourth task of educational psychology is study of the psyche, professional activity and personality of the teacher. This is the answer to the topical, fundamentally important subjective question of the entire sphere of human education: "who teaches (educates, educates)?". The problems raised here are equally social and psychological (see Chapter 42). Can anyone who wants to become a teacher? What are the individual psychological characteristics and professionally significant (necessary) qualities of a teacher, his social -psychological and material status What are the objective and subjective opportunities for improving skills and self-realization (professional and personal)?
- The fifth, but theoretically central, initial task of educational psychology is participation in the development of theoretical and practical issues related to the conscious formulation and formulation of goals public education, training and education. It is here that the social and the individual clearly appear in their inseparable and, perhaps, contradictory (dialectical) unity. Society determines for what educate people; personality transforms this question into its own, subjective: " why me an education?"
Without a detailed, clearly formulated goal-setting, there can be no controlled educational process, prediction and verification, and evaluation of the result are impossible. Psychologically reasoned answers are needed to the main vital, semantic and even moral question: "why to educate (teach, educate)?". Why and for whom does this system of education exist? What can or should acquired knowledge, learned forms of behavior become for a person? How have they changed the person himself, his attitudes and views on the world, on himself? What kind of person (and not just a socially necessary professional, a narrowly oriented artisan) does society expect to create at the “output” of the educational process?For more on this, see § 41.3.
It is clear that such educational issues go far beyond the scope of the subject of psychology, but even without its "participatory", and often leading participation, they cannot be competently resolved. At the very least, maximum consideration of the so-called human factor is necessary, practical implementation in the formation of the well-known ideology of "human relations" is necessary.
The listed and many other tasks are solved within the framework of three textbooks. sections of educational psychology:
- psychology of learning;
- psychology of education;
- psychology of work and the personality of the teacher (teacher).
The first two sections are related mainly to the psyche of the trained and educated subject. These sections of educational psychology are characterized by varying degrees of development and implementation into real educational practice. Currently more developed than others psychology of learning. It coexists with many different scientific schools and concepts that have their successors and critics (see Chapter 39). However, in any psychological and pedagogical construction, methodological understanding, theoretical interpretation of fundamental categories and concepts, such as "personality", "psyche", "education" are especially important. All other concepts, terminological constructions and specific pedagogical "techniques" are derivatives, although this is not always recognized and clearly formulated by the authors of numerous modern psychological and pedagogical "innovations". Unfortunately, behind the indicated pedagogical schemes, a living person, his real psyche, is most often "lost".
Like any applied branch of science, educational psychology has a pronounced interdisciplinary character. Any practical, vital task is multi-subject, complex. This fully applies to the educational process, which is studied in its own way not only by pedagogy and pedagogical psychology, but also by philosophy, medicine, sociology, cultural studies, physiology, economics, jurisprudence, and management. All these aspects of education one way or another go to subject, necessarily close on a person - a real creator, performer and user of the public education system.
True, not all specialists and leaders of education, and by no means always, are interested in or satisfied with certain positions of domestic scientific psychology (see § 39.4; 39.5). For example, some directions and methods of the current reform of Russian education (early profiling of school education, simplification and reduction of curricula, the indispensable two-stage nature of higher education, the fetishization of widespread tests, the obligatory "competency" approach, the lack of evidence for the effectiveness of a number of pedagogical "innovations", etc.) cannot be considered scientifically indisputable and psychologically justified. But this, presumably, is a traditionally temporary, transient stage in the existence of modern Russian education and its constantly ongoing modernization. Mass education, according to the notions of Russian psychology, should not be pragmatically minimal, but reasonable, verified redundant, in some way ahead of both today's society and today's student. Education should work for the future, and therefore be developing and educating. However, this requires hard efforts not only of the pedagogical, educational and scientific community, but also of the entire society, of the entire Russian state.
To illustrate the deeply interdisciplinary nature of educational psychology, let us designate its connections with some other sections of scientific psychology, since in reality it is associated with almost all modern psychological science. Educational psychology is either part of some other applied branch of psychology, such as legal, sports, engineering, or organically includes large parts and blocks of many types of modern psychology.
General psychology acts here as a kind of base that sets the necessary methodological, categorical and conceptual structure of pedagogical psychology. It is impossible to list all general psychological concepts and terms, without which pedagogical psychology simply cannot exist. Mind, personality, consciousness, activity, thinking, motivation, abilities - all these categories "work" here in their own way, in a special context of education.
The relationship between pedagogy and child (age) psychology, especially in relation to school education. A child is not just a small adult, but a qualitatively different person (J. Piaget), therefore, it is necessary to educate and educate, for example, a junior schoolchild differently than a teenager, and a teenager differently than a young man. Without taking into account the basic age characteristics of students, effective education is impossible.
The processes of learning and development are not parallel and not synonymous. They are in a complex interaction, the study, organization and optimization of which is one of the urgent problems of modern education. Education and development now take place in qualitatively different social (and personal, subjective) conditions than it is represented in the classical psychology of previous years and generations. The current subjects of the educational process - children, schoolchildren, teachers, parents, students - have become in some way significantly different than just a decade ago (see Chapter 20). All this urgently requires systematic psychological and interdisciplinary research and direct access to mass educational practice at school and university.
A significant place in educational psychology should be occupied by socio-psychological issues(see ch. 25). Education exists in society, solves certain public, state, and not only personal tasks of the subjects of this process. Such tasks may not only not coincide, but also be in serious contradictions. Suppose society does not need as many lawyers, economists, bank employees as there are people who want it. But on the other hand, objectively, there are not enough specialists in engineering and working professions. Coordination of such "demand" and "supply" is a state, economic, political task, and not only an educational one, and even more so a narrowly psychological one. However, in its optimal, humane solution, one cannot do without psychology: social, general, political, differential, pedagogical.
In addition, every teacher really works not only with the student's individuality, but with a social group, class, parents, a team of colleagues in the profession, therefore, in the educational process, an extensive socio-psychological phenomenology of small and large groups, their interactions, group dynamics. All these inevitable and significant influences of society on the process and result of education must be properly planned, taken into account, measured, and, if possible, coordinated.
Practically the most important, relevant and directly significant for educational psychology are its connections and interactions, relationships with pedagogy. It would seem that there are no and should not be any problems in the cooperation and commonwealth of these two sciences. In many ways, they have common goals and methods, the same scientific objects, uniting the scientific community in the face of the Russian Academy of Education, the presence of common historical roots, creators and great predecessors. In Russia, these are such extraordinary personalities and scientists of an organic psychological and pedagogical profile as K. D. Ushinsky, P. P. Blonsky, L. S. Vygotsky, P. F. Kapterev, A. S. Makarenko and many others, including including modern ones. There are many examples of a real, systematic, and not eclectic, combination of educational psychology and "psychological pedagogy", there are models for the construction of modern psychodidactics. There are fully developed scientific and practically implemented psychological and pedagogical directions, concepts, educational technologies. But, on the other hand, interdisciplinary relations between psychology and pedagogy cannot be called idyllic, well-established, problem-free.
For a future teacher, an introduction to general and pedagogical psychology begins with the learning process at a pedagogical university. Here there is a decades-old psychological and pedagogical triad: psychology – Pedagogy is a private method of teaching. Such a bundle of subjects is an absolutely necessary part, achievement and main feature of professional and pedagogical education in our country. This triad contributes a lot to ensuring the mandatory psychological and pedagogical literacy and culture, the student's readiness of the same name for future pedagogical activity.
The subject of professional work of a chemistry teacher, unlike, say, a chemist, is not only chemicals and properties, but also the students themselves. A scientist and a teacher are close, definitely related, but still not the same professions. Many people (including teachers) may not understand this, subjectively not accept it, but this is an essential, empirically established fact. The true professionalism of a teacher lies not only in the knowledge of the subject being taught, not only in the assimilation of pedagogical theories and techniques, but in an adequate understanding of the structure and functioning of the human psyche in the process of training or education. The true psychological and pedagogical education of a teacher can only be complex, holistic, and not narrowly focused - musical, mathematical, historical, etc. Real educational practice does not need either "pure" teachers as "transmitters" of knowledge, or "emasculated" psychologists as "omniscient" and critical theorists. Everyday, laborious and always creative "pedagogization" of psychology and "psychologization" of pedagogy are required.
However, it should be recognized that both in the content and in the execution of the educational psychological and pedagogical triad itself, there are unresolved issues, theoretical and methodological inconsistencies, shortcomings, and inconsistencies. In the mass teaching of these three disciplines, there is often no proper methodological, conceptual and operational continuity. There may be meaningful repetitions and obvious inconsistencies in the interpretations of the same educational, especially psychological phenomena. The psychological and pedagogical triad is by no means always realized as a necessary integral, single cycle of related, but substantive and operationally different disciplines. Between modern psychology and pedagogy there are ambiguous, complex, sometimes opposing relations, which is quite acceptable for academic theory as a means of promoting its development. In relation to real educational practice, this situation cannot be considered normal.
A school teacher or university teacher, of course, cannot and should not be professional psychologists. But the requirements for their psychological preparedness, education and culture should not be simplified, downplayed and reduced, for example, to the skills of pedagogical communication. This is only an integral part, although an important one, of the general professional-psychological culture of the teacher (see Chapter 42). In turn, a school psychologist is not obliged and cannot be a teacher without having the appropriate education. However, to ensure efficiency, i.e. practical usefulness of his concrete and actually psychological work, he must professionally know and adequately perceive the existing pedagogical theories, problems and everyday realities.
