Trajan. Marble. Ostia. Museum

Tacitus, a contemporary of Domitian, Nerva and Trajan, writes the following about his generation:

“We have shown a truly great example of patience; and if past generations saw what constitutes unlimited freedom, then we saw an equally unlimited enslavement, for endless persecution deprived us of the opportunity to communicate, express our thoughts and listen to others. And along with the voice, we would also lose memory itself, if it were as much in our power to forget as it is to remain silent. Only now, finally, are we coming to our senses” (Tatz. Agr. 2-3). These meaningful words were written in the years when Trajan became emperor.

Trajan's father, also named Mark Ulpius Trajan, held high military and civil positions under Vespasian: he participated in the Jewish War, then ruled Syria.

Trajan began his activity extremely modestly - a simple legionnaire (see Plin. Pan. 89). Under the command of his father, he took part in the wars with the Jews and Parthians.

In 91, Trajan became consul, and in subsequent years he distinguished himself by commanding troops on the Rhine, for which he received praise from Nerva and the honorary title "Germanic" in 97.

Trajan possessed great physical strength and incredible endurance. He loved to wade through the wilds of the forest, track down and catch forest animals, climb mountains and cliffs, swim and row when the sea is restless (see Plin. Pan. 81).

Having become emperor, Trajan did not lose the endurance of a simple warrior; he had excellent command of weapons and steadfastly endured all the hardships of a camp life; when necessary, he could get by with the uncomplicated food of a warrior - bacon, cottage cheese and a drink called poska (a mixture of water, vinegar and beaten eggs) (AZHA, Adr. X). In the campaign, Trajan always walked ahead of the troops with a wide step (Plin. Pan. 10).

As emperor, Trajan continued to walk around Rome on foot, while his predecessors were usually carried on a stretcher, for they, “as if afraid of equality, lost the ability to use their legs” (Plin. Pan. 24).

Trajan was serious, just, modest and at the same time cheerful; in handling courteous, simple and accessible. He had rare sanity.

Having come to power, he quickly delivered Rome from the scammers that tormented him. All cases on charges of insulting the greatness of the Roman people and the person of the emperor were terminated, and Trajan ordered the scammers to be drowned in the sea. Pliny the Younger spoke of this unprecedented event in Roman history in his eulogy to Trajan:

“We have seen the trial of informers the same as of vagabonds and robbers. You rooted out this internal evil and with prudent severity ensured that the state, built on legality, would not be led astray from the path of laws.

All informers, by your order, were put on hastily put together ships and given to the will of the waves: let them sail, let them flee from the land devastated through their denunciations; and if storms and thunderstorms save someone from the rocks, let them settle on the bare cliffs of the inhospitable coast, and let their life be harsh and full of fears, and let them mourn for the lost security, which is dear to the whole human race ”(Plin. Pan. 34 ). So Trajan dealt with obvious scammers. In Rome there was no prosecutor's office and public prosecutors, criminal cases were initiated by private individuals. Cases of lese majesty were classified as criminal; persons who initiated such cases were considered scammers.

In addition to the obvious ones, there were also secret informers in Rome. Trajan acted no less wisely with them: he simply paralyzed their activity by not reacting in any way to anonymous denunciations.

Pliny the Younger stated with satisfaction that under Trajan “it is not scammers who inspire fear, but laws” (Pliny Pan, 36).

Trajan proved to be a efficient and versatile ruler. He took care of the improvement of roads and harbors, which contributed to the development of trade. On his initiative, the state took care of the upbringing of orphans and children of poor parents. He managed to provide Rome with bread so that she ceased to depend on Egypt, from where bread was usually brought; moreover, when there was a crop failure in Egypt, Rome helped him with bread. With the rulers of the provinces, Trajan maintained a regular correspondence and kept the entire Roman Empire in sight.

The Senate, to whom Trajan showed respect, awarded him the title of "the best emperor."

It is known that Trajan himself once said: “I want to be the kind of emperor I would wish for myself if I were a subject” (Eutrop. VIII, 2).

In 100, Pliny the Younger in his panegyric said the following words:

“Let us in no case give him (Trajan) praise as any god or idol, for we are not talking about a tyrant, but about a citizen, not about a ruler, but about a father. After all, he is from our midst, and nothing distinguishes and exalts him as much as the fact that he himself is aware of himself as one of us and does not forget that he is a man and governs people ”(Plin. Pan. 2).

“We love you as much as you deserve it, and we love you not out of love for you, but out of love for ourselves” (Plin. Pan. 68).

Trajan launched a policy of widespread military aggression, since Rome needed an influx of slaves and material resources. In addition, external enemies sometimes began to behave too independently, and Rome wanted to instill fear in them; Pliny the Younger speaks of this circumstance with regret: “Our enemies became proud, threw off the yoke of subordination and already tried to fight us not for the sake of their liberation, but for the sake of enslaving us, they did not conclude a truce with us otherwise than on equal terms, and, instead of in order to borrow our laws, they imposed theirs on us” (Plin. Pan. 11).

The Dacians (who lived on the territory of modern Romania) acquired special strength; moreover, they tried to enter into negotiations with the Parthians (who lived in Mesopotamia and Persia), who threatened the possessions of Rome in the East.

In 101, Trajan began a war with the Dacians, which in 106 ended with their complete defeat and the transformation of Dacia into a Roman province. In honor of the victories over the Dacians, Trajan was awarded the honorary title "Dacian" in 102.

Trajan celebrated the victory over the Dacians in Rome with magnificent spectacles that lasted 123 days in a row; 10 thousand gladiators fought in the arenas of circuses and amphitheaters and 11 thousand wild animals were killed.

In memory of this significant victory of the Roman arms, Trajan ordered the construction of a new square in Rome, which received his name - Trajan's forum.

It was the most majestic and most luxurious of all the forums of Rome (since the old Republican Forum became small, the emperors began to build their forums next to it, which received their names: Julius Caesar, Augustus, Vespasian, Nerva).

For the construction of the forum of Trajan, it was necessary to tear down to the ground part of the Quirinal Hill.

The Forum of Trajan, in addition to the squares, included a whole complex of luxurious buildings.

In the center of a small square, a marble column has been preserved, which is wrapped in a spiral sculptural relief depicting episodes of the war with the Dacians. The height of the column together with the plinth is 39 m 83 cm. Inside the column there is a staircase made of marble blocks; it has 185 steps and is illuminated by 42 small light holes. On the base of the column there is a solemn inscription: “The Senate and the people of Rome (raised this column) to Emperor Caesar Nerva Trajan Augustus, son of the divine Nerva, Germanic, Dacia, the great pontiff, endowed with the power of the people’s tribune for the 17th time, the emperor for the 6th once, to the consul for the 6th time, to the father of the fatherland, in order to see how high the hill was torn down, in order to make room for the construction of these such significant structures ”(VLE, p. 66).

The Forum of Trajan was opened in January 112.

In the middle of the IV century. Trajan's forum still fully retained its splendor and plunged the emperor Constantius II into amazement, about which Ammianus Marcellinus says this:

“When the emperor came to the forum of Trajan, this is the only building in the world worthy, I believe, of the astonishment of the gods, he was dumbfounded with amazement, looking around at gigantic creations that cannot be described in words and which will never be created again by mortal people. Having no hope of erecting anything like this, Constantius said that he wanted and could only reproduce the horse on which the figure of Trajan flaunts in the middle of the front square. The Persian prince Ormizda, who was standing near the emperor, remarked with wit characteristic of his people: “First order, emperor, to build an equally magnificent stable, if possible; the horse you are about to make must walk as wide a step as the one in front of us. This same Hormizda, when asked if he liked Rome, replied that he did not like only that in Rome, as he was told, people are also mortal ”(Amm. Marts. XVI, 10, 15-16).

In 106, Rome conquered the Nabataean kingdom and turned it into the province of Arabia.

In the autumn of 113, Trajan set out from Rome on a campaign against the Parthians, which in 115 ended with the defeat of Parthia and the capture of its capital, Ctesiphon; Trajan placed his protege on the Parthian throne.

In 114 - 115 years. were annexed to Rome as the provinces of Mesopotamia and Armenia.

On the territory of ancient Artashat, the former capital of Armenia, fragments of a solemn Latin inscription were discovered in 1967, testifying to the construction activity of Trajan. Now this inscription is on display at the History Museum of Armenia in Yerevan.

According to the title of Trajan, it dates from 116. Here is its text:

“Emperor Caesar Nerva Trajan, son of the divine Nerva, Best Augustus, Germanic, Dacian, Parthian, great pontiff, endowed with the power of the people's tribune for the 20th time, emperor for the 13th time, consul for the 6th time; under happy circumstances, the Fourth Scythian Legion was built ”(VLE, p. 181).

This three-line inscription was made in neatly carved large letters on five slabs of local limestone, the total length of which is 8.5 m and the height of the slabs is 80 cm. Perhaps - the arch of the water supply. The power of the Romans in Armenia was very short, and first of all, the Romans usually created practical structures: they laid paved roads (there was such a road in Armenia, a mile pillar with the imperial name was preserved) and built water pipes.

The military successes of the Romans in the East were not lasting. In 115 - 116 years. major unrest began in Babylonia, Mesopotamia, Syria, Palestine, Cyprus, Egypt and Cyrene (in Libya), the Parthians again set in motion.

Prudence forced Trajan to retreat and withdraw his troops.

On the way to Rome in August 117, Trajan died in Cilicia (in Asia Minor).

Trajan's ashes were brought to Rome and buried in a golden urn in the base of a column in the forum named after him. At the top of the column, a statue of the divine Trajan was placed, who forever remained in the memory of his descendants as the best emperor. It became customary, when handing over powers to the new emperor, to wish him to be happier than Augustus and better than Trajan.

In Rome, several triumphal arches were built in honor of Trajan, but they have not survived. The triumphal arch of Trajan has survived to this day in the territory of the ancient city of Beneventa (modern Benevento) in Italy; on it is an inscription made in 114:

"To the emperor Caesar Nerva Trajan the Best Augustus, Germanic, Dacian, son of the divine Nerva, great pontiff, endowed with the power of a people's tribune for the 18th time, emperor for the 7th time, consul for the 6th time, father of the fatherland, the bravest princeps, senate and the Roman people" (LN, 194).

The restoration of the institution of the monarchy, or, to use the Roman terminology, the principate, brought the Empire not only benefits in the form of centralization of power, the elimination of the consequences of the civil war and the restoration of public peace. After the almost perfect reign of Octavian, called the "Golden Age of Augustus", and such a competent administrator as Tiberius, a series of "bad Caesars" followed, whose names became household names - Caligula, Nero, Galba, Otho. Only with the appearance of Vespasian and the Flavian dynasty on the historical stage did the situation begin to improve, and the Antonines, who replaced the Flavians, finally returned the respect of the people of Rome to the title of princeps, the first among equals.

Antique bust of Mark Ulpius Nerva Trajan. From the collection of the Vatican Museums

Adopted by Emperor Nerva and made co-emperor, Trajan learned of his rise to power while at the head of a Roman army stationed at Colonia Claudia Ara Agrippinensium (now Cologne). He is well characterized by the fact that he continued to work to strengthen the Roman border and postponed his arrival in Rome for almost two years - Trajan was a tireless worker.

He was born in Spain in a family of immigrants from Italy who had long settled there; in him and in Hadrian, Roman Spain achieves political hegemony - he was the first of a long line of generals whose provincial origin and upbringing seemed to endow them with a will to live that had long since left the pure-blooded Romans. The fact that Rome and the Senate did not protest against the enthronement of a provincial was in itself the most significant event in Roman history.

Beginning of the reign

Trajan never ceased to be a general. His bearing remained military, his appearance betrayed a commander in him. Tall and strong, he was accustomed to marching on foot at the head of his troops and to crossing in full equipment through hundreds of rivers that he met on the way. His courage was a manifestation of stoic indifference to the choice between life and death. Hearing that Licinius Sura was plotting against him, Trajan went to dine at Sura's house, ate, without hesitation, everything that was served to him there, and asked Sura's barber to shave him.

His mind was clear and direct; in his life, he did not say, perhaps, a single stupidity - and this despite the fact that ancient historians willingly collected unsuccessful statements of princeps in order to convey them to posterity. Trajan was vain, like all people, but completely unassuming; he did not derive any advantage from his own position, joined his friends at the table and on the hunt, drinking with them heartily. The Roman people found him worthy of praise for the fact that he never upset his wife Plotina by having an affair with another woman.

When, in the forty-second year of his life, Trajan appeared in Rome, he was in the prime of life. His modesty, good-heartedness and moderation soon made Trajan the favorite of the people, who remembered the times of the tyranny of the "bad Caesars" only too well. The Roman scientist and writer Pliny the Younger was elected by the Senate to announce a welcoming speech to the new emperor, and the philosopher Dion Chrysostomos delivered a reasoning before Trajan on the topic of the duties of the monarch, imbued with the ideas of Stoic philosophy - “the princeps must not be the master, but the first servant of the state, the executor of the will of the people, elected representatives of the people - senators. Pliny publicly declared, almost republican, "He who rules over all must be elected by all." Trajan listened to him politely, without attempting to object.

Rome was struck primarily by the fact that Trajan fully justified the hopes placed on him. He presented his assistants and commanders with villas that his predecessors used only a few times a year. “He considered nothing his own,” Pliny tells us, “except what his friends could have.” Trajan eschewed the luxury of asking for the opinion of the Senate when it came to current affairs, and found that he could amass near-absolute power in his hands without the arrogant tone of an absolute monarch. It was enough for the emperor to show obligatory respect to the Senate - no one has forgotten the humiliations that this ancient assembly was subjected to under Nero or Caligula. Trajan was a capable and tireless administrator, an excellent financier, and a fair judge. Justinian's digests attribute the famous words to Trajan: "It is better to leave a criminal unpunished than to condemn an ​​innocent."

The Roman Empire under Trajan, stretching from Britain to Mesopotamia

By careful supervision of expenditures (and a few brilliant conquests), he had the means to complete extensive public works without burdening the Romans with new taxes; on the contrary, he lowered taxes and published the state budget for the first time in order to make government revenues and expenditures open to scrutiny and criticism. Trajan demanded from the senators, who enjoyed his friendship, the same meticulousness in carrying out public duties, which he himself showed. Many of the cities of the East managed their finances so badly that they were brought to the brink of bankruptcy, and Trajan sent curators there, among whom was Pliny the Younger, in order to resolve issues with corruption and embezzlement.

War with the Dacians

Trajan served in the army from the age of twenty, participated in many campaigns from Germany to Syria, and therefore was a sincere imperialist who put order above freedom, and power above peace. Less than a year after his entry into Rome, the emperor set off to conquer Dacia. This area, located on the territory of present-day Romania, like a fist crashed into the middle of Germany, and therefore was of great military importance in the coming struggle between the Germans and Italy, which Trajan foresaw. Control of Dacia would have given Rome free rein over the strategically important road that ran from the Sava to the Danube and from there to Byzantium, an invaluable overland route to the East. In addition, there were gold mines in Dacia that should have been seized.

In an excellently planned and swiftly executed campaign, Trajan overcame all obstacles at the head of the army, crushed the resistance of the Dacians on the way to their capital Sarmizegetusa and forced her to capitulate. It should be noted that a peace treaty was concluded between Rome and Dacia even under Domitian, but Trajan did not pay the slightest attention to such nonsense - his mind as a strategist was occupied with one thought: it was necessary to secure the border along the Danube at any cost. Twelve legions plus a number of auxiliary units totaling up to 200 thousand people made a successful march through Dacia, despite the fact that the subjects of the Dacian king Decebalus offered staunch and active resistance.

Bust of King Dacia Decebalus. Forum of Trajan, Rome

An unknown Roman sculptor left us an impressive portrait of Decebalus, whose face is full of nobility, determination and strength. Trajan restored him to the throne as a dependent king and returned to Rome (102), but Decebalus soon broke the agreement and regained his independence. Trajan again led the campaign against Dacia (105), built a bridge across the Danube, which was one of the engineering marvels of his time, and again besieged the Dacian capital. Decebalus died in battle, a strong garrison was left to hold Sarmizegetusa, and Trajan returned to Rome to celebrate his victory there, leading 10,000 gladiators, apparently prisoners of war.

Dacia became a Roman province, received Roman colonists, married their daughters to them, and spoke the tainted Latin that was destined to become the Romanian language in the distant future. The gold mines of Transylvania were now controlled by the imperial procurator and in a short time more than returned what was spent on the war. As a reward for his labors, Trajan brought from Dacia a million Roman pounds of silver and half a million pounds of gold - this was the last significant booty that the legions won for idle Rome. Of these trophies, the emperor allocated 650 denarii each to all those citizens who could qualify for material assistance - there were supposedly about three hundred thousand of them. The remaining booty was enough to overcome the unemployment caused by demobilization through a program of public works, government assistance and architectural improvement, the most ambitious that Italy has seen since Augustus.

Trajan's Bridge over the Danube River, built 105–107 AD (reconstruction of the beginning of the twentieth century)

Trajan improved the ancient aqueducts and built a new one, which is still in operation. In Ostia, he built a spacious harbor, connected by canals with the Tiber and the harbor of Claudius, and decorated it with warehouses, which turned out to be a model not only of beauty, but also of functionality. His engineers repaired old roads, stretched a new one through the Pontine marshes and paved the road between Brundisium and Benevent. Under Trajan, harbors were built in Centumcellae and Anion, an aqueduct was built in Ravenna and an amphitheater in Verona. Trajan provided funds for the construction of new roads, bridges and buildings throughout the Empire. However, he stopped the architectural competition of cities by requiring municipalities to spend their surplus funds on improving the living conditions of the poor. He was always ready to help any city affected by an earthquake, fire or storm, and remained one of the most popular Roman emperors among the people. First of all, Trajan did not spend anything on himself, and such a revealing and quite sincere modesty was sympathetic to all layers of the Romans, from the patricians to the urban plebs.

Battles in the East

If things were quite satisfactory with the security of the borders of the Empire in Europe, then in the East there were still states that could threaten Rome. After several years of peace, when Trajan was engaged in construction and administrative reforms, it became obvious that it was necessary to bring to its logical conclusion the failed undertaking of Antony - to end the Parthian question once and for all, to establish a less vulnerable border in terms of strategy in the east of the Empire, to seize control over trade routes that led through Armenia and Parthia to Central Asia, the Persian Gulf and India. Trajan's inexhaustible energy demanded a way out in a new war - Roman historians note that the emperor was tired of dealing with boring bureaucratic issues in Rome, and a grandiose plan worthy of Alexander the Great was quite feasible: the Empire was at the peak of its power.

After careful preparations, Trajan again led his legions on a campaign (113); a year later he captured Armenia; a year later he passed through Mesopotamia, took Ctesiphon and went to the coast of the Indian Ocean - he turned out to be the first and last Roman commander who stood on this coast. The citizens of Rome learned geography by following the victories of their emperor; The Senate was pleased to receive news almost every week that another eastern state had been conquered or surrendered without a fight: Bosporus, Colchis, Asian Iberia, Asian Albania, Osroene, Messenia, Media, Assyria, Arabia Petrea, and finally, even Parthia!

Parthia, Armenia, Assyria and Mesopotamia were turned into Roman provinces, and the new Alexander crowned himself with glory by placing dependent kings on the throne of ancient enemies of Rome. Being on the shores of the Red Sea, Trajan sadly noticed that he had become too old and was no longer able to repeat the campaign of the Macedonian to Hindustan, no matter how much he wanted to. Trajan was content to build a fleet on the Red Sea to control the sea routes and trade with India. Strong garrisons were left at all strategically important points, and the princeps moved back to Rome.

Alas, like Antony, Trajan went too fast, advanced too far and neglected the most important task - he did not consolidate the results of his grandiose victories and did not secure the rear. On reaching Antioch, he was informed that the Parthian king Chosroes, deposed by the Romans, had raised a new army and regained Central Mesopotamia, that new provinces had revolted, the Jews of Mesopotamia, Egypt and Cyrene had rebelled, and dissatisfaction with the Romans had boiled in Libya, Mauritania and Britain. board. The old warrior wanted to fight again, but he could not defeat old age: dropsy began, a stroke followed, Trajan was paralyzed. Before his death, Trajan instructed the legate Lucius Quintus to suppress the uprising in Mesopotamia, sent Marcius Turbon to stop the rebellion of the Jews in Africa, and appointed his nephew Adrian as commander of the main forces of the Roman army stationed in Syria.

Roman legionnaires depicted on Trajan's Column

The hopelessly ill emperor was taken to the coast of Cilicia, from where he intended to sail to Rome, where the Senate was preparing to honor the emperor with the largest triumph since the time of Augustus. Trajan died in 117 on the road, at Selinus, at the age of 64, after 19 years of one of the most successful and competent reigns in the history of the Roman Empire. His ashes were transported to the capital and buried under a grandiose column, which, according to the will of the princeps, became his tomb and has been adorning Rome in Trajan's forum for almost two thousand years.

The most important stage in the history of Rome is connected with the name of Trajan - it was he who expanded the borders of the Empire to the maximum possible. His successors will no longer lead such grandiose conquests and will go on the defensive. Rome passed the apogee of its power and began to decline ...

Trajan (full name - Mark Ulpius Nerva Trajan) - Roman emperor who ruled from 98 to 117.

Descended from the Antonian dynasty. He entered historiography as one of the "five good emperors" (five Roman emperors, during whose reign the heyday of the empire falls).

Under Trajan, the Roman Empire gained its greatest power and reached its maximum territorial extent under him.

Trajan enjoyed incredible popularity and the support of the people - there were no repressions during his reign. He was not only a wise ruler, but also a great commander.

After the death of Trajan, all subsequent emperors wished to be "kinder than Trajan."

Early years and youth

The future emperor was born in 53. Trajan is the first emperor born not in the capital, like all the rulers of Rome before him, but in Italica Spanish (modern Spain). Trajan's family enjoyed great respect in Rome, his father once glorified the empire on the battlefield and in the Senate.

Military career began in the eighties. First, Trajan was appointed to the honorary position of praetor (86), and a year later he became a legate of the VII Legion "Gemina".

In 89, he first showed himself on the battlefield in the fight against the Roman rebel Saturninus and the Germanic tribes. For the victory of us rebels receives a consulate in 91.

Rise to power

After the assassination of Domitian in 96, a struggle for power began in the country. The pretender to the throne was Nerva (senator and temporary ruler), but he abruptly began to lose the support of the legions, who demanded that someone and a soldier's environment be the emperor.

The first candidate was the governor of the province of Syria, where the largest Roman army was then located, the second was Trajan. Before the Praetorians captured the imperial palace, Nerva managed to appoint Trajan as the next emperor, so he believed that divine inspiration descended on him, although Trajan's real power was then weak compared to another candidate.

Nerva adopted Trajan, which means that the imperial title should rightfully belong to him. When Trajan found out that he had become the head of state, he continued to fight in Germany to strengthen the borders of the empire, and only in 98 he entered Rome, where he almost immediately distributed a small reward to each inhabitant, in honor of his accession to the throne.

Reformation of the army and military successes

First of all, the emperor strengthened his army with two new legions - the II Dauntless Legion of Trajans and the XXX Victorious Ulpiev. Then the total number of legions reached thirty (the maximum figure). A new branch of the army was also created - ali (camel fighters). For the emperor, a new cavalry guard of 500 people was created.

From 101 to 107, Trajan conducts several military campaigns aimed at conquering Dacia, where he wins a brilliant victory, captures huge treasures and new territories with virtually no losses. Then he conducts the so-called Eastern campaign, during which he captures large territories in the Middle East and, according to his information, reaches those lands where Alexander the Great once reached.

Domestic politics

Trajan pursued a very reasonable policy of government. For example, he introduced support for the poor, which only increased his popularity among the common people. The emperor stabilized the supply of grain throughout the empire, because of which there was no famine under him.

The economic successes of Trajan led to the fact that in 106 no one paid taxes - the treasury was overflowing and, on the contrary, Trajan distributed 650 denarii to each taxpayer (legionnaires received half as much). In Rome, during his reign, construction began on a grand scale: bridges, roads, forums, the famous column of Trajan were built.

Personal and physical qualities of Trajan

The emperor was tall and very well built. The ruler was distinguished by ease of communication, often walked around the city without security, could visit any resident of Rome just to say hello. During his reign, he did not kill competitors and did not beat servants, did not harm anyone. Of the bad habits, only an excessive addiction to wine can be noted, but he always kept his mind and did not allow himself anything superfluous.

Death and memory

The emperor died while returning from a successful Eastern campaign in 117. He became seriously ill and died in Cilicia. The people remembered Trajan as a good emperor, he enjoyed great respect in the army. The reign of Trajan is called the greatest time of the empire - the "golden age". His merits really confirm this expression - under him the Roman Empire reached the peak of its power, prosperity and stability in all spheres of life.

Trajan was the first emperor born outside of Rome. His family descended from a group of soldiers, which Scipio in 205 BC. e. moved to Italic Spain.

Father, Mark Ulpius Trajan Sr. (? 30 - up to 100), was supposedly the first in the family who achieved the senatorial class, under Nero. He was born in Spain to Roman settlers. His sister's name was Ulpia, who was the wife of Praetor Publius Aelius Hadrianus Afra (father of the Roman Emperor Hadrian). In 60 he was appointed procurator in Baetica, probably commanded a legion under the command of Corbulo in the early 60s, in 67 he was appointed legate of the legion X Fretensis under the command of the then procurator of Judea Vespasian, from November 70 he served in Cappadocia, in the same year he received a consulate, and from autumn 73 - in Syria, where he prevented an attempted Parthian invasion. In 79/80 he was proconsul of Asia. After his death in the year 100, he was deified, receiving the honorary title " divus Traianus pater».

Trajan's mother was Marcia (33-100), who was the daughter of the Roman senator Quintus Marcius Barea Sura and Antonia Furnilla. Her sister, Marcia Furnilla, was the second wife of Emperor Titus. Marcia's paternal grandfather was Quintus Marcius Barea, who was suffect consul in 26 and twice proconsul of Africa, while her maternal grandfather was Aulus Antonius Rufus, suffect consul in 44 or 45. In 48, Marcia gave birth to Trajan's sister Ulpia Marciana. In honor of Marcia, Trajan founded a colony in North Africa, which was called Colonia Marciana Ulpia Traiana Thamugadi.

Trajan was born on September 15, 53 in the city of Italica, not far from Seville, where the Ulpiev family owned considerable land. Trajan began his service with a coin triumvir in 74 ( triumvir monetalis), responsible for minting currency. Around this time, he married Pompeia Plotina, a native of Nemauz (Narbonne Gaul). In 75 he became a tribune-laticlavius ​​in Syria, and two years later he was transferred to the same position in one of the legions stationed in Germany. In January 81 Trajan became a quaestor, and in 86 a praetor. The following year he was appointed legate of the legion. VII Gemina in Tarraconian Spain and in January 89 he participated in the suppression of the uprising of Saturninus and his German allies the Hutts, for which he received a consulate in 91. Procuratorships later followed in Moesia Inferior and Germania Superior.

Internal struggle for power

After the assassination of Domitian in 97, the aging senator Nerva succeeded to the throne. The discontent in the army and the Praetorian Guard and the weakness of Nerva created the ground for political struggle in the Senate. At the very beginning of the reign of Nerva, the Praetorians achieved the execution of the murderers of Domitian. The Senate began to prepare for the death of the emperor, and Nerva lost a significant part of his powers. As a result, in October 97, an uprising of legionnaires broke out against Nerva, who tried to enthrone a new emperor, already from a soldier's environment. It was then that the real struggle for power began. At this time, two factions formed in the Senate, which tried to elevate their protege to Nerva's successor. One of the candidates Nigrinus Cornelius was the governor of the province of Syria, where one of the most powerful armies in the Roman Empire was located. Another group of senators leaned towards Trajan's candidacy. These senators were probably Sextus Julius Frontinus, Lucius Julius Ursus, Gnaeus Domitius Tullus, Lucius Licinius Sura, and Titus Vestricius Spurianus. In the same year, Trajan was appointed procurator of Germania Superior and Moesia Inferior, in opposition to the possible usurpation of Nigrinus. In this situation, realizing how weak his power was, Nerva (a former lawyer) came up with a system that ensured the prosperity of the Roman Empire over the next century - according to it, the emperor (also called Augustus) had to appoint a successor and co-ruler (called Caesar) during his lifetime . Moreover, the choice of Caesar was to be carried out regardless of kinship, but only according to his personal qualities. In order to consolidate the power of Caesar, he was adopted in August. When the Praetorians captured the imperial palace on the Palatine Hill, Nerva failed to save some of his officials. But he acted wisely, making Trajan his co-ruler and heir (that is, Caesar). According to Pliny's eulogy, this was divine inspiration.

In September 97, Trajan, while in Mogonziak after completing a successful campaign against the Suebi, received news from Hadrian that he had been adopted by Nerva. For the new year 98, Trajan was elected consul along with his de facto co-ruler Nerva. After 27 days, Adrian, who arrived from Rome, informed Trajan, who was in the Colony of Agrippina, about the death of Nerva. Trajan received the title of emperor, and subsequently (October 25) proconsular (proconsulare imperium maius) and tribune (tribunicia potestas) power; in total, he was a tribune 21 times, but he did not return to Rome immediately, deciding to temporarily remain in Germany. There Trajan continued to strengthen the borders between the upper reaches of the Rhine and the Danube. In the spring, Trajan began to inspect the state of affairs on the Danube border, visiting Pannonia and Moesia, which suffered from the invasions of Decebalus, an old enemy of Rome, and returned to Rome only in September of the following year. There he made a triumphant entry into the city. A month later, Trajan held the distribution of the first congiaria - a monetary reward to every citizen in honor of his assumption of office.

Appearance and personality

Trajan was tall and had a good physique. His face was characterized by a concentrated expression of his own dignity, enhanced by premature graying. Here is what Dio Cassius wrote about his habits:

« He stood out among everyone with justice, courage and unpretentious habits ... He did not envy anyone and did not kill anyone, but he respected and exalted all worthy people without exception, without feeling hatred or fear towards them. He did not pay attention to the slanderers and did not give free rein to his anger. He was alien to greed, and he did not commit unjust murders. He spent huge amounts of money both on wars and on peaceful works, and having done a lot of urgently necessary to restore roads, harbors and public buildings, he did not shed anyone's blood in these enterprises ... He was next to people not only at hunting and feasting, but also in their works and intentions… He liked to easily enter the houses of the townspeople, sometimes without guards. He lacked education in the strict sense of the word, but in fact he knew and could do a lot. I know, of course, about his fondness for boys and wine. But if, as a result of his weaknesses, he committed vile or immoral acts, this would cause widespread condemnation. However, it is known that he drank as much as he wanted, but at the same time retained clarity of mind, and in relations with boys he did not harm anyone.».

Here is what Aurelius Victor says in his work "On the Caesars":

Trajan was just, merciful, long-suffering, very faithful to his friends; so, he dedicated a building to his friend Sura: (namely) baths, called Suran. 9 He so trusted the sincerity of the people that, handing, according to custom, to the praetorian prefect named Suburan, the sign of his power - a dagger, he repeatedly reminded him: “I give you this weapon to protect me, if I act correctly, if not, then against me." After all, the one who controls others should not allow even the slightest mistake in himself. Moreover, with his restraint, he softened his inherent addiction to wine, which Nerva also suffered from: he did not allow the execution of orders given after long-drawn-out feasts..

military activity

Trajan made significant changes to the structure of the Roman army as a whole. Were created:

• legions II Traiana Fortis and XXX Ulpia Victrix(both at 105 for the second Dacian campaign, so that the total number of legions reached a maximum of 30 under the Empire);
• aly I Ulpia contariorum miliaria and Ulpia dromedariorum consisting of fighting camels, several units of Romanized Dacians and 6 auxiliary cohorts of Nabataeans;
• new horse guard Equites singulares) with an initial number of 500 people from the inhabitants of Thrace, Pannonia, Dacia and Rezia.

The so-called frumentarii were transformed into a reconnaissance formation based in the Foreign Camp ( Castra peregrinorum). To strengthen the Danube border, the Trajan's Wall was erected. 3 new positions have appeared in the medical service - medicus legionis, medicus cohortis and optio valetudinarii(respectively legion and cohort physician and head of a military hospital).

Dacian campaigns

Already almost from the very beginning of his reign, Trajan, without delay, began to prepare for the Dacian campaign, designed once and for all to avert a serious threat that had long hung over the Danube border. Preparations were carried out for almost a year - new fortresses, bridges and roads were built in the mountainous regions of Moesia, troops called from Germany and the eastern provinces were added to the nine legions standing on the Danube. At the base of the legion VII Claudia Pia Fidelis Vimination assembled a shock fist from 12 legions, 16 al and 62 auxiliary cohorts with a total number of up to 200 thousand people. After that, in March 101, the Roman army, violating the treaty of Domitian and divided into two columns (Trajan himself commanded the western one), crossed the Danube along the pontoon bridge. These forces were opposed by the approximately 160,000-strong (including 20,000 allies - Bastarns, Roxolans and, presumably, Boers) army of Decebalus. The Romans had to fight hard; the aggressor faced a worthy adversary who not only staunchly resisted, but also bravely counterattacked on the Roman side of the Danube.

In Tibiska, the army united again and began to advance towards Tapami. Tapas were located on the outskirts of the capital of Dacia, Sarmizegetuse, where in September a battle took place with the Dacians who put up stubborn resistance.

Rejecting Decebalus' request for peace, Trajan was forced to come to the aid of the attacked fortresses south of the Danube. There he was successful - the procurator of Lower Moesia, Laberius Maxim, captured Decebal's sister, and the trophies captured after the defeat of Fusk were won back without a fight. In February 102, a bloody battle took place near Adamklissi, during which Trajan ordered his own clothes to be torn into bandages. Nearly 4,000 Romans died. In honor of this Pyrrhic victory, monumental monuments, a huge mausoleum, a grave altar with a list of the dead and a small mound were erected in Adamklissi. In the spring, a counteroffensive was launched, but the Romans, with considerable effort, drove the Dacians back into the mountains.

Trajan again rejected the repeated request for peace, and already in the autumn he managed to approach Sarmizegetusa. Trajan agreed to a third attempt to negotiate, since his army by that time was exhausted in battles, but with conditions that were quite harsh for the Dacians. Although in late autumn 102 neither Trajan nor his commanders believed in the successful completion of the struggle. Nevertheless, a triumph was celebrated in December, and in order to be able to quickly transfer reinforcements to Dacia, Trajan ordered his civil engineer Apollodorus to build a grandiose stone bridge across the Danube near the fortress of Drobeta, but due to non-compliance with the contract, its construction was accelerated, and the protection was entrusted to the legion Legion I "Italica" (legio I "Italica").

On June 6, 105, Trajan was forced to start a new campaign, but mobilized smaller forces - 9 legions, 10 horse al, 35 auxiliary cohorts (more than 100 thousand people in total) and two Danube flotillas. At the start of the war, another bridge was built across the Danube to bring the legions to Dacia more quickly. As a result of the fighting, the Romans again penetrated the Oreshtie mountains and stopped at Sarmizegetusa. The attack on the capital Sarmizegetusa took place at the beginning of the summer of 106 with the participation of legions Adiutrix II and IV Flavius ​​Felixus and vexillations from legion VI Ferratus. The Dacians repulsed the first attack, but the Romans destroyed the water supply to take the city faster. Trajan laid siege to the capital that had turned into a fortress. In July, Trajan took her, but in the end the Dacians set fire to her, part of the nobility, in order to avoid capture, committed suicide. The remnants of the troops, together with Decebalus, fled to the mountains, but in September they were overtaken by a Roman cavalry detachment led by Tiberius Claudius. Decebalus committed suicide, and Tiberius, cutting off his head and right hand, sent them to Trajan, who handed them over to Rome. By the end of the summer of 106, Trajan's troops crushed the last pockets of resistance, and Dacia became a Roman province. Not far from Sarmizegetusa, a new capital of Dacia was laid - Colonia Ulpia Traiana Augusta Dacica. Settlers from the empire poured into the newly conquered lands, mainly from its Balkan and generally eastern outskirts. Together with them, new religious cults, customs and language reigned in the new lands. The settlers were attracted by the riches of the beautiful land and, above all, by the gold found in the mountains. According to the late antique author John Lid, who referred to the military physician Trajan Titus Statilius Criton, about 500 thousand prisoners of war were taken.

In the Dacian campaigns, Trajan managed to create a corps of talented commanders, which included Lucius Licinius Sura, Lucius Quiet and Quintus Marcius Turbon. The northern coast of Pontus (Black Sea) fell into the sphere of Roman influence. Control over the Bosporus and political influence on the Iberians were strengthened. The triumph of the emperor took place in 107 and was grandiose. The games lasted 123 days, more than 19,000 gladiators performed at them. The Dacian spoils amounted to five million pounds of gold and ten million of silver. The solemnity of the festival was given by honored guests from India.

Eastern campaign

In the West, the empire reached its natural borders - the Atlantic Ocean, so Trajan shifted the center of gravity of his foreign policy to the East, where rich and strategically important areas, but still undeveloped by Rome, continued to be preserved.

Immediately after the completion of the conquest of Dacia, Trajan annexed the Nabataean kingdom, taking advantage of the strife after the death of its last king, Rabel II. At the end of 106 or at the very beginning of 107, Trajan sent an army led by the Syrian legate Aulus Cornelius Palma Frontonianus, which occupies the capital of Arabia, Petra. Immediately after the annexation, Arabia was organized into a new province called Rocky Arabia. The first governor of the province was Gaius Claudius Severus, who at the same time held the position of commander Legio III Cyrenaica transferred from Egypt. At the beginning of 111, Claudius Severus began construction via Nova Traiana- a road leading from south to north through all of Arabia. This road is still functioning in Jordan. And until now, the admiration of specialists is caused by the fact that it was carried out exactly along the border with the desert, that is, the territory on which, by definition, life could not exist. In fact, this road defined a climatic zone convenient for human habitation and at the same time - the border of the province and the Empire from the east. Trajan decided to make the capital of the new province in Bostra - the city was renamed Nova Traiana Bostra.

Disagreements with the old enemy Parthia in connection with the candidates for the Armenian throne (Parthamasiris was the Parthian protégé, Aksidar the Roman one) became the catalyst for the preparation of the main phase of the campaign, during which springboards for the offensive were won. After unsuccessful negotiations with the Parthian king Khozroy in October 112/113. Trajan left Italy, at the same time reinforcements from the Dacian garrisons were transferred to the East, so that in total 11 legions were aimed against Parthia.

On January 7, 114, Trajan arrived in Antioch to eliminate the unrest that arose after the Parthian raids, and later, through Samosata in the upper reaches of the Euphrates, he went to Satala, the gathering place for the northern group of troops. Rejecting the formal recognition of Roman power by Partamasiris, Trajan quickly occupied the Armenian highlands. In the north, successful negotiations were launched with Colchis, Iberia and Albania, which secured the eastern Black Sea region for the Romans. Having eliminated the Parthian dominion in the south-east of Armenia, the troops gradually occupied Atropatena and Hyrcania. In autumn, all regions of Armenia and part of Cappadocia were united into the province of Armenia.

In 115, Trajan launched an offensive into northwestern Mesopotamia. Local princes, vassals of Khozroy, offered almost no resistance, since he was busy in the eastern part of the kingdom and could not provide them with any help. After the occupation of the main cities - Sintara and Nisibis - at the end of the year, Mesopotamia was also declared a province. Being in Antioch for the second time, on December 13, 115, Trajan miraculously escaped during a devastating earthquake, jumping out of the window of the house and was forced to spend several days in the open at the hippodrome. The heavy destruction of this rear base of the army hampered further action, but in the spring of the following year, the completion of a large fleet on the Euphrates marked the continuation of the campaign.

The armies moved along the Euphrates and the Tigris in two columns, the connection between them was apparently maintained through the old canals restored by Trajan. After the occupation of Babylon, the ships of the Euphrates army were transported overland to the Tigris, where the army united and entered Seleucia. Khozroes was practically unable to cope with internal strife, and the Parthian capital of Ctesiphon was taken without much difficulty, as a result of which the king was forced to flee, but his daughter was captured. Later, Septimius Severus, after his Parthian campaign, humbly asked the Senate to confer on him the title " divi Traiani Parthici abnepos"- "great-great-grandson of the divine Trajan of Parthia."

Trajan achieved unprecedented success: another province, Assyria, was created in the region of Seleucia and Ctesiphon, the Mezen kingdom was taken at the mouth of the Euphrates, and the flotilla went downstream to the Persian Gulf, and Trajan, who was warmly welcomed in the port city of Charax, began to plan further advance to India. According to one of the legends, he went to the sea and, seeing a ship sailing to India, praised Alexander the Great and said: “If I was young, I would definitely go to India”.

provincial politics

Trajan granted Roman citizenship to the inhabitants of several cities in his native Spain. In the process of colonizing Dacia, Trajan resettled a large number of people from the Romanized world, since the indigenous population had significantly thinned out due to the aggressive wars of Decebalus. Trajan paid much attention to the gold mining industry and sent pyrustists skilled in this business to some developments. Already existing Roman centers, such as Petovion in Upper Pannonia or Ratsiaria and Esk in Lower Moesia, were elevated to the rank of colonies, a number of municipalities were formed, old cities, for example, Serdik, were systematically restored.

In the annexed Nabataean kingdom, due to its great strategic importance, no less rapid Romanization began. Just as on the Danube, the construction of roads, fortifications and a surveillance system immediately began. Already under the first procurator, Gaius Claudius Severus, the construction of connecting highways between the Red Sea and Syria began. The road from Akkaba through Petra, Philadelphia and Bostra to Damascus was systematically repaired and guarded, which was a cobblestone pavement seven meters wide and was one of the most important highways in the entire Middle East. In parallel with this highway, a layered surveillance system was built with small fortresses, towers and signal stations. Their task was to control the caravan routes and oases in the frontier zone and to supervise all caravan trade. In the city of Bostra (modern Basra), a Roman legion was stationed, which defended the lands of the new province from attacks by nomads.

uprisings

Despite the colossal successes achieved, as early as 115, sporadic Jewish uprisings began in the rear of the army. Many once again expected the arrival of the messiah, who could exacerbate separatist and fundamentalist sentiments. In Cyrenaica, a certain Andrew Luke defeated the local Greeks and ordered the destruction of the temples of Apollo, Artemis, Demeter, Pluto, Isis and Hekate, Salamis in Cyprus was destroyed by the Jew Artemion, and mass riots broke out between Jews and Greeks in Alexandria. The tombstone of Pompey who took Jerusalem was practically destroyed. The Egyptian procurator Mark Rutilius Lupus could only send a legion ( III Cyrenaica or XXII Deiotariana) to defend Memphis. To restore order in Alexandria, Trajan sent Marcius Turbon with a legion there. VII Claudia and military courts, and for the reconstruction of the destroyed temples, Jewish property had to be confiscated. Lucius Severus landed in Cyprus.

However, in the fall of the following year, the Parthians and Jews launched a large partisan movement that reached Armenia and Northern Mesopotamia, a little later the Greek city of Seleucia fell away from Rome. Unlike other centers of revolt in Mesopotamia, a united front was formed, in the formation of which, perhaps, small Jewish dynasties made a significant contribution, continuing to rule their vassal states within the framework of the Parthian kingdom. Trajan had difficulty in controlling the situation. The tough Lucius Quiet, who commanded the Mauritanian auxiliary formations, was sent to Northern Mesopotamia, the fallen Seleucia and Edessa were taken by storm and burned. For these successful actions, Trajan in 117 appointed Quiet as a Jewish procurator. Quiet was one of the few blacks who managed to make a career in the Roman service.

But on the other front, the Parthians defeated the army of the consul Appius Maximus Santra, several garrisons were destroyed. Trajan tried to install the pro-Roman aristocrat Partamaspatus as king in Ctesiphon, but the part of the troops that was at his disposal had already been transferred to Judea. However, Khozroy's counteroffensive was prevented - the troops of the pro-Parthian Armenian king Sanatruk were defeated, and negotiations were held with Vologez. After the end of the Mesopotamian rebellion, an unknown author wrote the so-called "Book of Elhazai", which stated that the end of the world would come within the next three years.

Domestic politics

Trajan enjoyed immense popularity both among the people and in the highest state circles and, as they said, he was distinguished by great physical strength and endurance. He loved to hunt, swim, row and wade through the wilds of the forest. During his principate, Trajan was consul only 9 times, often giving this position to his friends. During the entire period of the empire, there were only about 12 or 13 private individuals ( privacy), who obtained a triple consulate. Under Trajan, there were three of them: Sextus Julius Frontinus, Titus Vestricius Spurinna (both in 100) and Lucius Licinius Sura (107), and ten of his commanders in the Dacian campaigns and closest friends Lucius Julius Urs Servianus, Laberius Maximus, Quintus Glycius Atilius Agricola, Publius Metilius Sabin Nepos, Sextus Attius Suburan Aemilianus, Titus Julius Candide Marius Celsus, Antius Julius Quadratus, Gaius Sosius Senetion, Aulus Cornelius Palma Frontonianus and Lucius Publius Celsus) were consuls twice. New members of the senate began to be appointed from the eastern provinces, lese-majesty trials were cancelled. To greet his friends, Trajan often visited them on holidays or when they were sick. According to Eutropius, in the end, those around him even began to reproach him that with everyone he behaves like a simple citizen.

Presenting, as usual, the sign of his power - a dagger - to the new praetorian prefect Suburan, Trajan said: “I give you this weapon to protect me if I act correctly, if not, then against me”. It was said that, going on one of the Dacian campaigns, he was stopped by a woman who complained about the unjust condemnation of her son. Then he got off his horse, personally went with the petitioner to court, and only when the case was decided in a way favorable to her, the campaign was continued.

Finance and alimentary system

Trajan continued to develop alimentary system, that is, a system of state support for poor citizens, laid down by his predecessor, Nerva. In the alimentary system, one of the important innovations was the creation, at the expense of taxes and contributions from individuals, of several local alimentary funds, which began to give out monthly allowances to children from poor families (16 sesterces for boys, 12 for girls). A new position of curators was introduced (lat. curatores alimentorum), who, representing Rome, gained financial control in the regions of Italy and the provinces. Juvenal, a contemporary of Trajan, expressed the famous demand of the lower strata - "bread and circuses" - and Trajan really stabilized the supply of Rome with grain, obliging each senator to invest a third of his fortune in farming on Italian lands, and peasants were financed from the alimentary fund at low interest, because for which Italy practically ceased to depend on the Egyptian supply of bread. Poor Italian landowners were able to sell their property at a high price and buy cheap land in the provinces. For the import grain supplies of the empire in Ostia, in addition to the harbor of Claudius, a new, hexagonal harbor was built - Portus Traiani Felicis, controlled Procurator Portus Utriusque(procurator of both harbors), where barges from sailing ships transported cargo up the Tiber to Rome. At such a pier, in principle, the Titanic and even the American aircraft carrier Nimitz could moor without any problems.

Due to the influx of 165 tons of Dacian gold and 331 tons of silver, the price of gold fell by 3-4%, all taxes for 106 were abolished, and each taxpayer received 650 denarii, which was twice the annual salary of a legionnaire. The distribution of wine and oil was added to the traditional distribution of bread in the capital (to which 5,000 needy children were assigned) but the same system was practiced in other areas at the expense of the municipality and private benefactors.

Construction

Trajan's large-scale building program, deployed with funds from victorious campaigns, had a huge impact on the infrastructure of Rome and Italy and made an even greater contribution to the image of the best princeps. Supervised the construction (and designed all the most significant structures) Apollodorus of Damascus - Trajan's companion since the Dacian campaign. Almost all new buildings received a cognomen or nomen of Trajan - the famous column about 40 meters high, a forum, a market near the new forum, a basilica, the so-called "Trophy" ( Tropaeum Traiani), Baths of Trajan, Trajan's aqueduct, road ( via Traiana, which offered an easier route from Brundisium than Appian) and others. In connection with the improvement of the harbor in Ancona, an arch was erected in 114-115 with the inscription "providentissimo principi quod accessum Italiae hoc etiam addito ex pecunia sua portu tutiorem navigantibus reddiderit". In addition to the new forum erected by Trajan in Rome, the famous column in the capital reminds of his reign (in 1587 the figure of the emperor standing on it was replaced by a statue of the Apostle Peter). The entire height of the column is decorated with amazingly fine work of bas-reliefs depicting episodes of the war with the Dacians. Almost as well known is Trajan's triumphal arch at Benevente in southern Italy. But Trajan was especially fond of the harbor he built in Centumcellae. The Danube road began to cross all of Central and Eastern Europe, a large transport artery began to pass from the south of the Black Sea through all of Asia Minor to the Euphrates, and a canal from the Nile to the Red Sea was reopened. This channel has since been called the ditch of Trajan, Fossa Traiana. Also known is the bridge on the Tagus River in Spain, near the present Alcantra. It connects two steep banks, its height from the water surface is more than 70 meters. The arcades of the bridge are made of granite blocks.

Trajan and Christianity

The most striking evidence of the relationship between the Roman state and early Christianity is Trajan's correspondence with Pliny the Younger (Secundus), during the latter's governorship in Bithynia. From the point of view of Roman legislation of that time, early Christian communities (ecclesias) were considered as colleges - associations of persons connected by worship or a common profession. Their activities were regulated by imperial legislation, which required, at a minimum, registration and obtaining permission. The Christian ecclesias of Bithynia, due to the eschatological sentiments then widespread in the proto-Christian environment, refused any interaction with the secular authorities, which led to an investigation.

At the request of Pliny, Trajan replied that anonymous denunciations should not be accepted, however, if affiliation with Christians is proved, a simple renunciation should be demanded, punishing only if it is refused:

You have acted properly, my Secundus, in investigating the cases of those who were denounced to you as Christians. It is impossible in such cases to establish once and for all a definite formula. There is no need to look for them: if they are reported and it is possible to convict them, they must be punished, guided, however, by the fact that repentance removes the guilt from the accused, no matter what suspicions lie on him, if he begins to deny his belonging to Christians, confirming his conviction by deed, that is, by the worship of our gods. Unnamed denunciations should not be taken into account in any accusations. This is a very bad example, it is not necessary to stick to it in our age.

original text(lat.)

Actum quem debuisti, mi Secunde, in excutiendis causis eorum, qui Christiani ad te delati fuerant, secutus es. Neque enim in universum aliquid, quod quasi certam formam habeat, constitui potest. conquirendi non sunt; si deferantur et arguantur, puniendi sunt, ita tamen ut, qui negaverit se Christianum esse idque re ipsa manifestum fecerit, id est supplicando dis nostris, quamvis suspectus in praeteritum, veniam ex paenitentia impetret. Sine auctore vero propositi libelli nullo crimine locum habere debent. Nam et pessimi exempli nec nostri saeculi est.

Pliny the Younger; Letters, 97

There is a legend, first mentioned in a manuscript of the 8th century, according to which Pope Gregory the Great once, passing by the Trajan's Column, was " wounded in the heart with the thought that the most just of rulers is tormented in hell. Gregory indulged in intense prayer, shedding torrents of tears, and in the end was informed by an angel that the pagan Trajan had found salvation. Saint Ignatius is considered the only known holy martyr from the time of Trajan. However, in the Orthodox life of the Holy Hieromartyr Clement, Emperor Trajan is indicated as the direct initiator of the persecution of the Christian community of Chersonesus and the execution of St. Clement around 100 BC.

Age of Trajan

During the siege of the fortress of Hatra in Mesopotamia, Trajan fell ill. Poisoning was suspected. After lifting the siege, the emperor returned to Antioch in the summer of 117. He handed over the leadership of the army and governorship in Syria to his relative Adrian. He already had the experience of a military leader, and Empress Plotina supported his candidacy. In all likelihood, in Antioch, Trajan was partially paralyzed as a result of an apoplexy. And yet he ordered to take himself to the capital. Trajan died on August 9 in the city of Selinus (Cilicia). His ashes were brought to Rome, where with all honors they immured a golden urn in the base of his triumphal column. The memory of the good emperor lived for a long time among the people.

Tacitus defined Trajan's reign as "beatissimum saeculum" - « happiest age"And so he remained in the minds of his contemporaries and descendants, and the Senate wished all subsequent emperors to be "happier than Augustus and better than Trajan" ( Felicior Augusti, Melior Traiani). Here is what Aurelius Victor tells about Trajan's contribution to the development of the empire:

(2) Hardly anyone was found more glorious than him, both in peacetime and in war. 3 Indeed, he was the first and even the only one who led the Roman troops across the Ister and subdued in the land of the Dacians the hat-wearing people and the Sakai with their kings Decebalus and Sardonius, and made Dacia a province; in addition, he stunned all the peoples in the East between the famous rivers Euphrates and Indus with a war, demanded hostages from the king of the Persians named Cosdras and at the same time paved the way through the region of wild tribes, along which it was easy to pass from the Pontic Sea to Gaul. (4) Forts were built in dangerous and necessary places, a bridge was thrown across the Danube, many colonies were brought out. 5 In Rome itself, he maintained and decorated the squares planned by Domitian with more than splendor, showed amazing concern for the uninterrupted supply of food by forming and strengthening the college of bakers; in addition, in order to find out more quickly where what is happening outside the state, public means of communication were made available [to everyone]. 6 However, this rather useful service turned to the detriment of the Roman world due to the greed and audacity of subsequent generations, except that during these years additional troops were brought into Illyria with the assistance of the prefect Anatolia. (7) For in the life of society there is nothing good or bad that could not be turned into its opposite, depending on the mores of the ruler.

Family

After the death of his father, Trajan had no close male relatives. The only distant relative was Adrian's cousin. Trajan's life was closely connected with his wife and relatives. These women played a very important role in the social life of the empire. Trajan was married to Pompey Plotina, who was a distant relative of his. She nursed him on his deathbed. Plotina and the emperor's sister, Ulpia Marciana, were awarded the title of Augusta in 105. And when Marciana died in the same year, she was ranked among the gods, and her daughter Matidia inherited this title from her.

Trajan in culture

Trajan is mentioned in Russian mythology as a deity. Troyan - a name mentioned several times in the Tale of Igor's Campaign, where "vechas (or, according to another reading, battles) of Trojans" appear, " 7th century Trojan"(The activity of Prince Vseslav of Polotsk belongs to him, that is, the XI century)," the land of Trojan” (which cannot be unambiguously localized based on the context) and “Troyan's trail”. As to who the Trojan is, there are many hypotheses of varying degrees of certainty. Some believe that Trojan is the Roman emperor Mark Ulpius Trajan, who fought in the Balkans and is known to the Slavs (or, rather, his mythologized image; Trajan, like many successful emperors, was deified, Trajan's ramparts bearing his name remained in Dacia). " Troyan trail”- this is his military road in the Black Sea region (via Traiani) or a monument erected by him (“tropeum” - a Roman trophy as a sign of the enemy’s flight, tropheum or tropeum Traiani, which has survived to this day), “land of Trojan” - Dacia and, in particular, the area at the mouth of the Danube, where there were clashes between Russia and the Polovtsy, and " centuries of Trojan"are counted from the cessation of contacts between the Slavs and the Romans (IV century) or the number seven is conditionally epic in nature.

According to another version, Troyan is a Slavic pagan deity known from Serbian folklore, or a mythical ancestor of the Slavs; in this case, the land of Troyan is the land of the Slavs, or specifically Russia. A. G. Kuzmin expressed the opinion that Troyan may be the ancestor of the Russian princely house of Rurikovich, and the seventh century is the seventh generation of the family, counting from Troyan, to which the sorcerer prince Vseslav Polotsky belonged.

Another version connects the name of Troyan with Troy and the Slavic versions of ancient legends about the Trojan War (it was followed, in particular, by R. O. Yakobson). Many peoples in the Middle Ages considered themselves descendants of the Trojans, and the Slavs were no exception. The "seventh century" in the understanding of Jacobson, who otherwise divides the text, is not connected with Vseslav, but means the seventh millennium (the old Russian meaning of the word) from the creation of the world, with the seventh century of which, which began in 1092, eschatological expectations were associated, and when the nomads began invade Russia ("the land of Trojan").

There is also an interpretation according to which Troyan is an erroneous reading of the name of Boyan, another mysterious character in the Lay. In South Slavic folklore, Troyan is a demonic hero, a king with goat ears and legs, sometimes three-headed. In the Serbian fairy tale, Troyan has three heads: one head devours people, another cattle, the third fish; apparently, the victims of Troyan symbolize his connection with the space zones, the three kingdoms. In Serbian folklore, King Troyan is a night demon. He visits his beloved at night and leaves her when the horses eat all the food and the roosters crow at dawn. The brother of Troyan's mistress fills the horses with sand instead of oats, pulls out the tongues of the roosters. The Trojan is delayed until dawn, and on the way back it is melted by the sun. Trajan is also mentioned in the Divine Comedy.

primary sources

• Pliny the Younger. "Panegyric". "Letters"
• Dio Cassius. "Roman History", LXVIII, (English text from the Loeb Classical Library)
• Aurelius Victor. "About the Caesars". XIII.
• Pausanias. Description of Hellas. 4.35.2 and 5.12.4.
• Pseudo-Aurelius Victor, Epitome XIII.
• Eutropius. "Breviary from the Foundation of the City", VIII, 2-6

Trajan Mark Ulpiy Nerva (53-117) ruled in 98-117.

The glory of the Roman emperor Trajan, who was born outside of Rome and rarely visited the capital, was brought by his military campaigns. He conquered Dacia - vast mountainous and flat lands north of the Balkan Peninsula, located between the rivers Tisza, Danube, Dniester and Carpathians. He waged a successful war against Parthia, which lay on the lands of the former Mesopotamia. In the era of his reign, the Roman Empire reached the height of its power. Each subsequent emperor wished to be "happier than Augustus and more powerful than Trajan."

He was born far from Rome, in the province of Spain, in a family of immigrants. His father was a commander in the troops of Emperor Vespasian, and then Titus, and became the Roman governor in Syria. Young Trajan followed in his father's footsteps. He began his service as a simple legionnaire, fought wherever the Roman army went.

Trajan was tall, distinguished by great physical strength, endurance and calm character. He did not have a special education, but he was reasonable, tried to be fair, kept himself simple. They noticed a good warrior and an intelligent person and offered him the high position of consul. True, this happened in 91, when he was 38 years old. But already in 96, he became co-ruler of the governor in Upper Germany, and in 97 - co-ruler of the emperor!

It was an extraordinary rise for a man from the provinces who had no connections in Rome. But some political circumstances helped such an amazing ascent.

The aging Emperor Nerva, an excellent lawyer who had no support in the army, understood that the soldiers could throw him off at any moment. And Nerva introduced a new principle of inheritance of power - each emperor must appoint his heir. Play exciting new onlinebaccarat2 in uk. He chose an experienced warrior from the soldiery of Mark Ulpius Trajan, adopted him and made him his co-ruler. The army calmed down.

A year later, Nerva died, and power passed to his heir - Trajan became a full-fledged emperor. He left in place all the functions of the Senate, but obliged the senators to invest a third of their fortune in agriculture. He also appointed people loyal to him to all the most important government posts and continued the policy of alimony - he issued cash loans to small landowners to support agricultural production.

Trajan spent half of his reign in military campaigns and wars. But more than military prowess, he became famous for his modesty and courtesy, treating everyone as equals. According to the custom of that time, he handed the dagger to the prefect of the praetoria with the words: “I am handing you a weapon to protect me, if I act correctly, if not, you can send it against me.”

In 101-102 and 105-106, Trajan fought with the Dacians, as a result of which he captured the vast territory of Dacia, which became an outpost against the invasion of barbarians from the north and east. On the occasion of the acquisition of new provinces, he arranged many days of festivities in Rome, built new terms and plumbing.

In 116, Trajan launched a campaign against Parthia and occupied its capital Ctesiphon, the largest and richest city of that time. But this campaign ended less successfully than the Dacian one. Parthia was too far from Rome, and the Romans could not manage this sprawling territory. The Parthians revolted, followed by Judea.

In August 117, Trajan was returning home and unexpectedly fell ill on the way. He developed paralysis. Many believed that he was poisoned. Such a strong and healthy person could not get sick for no reason. Trajan managed to transfer the leadership of the army to his relative and heir Adrian and died. His ashes were brought to Rome and buried in the base of his Triumphal Column. In the memory of the people, he remained the kindest emperor.