Variation in the interpretation of facts

An important issue that needs special attention is the problem of multiple interpretations of facts. This is understandable from the point of view of the incompleteness of scientific knowledge. Interpretation acts as one of the key points of scientific knowledge, as it represents the ratio of a certain amount of scientific knowledge and areas of objective reality.

There are two most important types of interpretation in science: semantic and empirical. Empirical interpretation means attributing (identification, identification) to the terms of the theory of certain empirical meanings, while semantic interpretation means attributing not necessarily empirical meanings to the terms.

Distinguish scientific theory and its interpretation, in particular, empirical. This distinction is necessary because the same theory can have several empirical interpretations, for which it receives empirical confirmation.

At the same time, it is important to keep in mind that what is tested, confirmed or refuted by experience is always not a theory in itself, but some system: a theory and its definite empirical interpretation. This means the fact that the theory has a relatively independent and independent existence in relation to the world of experience, is not completely reducible to the latter, has its own rules of construction and the logic of functional development.

Topic 7. Theory and hypothesis as the highest forms of scientific thinking.(4 hours)

1. Theory as a logical form: complexity and consistency. Structural elements of the theory and their relationship. Object and subject of theory. Types and types of scientific theories.

2. Verification, justification and truth of theories. Variety of functions of the theory. The main functions of the theory: description, explanation and prediction (forecasting).

3. The logical structure of the explanation and the conditions for its adequacy. Variety of types of scientific explanations. Deductive-nomological explanation. probabilistic explanation. Explanation as a demonstration of possibility - necessity. The relationship between understanding and explanation. Understanding as interpretation. Logical structure of prediction. The role of prediction in the development of scientific knowledge.

4. The problem of consistency and completeness of scientific theories. The logical nature of paradoxes and their role in the development of theories.

5. Hypothesis as a form of thought. Types of hypotheses. Induction, deduction and analogy as methods for constructing hypotheses. Heuristic role of hypotheses.

Logic studies not only the forms of thinking (logical forms), but also the forms and patterns of development of scientific knowledge. The forms of development of scientific knowledge are (1) the facts of science, (2) a scientific problem arising from the need to explain scientific facts, (3) a hypothesis containing the initial solution of a scientific problem, (4) confirmation or refutation of a hypothesis in the course of proof, and finally, (5) theory containing principles and laws. Between all these forms there is a deep inner connection. Each subsequent form includes the most important results of the previous one.

The theory is the basic unit of scientific knowledge. The term "theory" comes from the Greek Jewria, more precisely Jewrew (theoría, more precisely from theoréo - I consider, investigate). In a broad sense, a theory is a set of views, ideas, ideas aimed at interpreting and explaining any fragment of the world. In a narrower (i.e., in such a sphere of culture as science) and special sense, theory- the highest, most developed form of organization of scientific knowledge, containing a finite set of interrelated concepts and statements, and giving a holistic view and explanation of the natural relationships of a certain area of ​​reality; the latter forms the subject of this theory.

Taken as a specific form of scientific knowledge and in comparison with its other forms (hypothesis, law, etc.), theory appears as the most complex and developed form. As such, theory should be distinguished from other forms of scientific knowledge - the laws of science, classifications, typologies, primary explanatory schemes, etc. These forms can genetically precede the theory itself, forming the basis for its formation and development; on the other hand, they often coexist with the theory, interacting with it in the course of the progressive movement of scientific knowledge, and may even enter the theory as its elements (theoretical laws, typologies based on the theory, etc.).

Along with concepts and judgments, theory is one of the logical forms of mental reproduction of reality in thinking. However, unlike the former, scientific theory is not an elementary form of thought. From the point of view of logic, a theory is a system of propositions organized in a certain way, corresponding to a number of logical requirements.

These requirements are:

1) theoretical statements should fix the essential connections (laws), properties and relations of the reflected (displayed) area of ​​reality;

2) each sentence of the theory must affirm or deny something regarding the fragment of the world under consideration, i.e., must have a logical form of statement;

3) the sentences included in the theory must be elements of a logical inference (as a rule, deductive [reduction should also be considered as a kind of deductive inference]);

4) statements of the theory can take on a truth value from a fixed set of such values ​​from 1 to k (for example, in two-valued logic k=2, i.e. 1 is true, 0 is false).

Systematic theory lies in the fact that the logical connections between the statements of the theory are arranged in a certain order, which is determined by the nature of the logical conclusion through which these statements were obtained. The logical conclusion itself is subject to certain rules (= logical laws and rules, for example, Locke's rule or modus ponens). Thus, each statement of the theory at least once acts as a premise or conclusion within the framework of some kind of deductive reasoning. The exceptions are the initial sentences of the theory (axioms, initial definitions, postulates), which, being elements of a theoretical system, act only as premises, and some sets of descriptive (descriptive) sentences, which always act as conclusions (“final consequences”). At the same time, the statements of the theory must necessarily contain the basic and/or derivative terms of the own language of science, which ensures their correlation with the objects and objective subject area of ​​this science.

Complexity same theories is determined by the product of the number of its constituent elements (postulates and axioms, empirical statements, facts, laws, etc.), which forms the quantitative aspect of the complexity of scientific theories, by the variety of their qualitative characteristics (empirical and theoretical statements, initial statements and consequences and etc.).

In its structure, a theory is an internally differentiated and simultaneously integral system of knowledge, which is characterized by the logical dependence of some elements on others, the derivability of the content of this theory from a certain set of initial statements and concepts (the basis of the theory) according to certain logical and methodological principles and rules.

First of all, it should be pointed out that the theory, with a number of exceptions (for example, some mathematical theories), is based on a certain set of facts established with the help of empirical methods. Such a set of statements, which are facts, is called empirical basis theories. Strictly speaking, the empirical basis is not included in the structure of the theory.

AT structure theories include concepts and statements, in a certain way (the logic of the theory) interconnected.

I. Theory concepts are divided into two main types:

1) concepts reflecting the main classes of objects considered in the theory (absolute and relative space, absolute and relative time, etc. in mechanics);

2) concepts in which the main characteristics of the phenomena under study are singled out and generalized (for example, mass, momentum, speed, etc.).

Using these concepts, a scientist can construct an object of study, which will be expressed in a derivative concept. So, in quantum theory, a certain quantum object can be represented in the case of a collection of n particles in the form of a y-wave in an N-dimensional space, the properties of which are associated with the quantum of action.

II. On the basis of the concepts of the theory, theoretical statements among which there are four types:

1) statements containing initial positions, which are called postulates, axioms or principles of this theory (for example, the axioms of Euclid's geometry, the principle of constancy of the speed of light of the theory of relativity, etc.)

2) statements containing the formulation of the laws of this theory (the laws of physics [Newton's second law], biology [the law of unity of phylogenesis and ontogenesis], logic [the law of sufficient reason], etc.);

3) the set of statements derived in the theory with their proofs, which constitutes the main body of theoretical knowledge (for example, the consequences of the theory of relativity);

4) statements (they are also called correspondence sentences) in which the links between empirical and theoretical terms are expressed (“Electric current is the movement of a stream of electrically charged particles”); with the help of such sentences, the essential side of the observed phenomena is revealed. From the point of view of the logical classification of definitions (definitions), the sentences of correspondence are real definitions (attributive, genetic, operational), the main function of which is to explain these phenomena.

Given the relationship between theory and its empirical basis, one should distinguish between the modality of theoretical and empirical statements. The first differ in the necessary character, the second - in the actual.

III. Logic theory is the set of admissible rules of logical inference and proof within the framework of the theory. The logic of a theory determines the mechanism of its construction, the internal deployment of theoretical content, embodies a certain research program. As a result, the integrity of the theory as a single system of knowledge is generated.

A mature science is distinguished by a variety of types and kinds of theories.

First of all, it is necessary to distinguish between two types of theories, distinguished on the basis of the relationship between form and content:

1) formal theories are characterized by the absence of any interpretation of the terms included in the formulation of the axioms (formal theory of Euclidean geometry, built by Hilbert); as a consequence, these axioms are not themselves meaningfully interpreted; such theories are consequences of limiting generalizations;

The types of theories are as follows.

First, theories are by subject, i.e., by the nature of the fragment of the world they reflect or the aspect of reality (= the nature of the objects under consideration). In this aspect, the fundamental dichotomy of the world defines two types of theories:

1) theories that display fragments and / or aspects of reality - material existence (such theories constitute the basic knowledge of specific sciences), for example, Newtonian mechanics, thermodynamics, social and humanitarian theories, etc.;

2) theories that display fragments and / or aspects of ideal being (in some cases we are talking about unobservable phenomena, such theories are typical for abstract sciences), for example, the theory of natural numbers in mathematics or the theory of natural inference in logic, etc.

Secondly, theories are divided into types according to the way they are built:

1) axiomatic theories have the most clear and formalized structure - the system-forming part (core) of these theories is a set of axioms (statements that are postulated as true) and a number of initial concepts that are necessary for a clear and precise formulation of axioms; as a rule, axioms are substantiated outside the theory itself, for example, in practical activities (Euclid's geometry); another important part of axiomatic theories is the set of derivatives (derived) from the axioms of the statements of the given theory;

2) hypothetical-deductive theories do not carry a clear division of statements into initial and derivative ones; as a rule, some initial positions are singled out in them, but these provisions are substantiated within the theory itself.

Thirdly, according to the degree of correlation with reality theories are:

1) fundamental, in which the core of the deployment of the entire theoretical system is an idealized object (material point in mechanics, absolutely elastic material points in molecular kinetic theory, etc.); as a consequence, the laws formulated within the framework of such theories do not refer to an empirically given reality, but to reality as it is given by an idealized object, and are theoretical laws, which, unlike empirical laws, are not formulated directly on the basis of a study of experimental data, but by certain mental actions with an idealized object;

2) applied, in which the fundamental provisions contained in fundamental theories must be appropriately specified (applied) when they are applied to the study of reality, as well as its transformation (compare: ideal gas or computer and real gas or computer).

Fourth, by function theories are divided into:

1) descriptive (phenomenological or empirical), solving mainly the problems of describing and ordering vast empirical material, while the construction of an idealized object is actually reduced to isolating the original system of concepts (Copernican theory);

2) explanatory, in which the problem of isolating the essence of the area of ​​reality under consideration (Newton's mechanics in relation to the theory of Copernicus) is solved.

Testing, substantiation and truth of theories. Variety of functions of the theory. The main functions of the theory: description, explanation and prediction (forecasting)

The most important logical characteristics of a theory are the validity and truth of the theory. A theory acts as real knowledge only when it receives an empirical interpretation. . Empirical interpretation contributes to the experimental verification of the theory, to the identification of its explanatory and predictive capabilities.

Testing the theory is a complex and multi-stage process. The verification of a theory is not limited to its confirmation by individual empirical facts. However, the contradiction between the theory and individual facts is not its refutation; but at the same time, such a contradiction serves as a powerful stimulus for improving the theory up to the revision and refinement of its initial principles.

Truth of the theory- this is the correspondence of its constituent statements to the displayed area of ​​the world. The ultimate criterion for the truth of a theory, just as in the case of individual judgments, is the practical activity of people, including such a form as an experiment. However, one cannot speak of the absoluteness of this criterion. That is, the relativity of practice as a criterion of truth is determined by three factors: (1) the practice itself is limited; (2) practice can confirm individual false statements of the theory, or, conversely, confirm individual consequences of false theories (for example, this was the case with the "theories" of phlogiston and caloric); (3) practice gives only confirmation of the theory, but does not prove the truth of the statements of the theory. Thus, here we are talking about practical reliability [ à ] judgments of the theory, about the probability [ P] their truth.

The source of logical necessity [ L] the truth of the theory is its consistency, which is expressed in the logical sequence and mutual consistency (coherence) of the concepts and statements of this theory.

However, even if a theory has all the above characteristics, this does not mean that it is accurate. The history of science is a constant change of one theory by another. This means that not a single theory known from the history of science, even despite the statements of its creators, is a complete logical system.

To the number main functions theories include the following:

1) descriptive - fixing a set of data on the essential properties and relationships of objects, processes of reality;

2) synthetic - combining diverse elements of reliable scientific knowledge into a single and integral system;

3) explanatory - the identification of causal and other dependencies, the diversity of connections of a given fragment of reality, its essential properties and relationships, the laws of its origin and development, etc.;

4) methodological - the definition of diverse methods and techniques of research activities;

5) predictive - an indication of new properties and relationships of the object under study, to new levels of organization of the world and new types and classes of objects (for reference: a prediction about the future state of objects, unlike those that exist, but have not yet been identified, is called scientific prediction) ;

6) practical - establishing the possibility and determining ways to apply the knowledge gained in various areas of society (Austrian physicist L. Boltzmann: "There is nothing more practical than a good theory").

Under the theory as the highest form of organization of scientific knowledge is understood a holistic idea structured in schemes about the universal and necessary laws of a certain area of ​​reality - the object of the theory, existing in the form of a system of logically interconnected and derivable sentences.

The established theory is based on a mutually coordinated network of abstract objects that determines the specifics of this theory, which is called the fundamental theoretical scheme and associated private schemes. Based on them and the corresponding mathematical apparatus, the researcher can obtain new characteristics of reality, not always referring directly to empirical research.

The following main elements of the theory structure are distinguished:

1) Initial foundations - fundamental concepts, principles, laws, equations, axioms, etc.

2) An idealized object is an abstract model of the essential properties and relationships of the objects under study (for example, "absolutely black body", "ideal gas", etc.).

3) The logic of the theory is a set of certain rules and methods of proof aimed at clarifying the structure and changing knowledge.

4) Philosophical attitudes, socio-cultural and value factors.

5) The totality of laws and statements derived as consequences from the foundations of the theory in accordance with specific principles.

For example, in physical theories, two main parts can be distinguished: formal calculus (mathematical equations, logical symbols, rules, etc.) and meaningful interpretation (categories, laws, principles). The unity of the content and formal aspects of the theory is one of the sources of its improvement and development.

A. Einstein noted that "the theory has two goals:

1. To cover, as far as possible, all phenomena in their interconnection (completeness).

2. To achieve this, taking as a basis as little as possible logically interconnected logical concepts and arbitrarily established relationships between them (basic laws and axioms). I will call this goal "logical uniqueness"

Types of theories

The variety of forms of idealization and, accordingly, the types of idealized objects corresponds to the variety of types (types) of theories that can be classified according to different grounds (criteria). Depending on this, theories can be distinguished:

mathematical and empirical,

deductive and inductive,

fundamental and applied,

formal and meaningful

"open" and "closed"

explaining and describing (phenomenological),

physical, chemical, sociological, psychological, etc.

1. Modern (post-non-classical) science is characterized by an increasing mathematization of its theories (especially natural sciences) and an increasing level of their abstractness and complexity. The importance of computational mathematics (which has become an independent branch of mathematics) has sharply increased, since the answer to a given problem often needs to be given in numerical form, and mathematical modeling.

Most mathematical theories rely on set theory as their foundation. But in recent years, more and more often they turn to the relatively recently emerged algebraic category theory, considering it as a new foundation for all of mathematics.

Many mathematical theories arise through a combination, a synthesis of several basic or generating structures. The needs of science (including mathematics itself) have recently led to the emergence of a number of new mathematical disciplines: graph theory, game theory, information theory, discrete mathematics, optimal control theory, etc.

Theories of experimental (empirical) sciences - physics, chemistry, biology, sociology, history - according to the depth of penetration into the essence of the studied phenomena can be divided into two large classes: phenomenological and non-phenomenological.

Phenomenological (they are also called descriptive, empirical) describe the properties and magnitudes of objects and processes observed in experience, but do not delve deeply into their internal mechanisms (for example, geometric optics, thermodynamics, many pedagogical, psychological and sociological theories, etc.). Such theories primarily solve the problem of ordering and primary generalization of the facts pertaining to them. They are formulated in ordinary natural languages ​​with the involvement of special terminology of the relevant field of knowledge and are predominantly of a qualitative nature.

With the development of scientific knowledge, theories of the phenomenological type give way to non-phenomenological ones (they are also called explanatory). Along with observable empirical facts, concepts and quantities, very complex and unobservable, including very abstract concepts, are introduced here.

One of the important criteria by which theories can be classified is the accuracy of predictions. According to this criterion, two large classes of theories can be distinguished. The first of these includes theories in which the prediction has a reliable character (for example, many theories of classical mechanics, classical physics and chemistry). In the theories of the second class, prediction has a probabilistic character, which is determined by the combined action of a large number of random factors. This kind of stochastic (from Greek - guess) theories are found in modern physics, biology and social sciences and humanities due to the specifics and complexity of the very object of their study.

A. Einstein distinguished in physics two main types of theories - constructive and fundamental:

Most physical theories are constructive, i.e. their task is to build a picture of complex phenomena on the basis of some relatively simple assumptions (such, for example, the kinetic theory of gases).

The basis of fundamental theories is not hypothetical provisions, but empirically found general properties of phenomena, principles from which follow mathematically formulated criteria that have universal applicability (such is the theory of relativity).

W. Heisenberg believed that a scientific theory should be consistent (in the formal-logical sense), have simplicity, beauty, compactness, a certain (always limited) scope of its application, integrity and "final completeness". But the strongest argument in favor of the correctness of the theory is its "multiple experimental confirmation".

The theories of the social sciences and the humanities have a specific structure. Thus, in modern sociology, since the work of the prominent American sociologist Robert Merton (i.e., since the beginning of the 20th century), it has been customary to distinguish three levels of subject study of social phenomena and, accordingly, three types of theories.

general sociological theory ("general sociology"),

private ("mid-rank") sociological theories - special theories (sociology of gender, age, ethnicity, family, city, education, etc.)

sectoral theories (sociology of labor, politics, culture, organization, management, etc.)

Ontologically, all sociological theories are divided into three main varieties:

1) theories of social dynamics (or theories of social evolution, development);

2) theories of social action;

3) theories of social interaction.

A theory (regardless of its type) has the main features:

1. Theory is not individual taken reliable scientific provisions, but their totality, an integral organic developing system. The unification of knowledge into a theory is carried out primarily by the subject of research itself, its laws.

2. Not every set of provisions about the subject under study is a theory. In order to turn into a theory, knowledge must reach a certain degree of maturity in its development. Namely, when it not only describes a certain set of facts, but also explains them, i.e. when knowledge reveals the causes and patterns of phenomena.

3. For a theory, it is obligatory to substantiate, to prove the provisions included in it: if there are no substantiations, there is no theory.

4. Theoretical knowledge should strive to explain the widest possible range of phenomena, to the continuous deepening of knowledge about them.

5. The nature of the theory determines the degree of validity of its defining beginning, which reflects the fundamental regularity of the given subject.

6. The structure of scientific theories is meaningfully "determined by the systemic organization of idealized (abstract) objects (theoretical constructs). Statements of a theoretical language are directly formulated in relation to theoretical constructs and only indirectly, due to their relationship to extralinguistic reality, describe this reality"

7. Theory is not only ready-made knowledge that has become, but also the process of obtaining it, therefore it is not a "naked result", but should be considered along with its emergence and development.

The main functions of the theory include the following:

1. Synthetic function - combining individual reliable knowledge into a single, integral system.

2. Explanatory function - identification of causal and other dependencies, the diversity of relationships of a given phenomenon, its essential characteristics, the laws of its origin and development, etc.

3. Methodological function - on the basis of the theory, various methods, methods and techniques of research activity are formulated.

4. Predictive - the function of foresight. On the basis of theoretical ideas about the "present" state of known phenomena, conclusions are drawn about the existence of previously unknown facts, objects or their properties, connections between phenomena, etc. Prediction about the future state of phenomena (as opposed to those that exist but have not yet been identified) is called scientific foresight.

5. Practical function. The ultimate purpose of any theory is to be put into practice, to be a "guide to action" to change reality. Therefore, it is quite true to say that there is nothing more practical than a good theory.

How to choose a good one from many competing theories?

K. Popper introduced the "criterion of relative acceptability". The best theory is the one that:

a) communicates the greatest amount of information, i.e. has deeper content;

b) is logically more strict;

c) has greater explanatory and predictive power;

d) can be more accurately verified by comparing predicted facts with observations.

a logically interconnected system of concepts and statements about the properties, relationships and laws of a certain set of idealized objects (point, number, material point, inertia, absolutely black body, ideal gas, actual infinity, socio-economic formation, consciousness, etc., etc.) P.). The purpose of scientific theory is the introduction of such basic ideal objects and statements about their properties and relationships (laws, principles), in order to then purely logically (i.e. mentally) deduce (construct) from them the largest possible number of consequences that, when choosing a certain empirical interpretation would most adequately correspond to the observed data on some real area of ​​objects (natural, social, experimentally created, mental, etc.). The main structural elements of any scientific theory: 1) initial objects and concepts; 2) derived objects and concepts (the connection between the derived and initial concepts of the theory is given by defining the former in the final analysis only through the initial ones); 3) initial statements (axioms); 4) derived statements (theorems; lemmas), their connection with the axioms is given with the help of certain inference rules; 5) metatheoretical foundations (picture of the world, ideals and norms of scientific research, general scientific principles, etc.). The first scientific theory in the history of knowledge was Euclidean geometry, which was built by ancient mathematicians for about three hundred years (VII - IV centuries BC) and ended with a brilliant generalization in Euclid's work "Beginnings". (See theory, science, idealization).

Great Definition

Incomplete definition ↓

SCIENTIFIC THEORY

the most developed form of organization of scientific knowledge, which gives a holistic view of the patterns and essential connections of the studied area of ​​reality. Examples of so-called. are the classical mechanics of I. Newton, the corpuscular and wave theories of light, the theory of biological evolution of Ch. Darwin, the electromagnetic theory of J.K. Maxwell, special relativity, chromosome theory of heredity, etc.

Science includes descriptions of facts and experimental data, hypotheses and laws, classification schemes, etc., but only so-called. unites all the material of science into a holistic and observable knowledge of the world. It is clear that in order to construct a so-called. certain material about the objects and phenomena under study must first be accumulated, so theories appear at a fairly mature stage in the development of a scientific discipline. For thousands of years, mankind has been familiar with electrical phenomena, but the first so-called. electricity appeared only in the middle. 18th century At first, as a rule, descriptive theories are created that give only a systematic description and classification of the objects under study. For a long time, theories of biology, including the theories of evolution by Jean-Baptiste Lamarck and Darwin, have been descriptive: they describe and classify plant and animal species and their origins; D. Mendeleev's table of chemical elements was a systematic description and classification of elements. And this is quite natural. Starting to study a certain area of ​​phenomena, scientists must first describe these phenomena, highlight their features, and classify them into groups. Only after this becomes possible a deeper study to identify causal relationships and the discovery of laws.

The highest form of development of science is considered to be an explanatory theory, which gives not only a description, but also an explanation of the phenomena under study. It is to the construction of such theories that every scientific discipline strives. Sometimes the presence of such theories is seen as an essential sign of the maturity of science: a discipline can be considered truly scientific only when explanatory theories appear in it.

Explanatory theory has a hypothetical-deductive structure. The basis of the so-called. is a set of initial concepts (values) and fundamental principles (postulates, laws), including only initial concepts. It is this basis that fixes the angle of view from which reality is considered, sets the area that the theory covers. The initial concepts and principles express the main, most fundamental connections and relations of the studied area, which determine all other phenomena of it. So, the basis of classical mechanics are the concepts of a material point, force, speed and three laws of dynamics; Maxwell's electrodynamics is based on his equations, which relate by certain relations the basic quantities of this theory; the special theory of relativity is based on A. Einstein's equations, etc.

Since the time of Euclid, the deductive-axiomatic construction of knowledge has been considered exemplary. Explanatory theories follow this pattern. However, if Euclid and many scientists after him believed that the initial provisions of the theoretical system are self-evident truths, then modern scientists understand that such truths are not easy to find, and the postulates of their theories are nothing more than assumptions about the underlying causes of phenomena. The history of science has given a lot of evidence of our delusions, so the foundations of the explanatory theory are considered as hypotheses, the truth of which still needs to be proven. Less fundamental laws of the area under study are deductively derived from the foundations of the theory. That is why the explanatory theory is called "hypothetical-deductive".

Initial concepts and principles of so-called. relate directly not to real things and events, but to some abstract objects, which together form an idealized object of the theory. In classical mechanics, this is the system of material points; in molecular-kinetic theory - a set of randomly colliding molecules closed in a certain volume, represented as absolutely elastic balls, etc. These objects do not exist by themselves in reality, they are mental, imaginary objects. However, the idealized object of the theory has a certain relation to real things and phenomena: it reflects some properties of real things that are abstracted from them or idealized. These are absolutely solid or absolutely black body; perfect mirror; ideal gas, etc. Replacing real things with idealized objects, scientists are distracted from the secondary, non-essential properties and connections of the real world and single out in their pure form what seems to them the most important. The idealized object of a theory is much simpler than real objects, but this is precisely what makes it possible to give its exact mathematical description. When an astronomer studies the motion of the planets around the Sun, he is distracted from the fact that the planets are whole worlds with a rich chemical composition, atmosphere, core, etc., and considers them as simply material points, characterized only by mass, distance from the Sun and momentum, but precisely because of this simplification, he gets the opportunity to describe their movement in strict mathematical equations.

Idealized object serves for the theoretical interpretation of its initial concepts and principles. Concepts and statements of the so-called. have only the meaning given to them by the idealized object. This explains why they cannot be directly correlated with real things and processes.

In the original basis of the so-called. also include a certain logic - a set of inference rules and a mathematical apparatus. Of course, in most cases, as the logic of the so-called. the usual classical two-valued logic is used, however, in some theories, for example, in quantum mechanics, sometimes they turn to three-valued or probabilistic logic. so-called. They also differ in the mathematical means used in them. Thus, the basis of the hypothetical-deductive theory includes a set of initial concepts and principles, an idealized object that serves for their theoretical interpretation, and a logical-mathematical apparatus. From this foundation, all other statements of the so-called. - laws of a lesser degree of generality. It is clear that these statements also speak of an idealized object.

The question of whether the so-called. empirical data, the results of observations and experiments, the facts are still open. According to some researchers, the facts discovered thanks to the theory and explained by it should be included in the theory. According to others, the facts and experimental data lie outside the so-called. and the connection between theory and facts is carried out by special rules of empirical interpretation. With the help of such rules, the statements of the theory are translated into empirical language, which makes it possible to test them using empirical research methods.

To the main functions of the so-called. include description, explanation and prediction. so-called. gives a description of a certain area of ​​phenomena, certain objects, k.-l. aspects of reality. Because of this, the so-called. may turn out to be true or false, i.e. describe reality adequately or distortedly. so-called. should explain known facts, pointing out the essential connections that underlie them. Finally, T.n. predicts new, not yet known facts: phenomena, effects, properties of objects, etc. Detection of predicted so-called. facts serves as confirmation of its fruitfulness and truth. The discrepancy between theory and facts or the discovery of internal contradictions in the theory gives impetus to its change - to the refinement of its idealized object, to the revision, refinement, change of its individual provisions, auxiliary hypotheses, etc. In some cases, these discrepancies lead scientists to abandon the theory and replace it with a new theory. About Nikiforov A.L. Philosophy of Science: History and Methodology. M., 1998; Stepan B.C. theoretical knowledge. M., 2000. A.L. Nikiforov

Great Definition

Incomplete definition ↓

The experiment is set up in order to test theoretical predictions.

Theoryis an internally consistent system of knowledge about the partreality (subject of theory). The elements of the theory are logically dependent on each other. Its content is derived according to certain rules from some initial set of judgments and concepts - the basis of the theory.

There are many forms non-empy logical (theoretical) knowledge:

*the laws,

*classifications and typologies,
*models, diagrams,
*hypotheses, etc.

Theory acts as the highest form of scientific knowledge.

Each theory includes the following main components.

1) the original empirical basis (facts, empirical patterns);

2) the basis is the set of primary conditional assumptions (axioms, postulates, hypotheses) that describe the idealized object of the theory;

3) the logic of the theory - the set of rules of inference that are valid within the framework of the theory;

4) the set of statements derived in the theory, which constitute the basic theoretical knowledge.

Idealized object of the theory is a symbolicsymbolic model of a part of reality.Laws formed in theory, in factdescribe not reality, but an idealized object.

By way P buildings are distinguished:

*axiomatic and *hypothetical-deductive theories.

First are built on a system of axioms, necessary and sufficient, unprovable within the theory;

second - on assumptions that have an empirical, inductive basis.

There are theories:

1. high-quality, built without the involvement of a mathematical apparatus;

2. formalized;

3. formal.

to qualitative theories. in psychology include:

A. Maslow's concept of motivation,

The theory of cognitive dissonance L. Festinger,

The ecological concept of perception by J. Gibson, etc.

formalized theories, in the structure of which the mathematical apparatus is used:

is the theory of cognitive balance by D. Homans,

- the theory of intelligence by J. Piaget,

- K. Levin's theory of motivation,

- The theory of personal constructs by J. Kelly.

Formal theory (there are few of them in psychology) is, for example:

D. Rush's stochastic test theory (Sh.T - item choice theory), widely used in scaling the results of psychological and pedagogical testing.

- "Model of a subject with free will" by VL Lefebvre (with certain reservations) can be classified as highly formalized theories.

Distinguish between the empirical basis and the predictive power of a theory . Theory is created not only for , to describe the reality that served as the basis for its construction: the value of a theory lies in what phenomena of reality it can predict and to what extent this forecast will be accurate.

The weakest theoriesad hoc(for this case), allowing to understand only those phenomena and patterns for the explanation of which they were developed.

As a rule, at a certain time there is not one, but two or more theories that equally successfully explain the experimental results (within the limits of experimental error).

The well-known methodologist P. Feyerabend puts forward:

* "principle of perseverance": do not abandon the old theory, ignore even the facts that clearly contradict it.

* The second principle— methodological anarchism:"Science is essentially an anarchist enterprise: theoretical anarchism is more humane and progressive than its law and order alternatives... This is proved both by the analysis of concrete historical events and by the abstract analysis of the relationship between the idea and action.

* The only principle not impeding progress is called "everything is allowed" (anything goes)...

For example, we may use hypotheses that contradict well-supported theories or sound experimental results. It is possible to develop science by acting constructively" [Feyerabend P., 1986].

The experiment is set up in order to test theoretical predictions. Theory is an internally consistent system of knowledge about a part of reality (the subject of the theory). The elements of the theory are logically dependent on each other. Its content is derived according to certain rules from some initial set of judgments and concepts - the basis of the theory.

There are many forms of non-empirical (theoretical) knowledge: laws, classifications and typologies, models, schemes, hypotheses, etc. Theory acts as the highest form of scientific knowledge. Each theory includes the following main components: 1) the original empirical basis (facts, empirical patterns); 2) basis - a set of primary conditional assumptions (axioms, postulates, hypotheses) that describe the idealized object of the theory; 3) the logic of the theory - a set of rules of inference that are valid within the framework of the theory; 4) the set of statements derived in the theory, which constitute the basic theoretical knowledge.

The components of theoretical knowledge have different origins. The empirical foundations of the theory are obtained as a result of the interpretation of experimental and observational data. The rules of inference are not definable within the framework of this theory - they are derivatives of metatheory. Postulates and assumptions are the result of rational processing of products of intuition, not reducible to empirical grounds. Rather, postulates serve to explain the empirical foundations of a theory.

The idealized object of the theory is a sign-symbolic model of a part of reality. The laws formed in theory do not actually describe reality, but an idealized object.

According to the method of construction, axiomatic and hypothetical-deductive theories are distinguished. The first are built on a system of axioms, necessary and sufficient, unprovable within the theory; the second - on assumptions that have an empirical, inductive basis. There are theories: qualitative, built without the involvement of the mathematical apparatus; formalized; formal. Qualitative theories in psychology include the concept of motivation by A. Maslow, the theory of cognitive dissonance by L. Festinger, the ecological concept of perception by J. Gibson, etc. Formalized theories, in the structure of which the mathematical apparatus is used, are the theory of cognitive balance by D. Homans, the theory of intelligence J. Piaget, K. Levin's theory of motivation, J. Kelly's theory of personality constructs. A formal theory (there are few of them in psychology) is, for example, the stochastic theory of the D. Rush test (IRT - item selection theory), which is widely used in scaling the results of psychological and pedagogical testing. "The model of a subject with free will" by V. A. Lefebvre (with certain reservations) can be classified as a highly formalized theory.

A distinction is made between the empirical basis and the predictive power of a theory. A theory is created not only to describe the reality that served as the basis for its construction: the value of a theory lies in what phenomena of reality it can predict and to what extent this forecast will be accurate. Ad hoc theories (for this case) are considered the weakest, allowing to understand only those phenomena and patterns for which they were developed.

Followers of critical rationalism believe that experimental results that contradict the predictions of the theory should lead scientists to abandon it. However, in practice, empirical data that do not correspond to theoretical predictions may encourage theorists to improve the theory - to create "outbuildings". A theory, like a ship, needs “survivability”, therefore, for every counterexample, for every experimental refutation, it must respond by changing its structure, bringing it into line with the facts.

As a rule, at a certain time there is not one, but two or more theories that equally successfully explain the experimental results (within the limits of experimental error). For example, in psychophysics, the theory of the threshold and the theory of sensory continuity exist on an equal footing. In personality psychology, several factor models of personality compete and have empirical evidence (G. Eysenck's model, R. Cattell's model, the "Big Five" model, etc.). In the psychology of memory, the unified memory model and the concept based on the isolation of sensory, short-term and long-term memory, etc., have a similar status.

The well-known methodologist P. Feyerabend puts forward the “principle of perseverance”: do not abandon the old theory, ignore even facts that clearly contradict it. His second principle is that of methodological anarchism: “Science is essentially an anarchist enterprise: theoretical anarchism is more humane and progressive than its alternatives based on law and order ... This is proved both by an analysis of specific historical events and an abstract analysis of the relationship between an idea and action. The only principle that does not hinder progress is called "anything goes"... For example, we can use hypotheses that contradict well-supported theories or sound experimental results. It is possible to develop science by acting constructively” [Feyerabend P., 1986].