The meaning of the word phonology. Moscow Phonological School

Phonetics- a section of linguistics in which the sound structure of a language is studied, i.e. speech sounds, syllables, stress, intonation. There are three aspects of speech sounds, and they correspond to three sections of phonetics:

Acoustics of speech. She studies the physical signs of speech.
Anthropophonics or physiology of speech. She studies the biological features of speech, i.e. work performed by a person when pronouncing (articulating) or perceiving speech sounds.
Phonology. She studies the sounds of speech as a means of communication, i.e. the function or role of the sounds used in the language.

Phonology is often singled out as a discipline separate from phonetics. In such cases, the first two sections of phonetics (in the broad sense) - the acoustics of speech and the physiology of speech are combined into phonetics (in the narrow sense), which is opposed to phonology.

Acoustics of speech sounds

Speech sounds- These are fluctuations in the air environment caused by the organs of speech. Sounds are divided into tones (musical sounds) and noises (non-musical sounds).

Tone are periodic (rhythmic) vibrations of the vocal cords.

Noise- these are non-periodic (non-rhythmic) vibrations of a sounding body, for example, lips.

Speech sounds vary in pitch, strength, and duration.

Pitch is the number of oscillations per second (hertz). It depends on the length and tension of the vocal cords. Higher sounds have a shorter wavelength. A person can perceive the frequency of vibrations, i.e. pitch in the range of 16 to 20,000 hertz. One hertz is one oscillation per second. Sounds below this range (infrasounds) and above this range (ultrasounds) are not perceived by humans, unlike many animals (cats and dogs perceive up to 40,000 Hz and higher, and bats even up to 90,000 Hz).

The main frequencies of human communication are usually in the range of 500 - 4000 Hz. The vocal cords produce sounds from 40 to 1700 Hz. For example, the bass usually starts at 80 Hz, while the soprano is defined at 1300 Hz. The natural frequency of the tympanic membrane is 1000 Hz. Therefore, the most pleasant sounds for a person - the sound of the sea, forests - have a frequency of about 1000 Hz.

The range of fluctuations in the speech sounds of a man is 100 - 200 Hz, in contrast to women who speak at a frequency of 150 - 300 Hz (since men have an average vocal cords of 23 mm, and women - 18 mm, and the longer the cords, the lower the tone) .

sound power(loudness) depends on the wavelength, i.e. on the amplitude of oscillations (the magnitude of the deviation from the initial position). The oscillation amplitude is created by the pressure of the air jet and the surface of the sounding body.

The strength of sound is measured in decibels. Whisper is defined as 20 - 30 dB, normal speech from 40 to 60 dB, the loudness of a cry reaches 80 - 90 dB. Singers can sing up to 110 - 130 dB. The Guinness Book of Records holds the record for a 14-year-old girl who shouted over a take-off airliner with an engine volume of 125 dB. At a sound level above 130 dB, pain in the ears begins.

Different speech sounds have different strengths. The sound power depends on the resonator (resonator cavity). The smaller its volume, the greater the power. But, for example, in the word “saw” the vowel [and], being unstressed and having generally less power, sounds several decibels stronger than the stressed one [a]. The fact is that higher sounds seem louder, and the sound [and] is higher than [a]. Thus, sounds of the same strength but different pitches are perceived as sounds of different loudness. It should be noted that sound intensity and loudness are not equivalent, since loudness is the perception of sound intensity by the human hearing aid. Its unit of measurement is background equal to decibel.

Sound duration, i.e. oscillation time is measured in milliseconds.

The sound is complex. It consists of a fundamental tone and overtones (resonator tones).

Basic tone- this is the tone generated by the vibrations of the entire physical body.

Overtone- a partial tone generated by the vibrations of the parts (half, quarter, eighth, etc.) of this body. The overtone ("top tone") is always a multiple of the fundamental tone, hence its name. For example, if the fundamental is 30 Hz, then the first overtone will be 60, the second 90, the third 120 Hz, and so on. It is caused by resonance, i.e. the sound of the body when perceiving a sound wave that has the same frequency as the frequency of vibrations of this body. Overtones are usually weak, but are amplified by resonators. The intonation of speech is created by changing the frequency of the fundamental tone, and the timbre is created by changing the frequency of the overtones.

Timbre- this is a kind of coloring of the sound created by overtones. It depends on the ratio of the main tone and overtones. Timbre allows you to distinguish one sound from another, to distinguish the sounds of different faces, male or female speech. The timbre of each person is strictly individual and unique like a fingerprint. Sometimes this fact is used in criminalistics.

formant are overtones, amplified by resonators, that characterize a given sound. Unlike the vocal tone, the formant is formed not in the larynx, but in the resonating cavity. Therefore, it is preserved even in a whisper. In other words, this is the band of sound frequency concentration that receives the greatest amplification due to the influence of the resonators. With the help of formants, we can quantitatively distinguish one sound from another. This role is played by speech formants - the most important in the spectrum of the vowel sound are the first two formants, which are closest in frequency to the fundamental tone. Moreover, each person's voice has its own vocal formants. They are always higher than the first two formants.

The formant characteristic of consonants is very complex and difficult to determine, but vowels can be characterized with sufficient reliability using the first two formants, which correspond approximately to articulatory features (the first formant is the degree of tongue elevation, and the second is the degree of language advancement). Below are tables illustrating the above. It should only be borne in mind that the quantitative data given are approximate, even conditional, since researchers give different data, but the ratio of vowels in case of discrepancy in numbers remains approximately the same for everyone, i.e. the first formant, for example, in the vowel [i] will always be less than in [a], and the second more.

Approximate frequencies of Russian vowels This diagram clearly illustrates the correspondence between the acoustic and articulatory features of vowels: the first formant is a rise, the second is a row.
	2500	2000	1500	1000	500
200	and				at
400		uh	s	about
600
800			a

The frequency characteristics of sounds are mobile, since the formants correspond to the basic lowest tone, and this is also variable. In addition, in live speech, each sound may have several formant characteristics, since the beginning of a sound may differ from the middle and end in formants. It is very difficult for the listener to identify sounds isolated from the flow of speech.

Articulation of speech sounds

Communicating with the help of language, a person pronounces sounds and perceives them. For these purposes, he uses a speech apparatus, which consists of the following components:

organs of speech;
organs of hearing;
organs of vision.

Articulation of speech sounds is the work of the speech organs necessary to pronounce a sound. The organs of speech themselves include:

the brain, which, through the motor center of speech (Broca's area), sends certain impulses through the nervous system to the organs of pronunciation (articulation) of speech;
breathing apparatus (lungs, bronchi, trachea, diaphragm and chest), which creates an air stream that provides the formation of sound vibrations necessary for articulation;
organs of pronunciation (articulation) of speech, which are usually also called organs of speech (in the narrow sense).

The organs of articulation are divided into active and passive. The active organs perform the movements necessary to pronounce the sound, and the passive organs are the fulcrum for the active organ.

Passive Organs- these are teeth, alveoli, hard palate, upper jaw.

cricoid cartilage located below other cartilages. It is narrower in front and wider in the back;
thyroid cartilage, located at the top in front (in men it acts like an Adam's apple, or Adam's apple, because the two plates forming it make an angle of 90 degrees, and in women - 110), closes the cricoid cartilage in front and on the sides;
paired arytenoid cartilage in the form of two triangles located behind the top. They can move and move.

Organs of speech (pronunciation apparatus)

Russian and Latin names of speech organs and their derivatives

Between the arytenoid and thyroid cartilage are mucous folds, which are called vocal cords. They converge and diverge with the help of arytenoid cartilages, forming a glottis of various shapes. During non-verbal breathing and when pronouncing deaf sounds, they are moved apart and relaxed. The gap in this case has the form of a triangle.

A person speaks on the exhale, on the inhale the donkeys only shout: “ia”. Inhalation is also used when yawning.

People with a larynx amputee are also able to speak in the so-called esophageal voice, using the muscle folds in the esophagus as a larynx.

For the formation of sound, the oral (supraglottic) cavity is of great importance, in which noise and resonator tones are formed, which are important for creating a timbre. In this case, the size and shape of the mouth and nose play an important role.

The tongue is a mobile organ that performs two speech functions:

depending on its position, it changes the shape and volume of the resonator;
creates barriers in the pronunciation of consonants.

The lips and tongue also perform the function of creating a barrier.

The soft palate in the raised position closes the entrance to the nasal cavity, while the sounds will not have a nasal overtone. If the soft palate is lowered, then the air stream passes freely through the nose, and as a result, nasal resonance occurs, which is characteristic of nasal vowels, sonants and consonants.

Classification of speech sounds

Each language usually has about 50 speech sounds. They are divided into vowels, consisting of tone, and consonants, formed by noise (or noise + tone). When pronouncing vowels, the air passes freely without obstacles, and when articulating consonants, there is always some kind of barrier and a certain place of formation - focus. The set of vowels in the language is called vocalism, and the set of consonants is called consonantism. As can be seen from their name, vowels are formed with the help of voice, i.e. they are always sonorous.

Vowel classification

Vowels are classified according to the following main articulatory features:

1. Row, i.e. depending on which part of the tongue rises during pronunciation. When the anterior part of the tongue is raised, front vowels (i, e), middle - medium(s), rear - rear vowels (o, u).

2. Rise, i.e. depending on how high the back of the tongue is raised, forming resonator cavities of various sizes. Vowels are distinguished open, or, in other words, wide(a) and closed, i.e narrow(and, y).

In some languages, for example, in it. and French, sounds close in articulation differ only in a slight difference in the rise of the tongue.

3. Labialization those. depending on whether the articulation of sounds is accompanied by rounding of the lips extended forward or not.

Rounded (labial, labialized), eg [⊃], [υ] and unrounded vowels, eg [i], [ε] are distinguished.

4. Nasalization those. depending on whether the veil of the palate is lowered, allowing a stream of air to pass simultaneously through the mouth and nose, or not. Nasal (nasalized) vowels, for example, [õ], [ã], are pronounced with a special “nasal” timbre. Vowels in most languages are non-nasal (formed when the palatal curtain is raised, blocking the path of air through the nose), but in some languages ( French, Polish, Portuguese, Old Church Slavonic), along with non-nasal vowels, nasal vowels are widely used.

5. Longitude. In a number of languages (English, German, Latin, Ancient Greek, Czech, Hungarian, Finnish), with the same or close articulation, vowels form pairs, the members of which are opposed by the duration of pronunciation, i.e. for example, short vowels are distinguished: [a], [i], [⊃], [υ] and long vowels: [a:], [i:], [⊃:], .

In Latin and Ancient Greek, this phenomenon is used in versification: various poetic meters (hexameter, dactyl) are based on the ratio of long and short syllables, which correspond to modern poetic meters, which are based on dynamic stress.

This is clearly seen in the first words of the poem "Aeneid" by Virgil, written in dactyl (six-meter hexameter):

A rma vir um que cano (long syllables highlighted)

A rma v i rumque c a no (dynamic accents highlighted)

6. Diphthongization

In many languages, vowels are divided into monophthongs and diphthongs. A monophthong is an articulatory and acoustically homogeneous vowel.

A diphthong is a complex vowel sound consisting of two sounds pronounced in one syllable. This is a special sound of speech, in which the articulation begins differently than it ends. One element of a diphthong is always stronger than another element. There are two types of diphthongs - descending and ascending.

In a descending diphthong, the first element is strong, and the second is weaker. Such diphthongs are typical for Eng. and German. lang.: time , Zeit.

In an ascending diphthong, the first element is weaker than the second. Such diphthongs are typical for French, Spanish and Italian: pied, bueno, chiaro.

For example, in such proper names as Pierre, Puerto Rico, Bianca.

In Russian lang. no diphthongs. The combination “vowel + th” in the words “paradise”, “tram” cannot be considered diphthongs, since when declining this quasi-diphthong breaks into two syllables, which is impossible for a diphthong: “tram-em, ra-yu”. But in Russian lang. meet diphthongoids.

A diphthongoid is a stressed heterogeneous vowel that has an overtone of another vowel at the beginning or end, articulatory close to the main, stressed one. There are diphthongoids in Russian: the house is pronounced "DuoOoM".

Consonant classification

There are 4 main articulatory signs of consonants.

Sonants in which the voice prevails over the noise (m, n, l, p).
Noisy voices. Noise prevails over the voice (b, c, e, h, g).
Noisy deaf, which are pronounced without a voice (n, f, t, s, w).

2. Method of articulation

The essence of this method is in the nature of overcoming obstacles.

occlusive consonants are formed by a closure that forms a barrier to the air stream. They are divided into three groups:
1. explosive. Their bow ends with an explosion (n, b, t, d, k, d);
2. affricates. Their bow passes into the gap without an explosion (c, h);
3. occlusive nasal ones, in which the bow is without an explosion (m, n).
slotted consonants are formed by the friction of a jet of air passing through a passage narrowed by an obstruction. They are also called fricatives (Latin " frico"- true) or spirants (Latin " spiro"- blowing): (c, f, s, w, x);
closure-slotted, which include the following sonants:
1. lateral(l), in which the bow and gap are preserved (the side of the tongue is lowered);
2. trembling(p), with alternating presence of a link and a gap.

3. Active organ

According to the active organ, consonants are divided into three groups:

Labial two types:
1. labial-labial (bilabial) (p, b, m)
2. labio-dental (v, f)
Lingual consonants, which are divided into front-lingual, middle-lingual and back-lingual;
1. anterior lingual divided into (according to the position of the tip of the tongue):
  - dorsal(Latin dorsum- back): the front of the back of the tongue approaches the upper teeth and the anterior palate (s, d, c, n);
  - apical(lat. areh- apex, tip) alveolar: the tip of the tongue approaches the upper teeth and alveoli (l, eng. [d]);
  - how cuminal(lat. cacumen top), or bifocal, during the articulation of which the tip of the tongue is bent upwards (w, w, h) to the anterior palate, and the back back is raised to the soft palate, i.e. There are two foci of noise generation.
2. although middle language consonants, the middle part of the tongue approaches the hard palate, they are perceived as soft (th); this phenomenon is also called palatalization;
3. back-lingual consonants include (k, h). translingual are divided into three groups:
  - reed (uvular), for example, French [r];
  - pharyngeal (pharyngeal) - Ukrainian (g), German [h];
  - guttural: as separate sounds they are available in Arabic.

4. Passive organ

According to the passive organ, i.e. the place of articulation, there are dental (dental), alveolar, palatal and velar. When the back of the tongue approaches the hard palate, soft sounds are formed (th, le, t, s, etc., i.e. palatal). Velar sounds (k, g) are formed by the convergence of the tongue with the soft palate, which gives the consonant hardness.

Syllable

Syllable- the minimum unit of pronunciation of speech sounds into which you can divide your speech with pauses. The word in speech is divided not into sounds, but into syllables. In speech, it is syllables that are recognized and pronounced. Therefore, with the development of writing among all peoples, syllabic signs first appeared in alphabets, and only then letters reflecting individual sounds.

The division into syllables is based on the difference in sonority between sounds. A sound more sonorous than neighboring sounds is called syllable-forming and forms a syllable.

A syllable usually has a top (core) and a periphery. As a core, i.e. the syllabic sound, as a rule, is a vowel, and the periphery consists of a non-syllabic (non-syllabic) sound or several such sounds, which are usually represented by consonants. But a syllable can consist of only one vowel without periphery, e.g. diphthong in English pronoun I"I" or two or more vowels (Ital. vuoi). Peripheral vowels are non-syllable.

But syllables may not have a vowel, for example, in the patronymic Ivanovna or in the interjections “ks-ks”, “tsss”. Consonants can be syllable-forming if they are sonants or if they are between two consonants. Such syllables are very common in Czech: prst"finger" (cf. Old Russian. finger), trh"market" (cf. Rus. bargain), vlk"wolf", srdce, srbsky, Trnka(famous Czech linguist). In a sentence Vlk prchl skrz tvrz(the wolf ran through the fortress) there is not a single vowel. But in examples from the Czech language, it is clear that the syllable-forming consonant is always sonorant.

The division into syllables is explained by different theories that complement each other.

Sonor theory: in a syllable, the most sonorous sound is syllabic. Therefore, in order of decreasing sonority, syllabic sounds are most often vowels, sonorous voiced consonants, noisy voiced consonants, and sometimes voiceless consonants (shh).

Dynamic theory: syllabic sound - the strongest, most intense.

expiratory theory: a syllable is created by one moment of exhalation, by a push of exhaled air. How many syllables are in a word, so many times the candle flame will flicker when pronouncing the word. But often the flame behaves contrary to the laws of this theory (for example, with a two-syllable "ay" it flickers once).

Types of syllables

open syllable is a syllable ending in a vowel, e.g. yes, ay.

Closed syllable is a syllable ending in a consonant, e.g., hell, mind, cat.

Covered syllable starts with a consonant, e.g. happy, pop.

naked syllable starts with a vowel: ah, he, ah,.

In Russian, there are mostly open syllables, and in Japanese almost all are open (Fu-ji-ya-ma, i-ke-ba-na, sa-mu-rai, ha-ra-ki-ri).

There are also cases of extremely closed and covered syllables, for example, splash, Eng. and fr. strict(strict), German. sprichst(speaking), Georgian - msxverpl(victim).

There are languages where roots and syllables are the same. Such languages are called monosyllabic, for example. whale. lang. - typical monosyllabic.

Often in speech it is very difficult to determine the boundary of a syllable.

Rus. They led by the hand - they took their friends away. They beat the viper - they killed the vipers. Palette - half a liter.

English an ocean - a notion; an aim - a name.

Supersegmental units of language

The sound units of a language can be segmental (linear) and supersegmental.

Segment units- these are sounds (phonemes), syllables, words, etc. Longer language units are divided into shorter segments.

Supersegment units, or else prosodic(from Greek. prosodia- chorus, stress) are layered on a chain of segments - syllables, words, phrases, sentences. Typical supersegmental units are stress and intonation.

Tact- a group of words united by one stress and separated from each other by a pause.

Proclitic- unstressed syllable before stressed, e.g., I d at small.

Enclitic- an unstressed syllable after a stressed one, e.g. zn a Yu I .

Unstressed words often act as enclitics - articles, prepositions, particles. Sometimes they pull the stress on themselves: “p about d hand."

Thus, word and bar boundaries may not match.

stress

Stress (accent) is the selection of a sound, syllable, word, group of words.

The three main types of stress are power, quantitative and musical.

Power (dynamic) stress is related to the amplitude of the vibrations of the sound wave, the larger the amplitude, the stronger the sound is pronounced.
Quantitative (quantitative) stress is associated with the duration, longitude of the sound, the stressed syllable has a longer duration than unstressed syllables.
Musical (polytonic) stress is related to the relative pitch, with the change in this pitch.

Usually in languages with stress, all three stresses are intertwined, but one of them prevails and the main type of stress in a particular language is determined from it.

In Russian, power stress, being the main one, is accompanied by the longitude of the stressed syllable.

Intonation

All prosodic phenomena in syntactic units - phrases and words are called intonation.

Intonation consists of the following 5 elements, the first two of which are the main components of intonation:

melody of speech (voice movement in pitch);
stress;
pause;
speech rate;
voice timbre.

Modifications of sounds in the flow of speech

Combinatorial. Depending on the neighborhood of other sounds.
Positional changes. Associated with position in an unstressed syllable, at the end of a word, etc.

1. Combinatorial sound variation

A. Accommodation

Accommodation is the adaptation of consonant articulation under the influence of vowels and vowels under the influence of consonants.

There are two types of accommodation - progressive and regressive.

Excursion - the beginning of articulation. Recursion is the end of articulation.

progressive accommodation- the recursion of the previous sound affects the excursion of the next one. For example, in Russian, the vowels “a”, “o”, “u” after soft consonants are more advanced (mat - mint, they say - chalk, onion - hatch).

Regressive accommodation- the excursion of the next sound affects the recursion of the previous sound. For example, in Russian, a vowel in the vicinity of “m” or “n” is nasalized (in the word “dom”, the articulation “m” is anticipated by the nasalization of the vowel “o”, and in the word “brother”, “t” is pronounced with a rounding before “u ").

B. Assimilation and its types.

1. Consonant and vocal assimilation

Consonant assimilation- likening a consonant to a consonant, e.g. in the word "boat" the voiced consonant "d" is replaced by the deaf "t" - ("tray").

Vocal assimilation- likening a vowel to a vowel, for example, instead of "it happens" in common speech it is often said "byvat".

2. Progressive and regressive assimilation

progressive assimilation- the previous sound affects the next one. In Russian lang. progressive assimilation is very rare, for example, the dialectal pronunciation of the word "Vanka" as "Vanka". Progressive assimilation is often found in English. ( cats, balls), fr.- subsister, German, Bash. (at + lar = attar) and other languages.

Regressive assimilation- the next sound affects the previous one. It is most typical for the Russian language “boat [tray]”, vodka [votka], “got up at three [fstal f three]”

In eng. " newspaper"[z] under the influence of [p] goes into [s], in fr. absolute[b] - in [p], German. Staub ends with [p].

In bash. "kitep bara" ( leaves) goes into kitebbara.

3. Complete and incomplete assimilation

An example of complete assimilation is the very word "assimilation" [ ad(k) + simil(similar, identical) + atio(suffix) = assimilation)]. A similar example of assimilation is "agglutination" [ ad + glutin(glue) + atio = agglutination].

Rus. sew [shshyt], highest (highest), Eng. cup board“wardrobe”, “buffet” is pronounced [´k∧bed]. German Zimber moved to Zimmer"room", selbst"self" is pronounced.

With incomplete assimilation, the sound loses only part of its features, for example, “where - where”, “here - here”, where the consonants lose the sign of sonority.

4. Distact and contact assimilation

Distact assimilation. One sound affects another at a distance, although they are separated from each other by other sounds.

Rus. hooligan - hooligan (colloquial), eng. foot"leg" - feet"legs", goose"goose" - geese"geese". In Old English lang. fori(plural from fot"leg"), " i» changed the vowel of the root, and then dropped. The same is in it. lang.: Fuss"leg"- Fusse"legs", Gans"goose"- Ganse"geese".

In contact assimilation, the interacting sounds are in direct contact.

Synharmonism

Synharmonism (vowel harmony)- distact progressive assimilation along the series and labialization. The vowels of suffixes and usually non-first syllables of a word are likened by row or roundness (front vowels - front vowels, back vowels - back vowels), i.e. for example, in a simple word there can be only vowels "i", "e" or only "u", "o".

This phenomenon is characteristic, for example, of the languages of the Turkic family of languages (Turkish, Bashkir, Tatar, Uzbek and others), Finno-Ugric languages (Hungarian, Finnish and others), as well as one of the oldest languages - Sumerian.

For example, bala(child) + lar(ending plural) = balalar. Here are all the back vowels: the vowel [a] in bash. lang. closer to the back row.

But for the word "keshe" (man), the ending will not be "lar", but "ler" - kesheler. Letter uh denotes a front vowel [ae].

More examples: hung. levelemben"in my letter" Magyarorszagon"in Hungary", koszonom"thank you" (harmonism by labialization), Fin. talossa- "in the house", tour. evlerinde"in their house." Traces of synharmonism are clearly visible in Russian borrowed from the Turkic languages. words drum, chipmunk, pencil, cockroach and etc.

Synharmonism emphasizes the unity of the word, but leads to some phonetic monotony of words.

Dissimilation

This is the opposite of assimilation. It is a dissimilarity of the articulation of two identical or similar sounds.

February moved to February(cf. English. February, German February, fr. fevrier), corridor - corridor(colloquially), fr. couroir-couloir(Russian couloir), camel - camel- examples of dissimilation dissimilation.

Contact dissimilation observed in words easily[easily], boring[boring].

Metathesis

Metathesis(gr. permutation) - mutual permutation of sounds or syllables within a word.

Word marmor(gr. μαρμαρος) passed into Russian. marble, talerka (German) Teller or Swedish Talrik) - plate, dolon became palm, tvorushka - cheesecake, rigging - rigging, neuro(-pathologist) - nerve. English thridda - third (third), germ. brennen changed to eng. burn (burn), bridd - in bird (bird).

German Brennstein - Bernstein, fr. formatu-fromage.

For example, Soviet President Gorbachev always pronounced Arzebazhan instead of Azerbaijan - it was more convenient for him.

Haplology

Haplology(Greek ´απλοος [ haplos] - simple) - simplification of the word due to dissimilation, in which identical or similar syllables fall out. For example, miner lolo gia - mineralogy, core neno syy - snub-nosed, bli zozo rky - short-sighted, tragi coco media - tragicomedy, sti pepe India - scholarship. But in the very word gap lolo gia - haplology (* haplogy) no.

Eng. miners" rights instead of miners's rights(when the same-sounding formants of the plural and the possessive case coincide, the last formant disappears).

2. Positional changes

A. Reduction

Change (weakening) of consonants and vowels in quality and quantity (longitude) depending on the place in the word, being in unstressed syllables, etc.

Rus. d about m - house a- houses about dstvo. In unstressed syllables, "o" is reduced. The reduction can be complete: Vanya - Van, Ivanovich - Ivanych, Ivanovna - Ivanna.

Eng. nama-name(the second vowel was first reduced partially, and then completely, preserved in the spelling). Good morning - g "morning - morning.

Apocope- falling off of a sound at the end of a word: to - to.

Syncope- falling off of a sound not at the end of a word: Ivanovich - Ivanych.

B. Stun

Voice loss occurs in many languages. This is usually explained by the premature return of the vocal cords to a state of rest, for example, Rus. meadows - meadow[onion], pipe - pipes[dead body].

Prosthesis- the appearance of a sound at the beginning of a word, for example, Rus. eight - eight, mustache (-enitsa) - caterpillar, fatherland - patrimony, Spanish - estudiante from lat. students, estrella from Stella(star), bash. ystakan, yshtan(glass, pants), Hung. asztal(table).

Epenthesis- the appearance of a sound in the middle of a word, for example. Russian Italy[Italy] from Italy, John - Ivan, colloquially - kakava, rubel, spy, bash. and tat. pronunciation "X", "act" as [ikis], [akyt].

epithesis- the appearance of a sound at the end of a word: Rus. song - song.

substitution. Replacing a sound alien to the given language with the sound of the native language, for example, German. Herzog- duke, Hitler- Hitler (sound corresponding to German. " h» not in Russian), eng. meeting- rally (sound " ng» [η] is missing in Russian), instead of fr. the sound represented by the letter u (tu, pure) and German. ü in Russian lang. it is written and pronounced [y].

Diareza(Greek throwaway). Sound omission: Russian. co l no, ser d tse, ches t ny, now t livid; bash. ultyr (sit down) - utyr.

Elision. Loss of the final vowel before the preceding vowel. This phenomenon is especially characteristic of the Romance languages, for example, fr. l "arbre(article le + arbre), D "Artagnan - de Artagnan, D" Arc - de Arc), bash. ni ashley - nishley.

Phonology

Phonology studies the social, functional side of speech sounds. Sounds are considered not as a physical (acoustics), not as a biological (articulation) phenomenon, but as a means of communication and as an element of the language system.

Phoneme

The basic concept in phonology is phoneme. The term "phoneme" was introduced into linguistics by the great Russian-Polish linguist, a descendant of French nobles, Ivan (Jan) Alexandrovich Baudouin de Courtenay (1845 - 1929), the founder of the Kazan School of Linguistics. He considered the phoneme to be a mental variant of the sounds of a language.

Phoneme- this is a sound type, a generalized, ideal idea of sound. A phoneme cannot be pronounced, only shades of phonemes are pronounced. The phoneme is the general, the actually pronounced sound is the particular.

In speech, sounds undergo various changes. There are a huge number of physical sounds that make up speech. How many people, so many sounds, for example, [a] can be pronounced differently in height, strength, duration, timbre, but all the different millions of sounds [a] are denoted by one letter, reflecting one sound type, one phoneme. Of course, phonemes and letters of the alphabet often do not coincide, but a parallel can be drawn between them. The number of both is strictly limited, and in some languages it almost coincides. A phoneme can be roughly described as a letter of the sound alphabet. If in the flow of speech of thousands of different sounds it is possible to distinguish different words, it is only thanks to phonemes.

Therefore, the phoneme is the minimum sound unit of the language system, which makes it possible to distinguish between words and the meaning of words.

In the word "milk" one phoneme /o/ is represented by three positional variants - stressed and two unstressed.

Thus, the phoneme is an abstraction, a type, a model of sound, and not the sound itself. Therefore, the concepts of "phoneme" and "speech sound" do not coincide.

In the word " boy» two phonemes, not three, as it is different from words by, be, bee, bar etc.

There are also cases when two phonemes sound like one sound. For example, in the word "children's" /t/ and /s/ sound like one sound [ts], and in the word "sew" /s/ and /sh/ sound like a long [sh].

Each phoneme is a set of essential features by which it differs from other phonemes. For example, /t/ is voiceless as opposed to voiced /d/, anterior lingual as opposed to /p/, plosive as opposed to /s/, etc.

The signs by which a phoneme differs from others are called differential (distinctive) features.

For example, in Russian lang. the word "there" can be pronounced with a short [a] and a long [a:], but the meaning of the word will not change from this. Consequently, in Russian these are not two phonemes, but two variants of one phoneme. But in eng. and German. lang. phonemes also differ in longitude (eng. bit and bee, German Bann and Bahn). In Russian lang. the sign of nasalization cannot be a differential sign, since all Russian vowel phonemes are non-nasal.

Common features that cannot be used to distinguish between phonemes are called integral features. For example, the sign of voicedness y [b] is not a distinctive (differential), but an integral sign in relation to [x]. The phoneme is realized as one of the possible variants. These phonetic variants of a phoneme are called allophones. Sometimes the terms " shade"(Russian linguist Lev Shcherba) or" divergent"(Baudouin de Courtenay).

Strong position phonemes are positions where phonemes clearly reveal their properties: catfish, myself.

Weak position- this is the position of phoneme neutralization, where phonemes do not perform distinctive functions: with about ma, s a ma; n about ha, n a ha; ro to, ro G; ro t, ro d .

Phoneme neutralization- this is the coincidence of different phonemes in one allophone.

One and the same phoneme can change its sound, but only within limits that do not affect its distinctive features. No matter how much birch trees differ from each other, they cannot be confused with oak.

Phonetic variants of phonemes are mandatory for all native speakers. If a man pronounces a sound in a low voice and at the same time lisps, and a girl in a high voice and at the same time burrs, then these sounds will not be phonetic, obligatory variants of phonemes. This is a random, individual, speech, not a linguistic variation.

Distribution

To identify the phonemes of a particular language, it is necessary to know in what positions they occur. Distribution - the distribution of phonemes by pronunciation positions.

1. Contrasting distribution

Two sounds meet in the same environment and thus distinguish words. In this case, they are representatives of different phonemes.

For example, from a series of words “tom, house, lump, scrap, rum, catfish” it is clear that in Russian. lang. there are phonemes /t/, /d/, /k/, /l/, /m/, /s/, since in the same environment [ ohm] they allow different words to be distinguished.

2. Additional distribution

Two sounds never meet in the same environment and the meaning of the words is not distinguished.

They are variants, allophones of the same phoneme.

For example, the vowel phoneme /е/ in Russian can have different allophones depending on different environments.

In the word "seven" [e] appears as the most closed allophone (after a soft and before a soft consonant)

In the word "sat" [e] appears as a less closed allophone (after a soft and before a hard consonant).

In the word "six" [e] appears as a more open allophone (after a hard and before a soft consonant).

In the word "pole" [e] appears as the most open allophone (after a solid and before a solid consonant).

In Russian, [ы] is considered a variant of the phoneme /i/ in a position after solid consonants. For example, to be - beat. Therefore, despite the visually identical environment, here we have different environments [bit´] - [b´it´]

In Japanese, the phoneme /r/ is pronounced as the middle between [r] and [l], and these sounds are allophones of the same phoneme.

3. Free variation (alternation)

Sounds occur in the same environments and do not distinguish between words and meanings. These are variants of the same language unit.

For example, in fr. lang. there are two variants of /r/ - front-lingual (vibrating) as in Russian and uvular (grassing). The last option is normative, but the first is quite acceptable. In Russian, both options are equal - “land” and “land”.

Phonological schools. Trubetskoy's phonology

On the issue of the neutralization of phonemes in words like "meadow", there are different points of view regarding the phoneme, denoted by the letter "g", but reflecting the voiceless sound [k].

Linguists related to Leningrad school(Lev Vladimirovich Shcherba and others) believe that in the pair "meadow - meadows" the sounds [k] and [g] refer to two different phonemes /k/ and /g/.

However, linguists Moscow school(Avanesov, Reformatsky, etc.), based on the morphological principle, they believe that in the word "meadow" the sound [k] is a variant of the phoneme /g/. They also believe that for the variants [k] and [g] in the words "lug-luga" there is a common phoneme / q/g/, which they called the hyperphoneme.

Hyperphoneme combines all the signs of sounds [k] and [g] - velarity, explosiveness, deafness, sonority, etc. The same hyperphoneme / a/o/ is present in unstressed first vowels in the words "b a ran", "m about l about ko".

The outstanding Russian linguist Nikolai Sergeevich Trubetskoy (1890-1938), one of the theorists of the Prague Linguistic Circle (scientific school), which he joined in exile after the 1917 revolution, believed that in this case there is a special phoneme, which he called the archiphoneme.

archiphoneme is a set of common features of neutralizing phonemes.

For example, the archphoneme / q/g/ combines the common features of the neutralizing phonemes /k/ and /r/ without the voicing separating them.

If an archphoneme is a unit with an incomplete set of features, then a hyperphoneme is a double or even triple set of features. In his classic work "Fundamentals of Phonology" N.S. Trubetskoy also gave a classification of phonological oppositions, i.e. contrasting phonemes in order to identify similarities and differences.

1. Privat oppositions

Private (lat. privo- deprive) oppositions are distinguished by the presence or absence of any feature in a pair of phonemes, for example, in one of the members of the pair b/n there is no sonority, but the other has it.

2. Gradual oppositions

Gradual (lat. degrees- degree) of the opposition are distinguished according to the different degree of the sign that the members of the opposition have.

For example, /e/ and /and/ in Russian. lang. in particular, they differ in varying degrees of elevation of the tongue during articulation.

In English the opposition involves three vowels with varying degrees of openness: /i/, /e/, /ae/.

3. Equivalent oppositions

All members of the opposition are equal; their signs are so heterogeneous that there is no basis for opposing signs.

For example, consonants /b/, /d/, /g/ are articulated in completely different ways: one is labial, the other is anterior lingual, the third is posterior lingual, and they are united only by the fact that they are consonants.

Phoneme systems

Each language has its own system of phonemes (phonological system).

Phonological systems differ from each other:

number of phonemes.
The ratio of vowels and consonant phonemes.
Phonological oppositions.

In different languages, there are organization of phonemic groups (phonological oppositions) characteristic of their systems.

For example, in Russian lang. phonemically contrasting hard and soft consonants., in French - nasal and non-nasal consonants, in Eng. and German. languages - long and short vowels.

Correlation of vowels and consonant phonemes in some languages

Language	Number of phonemes	Number of vowels	Number of consonants
Russian	43	6	37
English	44	12 + 8 dift.	24
Deutsch	42	15 + 3 dift.	24
French	35	15	20
Bashkir	35	9	26
Tatar	34	9	25
Spanish	44	5 + 14 dift.; 4 trif.	21
Italian	32	7	24
Finnish	21	8	13
Abkhazian	68	2 (a, s) + 8 dift.	58
Ubykh (Turkey)	82	2 (a, s)	80
Quechua (Peru)	31	3 (a, i, y)	28
Hawaiian	13	5	8
Tahitian	14	6	8
Rotokas (Papua)	11	5	6 (g, k, p, r, t, v)

In some works, you can find numbers that differ from those given below, as researchers proceed from different criteria for determining and counting phonemes (for example, include borrowed phonemes or exclude diphthongs, etc.).

If we take into account the implementation of phonemes in speech (all phonetic variants), then the ratio of vowels and consonants in each language will be different than in the table, for example, in English. 38% - 62%, in it. lang. 36% - 64%, in French 44% - 56%.

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) consider these two disciplines as non-overlapping branches of linguistics.

The difference between phonology and phonetics is that the subject of phonetics is not limited to the functional aspect of speech sounds, but also covers its substantial aspect, namely: physical and biological (physiological) aspects: articulation, acoustic properties of sounds, their perception by the listener ( perceptual phonetics).

The creator of modern phonology is considered to be Ivan (Jan) Aleksandrovich Baudouin de Courtenay, a scientist of Polish origin who also worked in Russia. Outstanding contributions to the development of phonology were also made by Nikolai Sergeevich Trubetskoy, Roman Osipovich Yakobson, Lev Vladimirovich Shcherba, Noam Khomsky, Morris Halle.

The most important concepts of phonology

Phonemes, allophones and oppositions

The basic concept of phonology is phoneme, the minimum linguistic unit, which primarily has a semantic-distinctive function. The manifestation of a phoneme in speech is a background, a specific segment of sounding speech that has certain acoustic properties. The number of backgrounds is potentially infinite, but in each language they are distributed among different phonemes depending on the structure of each phonological set. Phones that belong to the same phoneme are called allophones.

The key role in phonology is also played by the concept opposition(opposition). Two units are considered opposed if there are so-called minimum pairs, that is, pairs of words that do not differ in anything other than these two units (for example, in Russian: tom - house - com - rum - catfish - nom - scrap). If two given backgrounds enter into such an opposition, they refer to different phonemes. On the contrary, if two backgrounds are in additional distribution, that is, they do not occur in the same context - this is a necessary (but not sufficient) condition for assigning them to the same phoneme. So, in Russian they never occur in the same context [a] (as in the word mat) and [а̂] (as in the word crush): the first sound is pronounced only between hard consonants (and / or vowels), the second - only between two soft consonants. Thus, they can refer to the same phoneme (provided other necessary conditions are met). On the contrary, in German, similar sounds are the only word distinguishers: Ähre - [’ὲ: rә] ( ear) and Ehre - [’e:rә] ( honour), and therefore they refer to different phonemes.

Distinguishing features

Each corresponding member of any opposition differs from another due to various phonological features. So, the initial sound of the word house different from the initial sound of the word volume the fact that his voice is involved in his education, that is, he is voiced. Similarly, the last sound of a word moss different from the last sound of the word mok(from get wet) by the fact that the first is slotted, and the second is explosive. All linguistic oppositions can be represented in this way: of course, there are oppositions whose members differ in more than one feature: cf. about in ate - about h ate .

The signs by which the backgrounds of different phonemes are contrasted in a given language are called distinctive, or differential. The set of distinguishing features depends on the structure of the phonological system of a given language. So, in English or Thai, the distinguishing feature is the presence of aspiration in consonants: the first sounds of English. pin and bin differ precisely in the presence or absence of aspiration. On the contrary, in Russian or Italian, aspiration is not a distinguishing feature: if you pronounce the Russian word drank breathed after the first consonant, its meaning will not change. On the contrary, in Russian or Irish, hard (non-palatalized) and soft (palatalized) consonants are contrasted, cf. Russian ox - led. By contrast, in English velarized and non-velarized [l] are allophones: pill pronounced with velarized [ɫ], and lip- with the usual [l] (the distribution depends on the position of the sound in the syllable).

Types of oppositions

Phonological typology

For more on phonological typology, see Vocal systems, Consonant systems

The tasks of phonology, in addition to particular language descriptions, include the description of various systems of vowel and consonant phonemes. The structure of these systems is determined by the set and type of oppositions that form these systems, which, in turn, requires a preliminary selection of a set of phonological features relevant for a given language and the assignment of these features to each phoneme: even for structurally and genetically similar languages, sometimes different decisions need to be made. For example, in some dialects of the Irish language, voiceless aspirated and voiced non-aspirated consonants are contrasted, and the sign of deafness-voicedness is meaningful, and aspiration is predictable. On the contrary, in other dialects, voicedness has no phonological meaning, automatically accompanying the distinctive unbreathing. At the same time, it is significant that in both dialects fricatives are opposed in terms of sonority-deafness; accordingly, the structure of the consonantal system as a whole in these two groups of dialects differs very strongly.

In the typology of vocal systems, a division into very rare linear (Abkhazian, Aranda), rectangular and triangular systems is accepted. In triangular systems (characteristic, for example, for most European languages or Bantu languages), the most important paradigmatic relationship is the opposition in rise, vowel phonemes are concentrated at the "extreme points" of the vocal triangle (vowels of the central series are rare). In rectangular systems (often associated with the development of vowel harmony), the opposition of the row, but also the rise, is very significant; for such languages, alternations associated precisely with the row are very characteristic (as, for example, Turkic vowel harmony).

Universal phonological classifications

In the work of Trubetskoy, among other things, the calculus of distinctive features found in various vocal and consonantal systems was proposed. However, he did not make a clear distinction between features associated with articulatory properties (e.g. "place of formation") and acoustic features such as "clouding correlation" (roughly corresponds to tense-relaxed vowels). In the work of R. O. Jacobson, M. Halle and G. Fant, a universal classification of segments was proposed according to distinctive features associated with acoustic characteristics of the speech signal. Later, the universal phonological classification of Chomsky-Halle, proposed in the work of N. Chomsky and M. Halle, based rather on the articulatory features of the segments, became widespread. In some modern theories the concept of a feature plays an even greater role than the concept of a phoneme itself; sometimes other units take the place of traditional signs, such as articulatory gesture. There are also theories that consider segments not just as bundles, but as hierarchically organized sets of features, which makes it possible to limit the set of possible operations on segments.

Development of phonology

Baudouin de Courtenay

Fundamentals of Phonology and the Prague Circle

American structuralism

The criteria used by Trubetskoy were very close to the distribution-based methods that were being actively developed at that time in American descriptivism, in the works of Leonard Bloomfield, Morris Swadesh and others. Edward Sapir was partly close to the structuralists in his views. In particular, in the well-known work “Sound patterns in language”, he emphasized that the linguistic significance of articulatory events is due not to their physical nature, but to how they relate to other events in the system of a given language: for example, the sound produced when a candle is blown out with acoustically similar to the sound that appears in a number of varieties of English in words which or white([ʍ] ), but their linguistic significance is completely different.

In American structuralist phonology, the notion of two levels of representation has been developed. These two levels were introduced for the analysis of facts, like the stunning of final voiced in languages such as German or Russian. Thus, for Trubetskoy, the sound sequence was analyzed in phonological terms as /raT/, with an archiphoneme (a unit with an incomplete set of feature specifications) in the final position (where neutralization took place). The phonological representation /raT/ in this case correlates with two lexical units, orthographically Rad"wheel" and Rat"advice". In the procedural interpretation proposed by the American structuralists, these two units have a different phonemic composition, /rad/ and /rat/, respectively (cf. the genitive case forms rates and Rades); a rule is postulated that translates /d/ into /t/ at the end of a word. Moreover, in the early versions of American structuralism, the number of levels does not exceed two, even if this requires extremely non-trivial rules for the transition between them.

European schools of structuralism

The use of purely formal, distributive criteria was most widely used in the original concept of scientists working in Denmark, primarily L. Elmslev, called glossematics. In the field of the study of sound systems, Hjelmslev insisted, in particular, on the division of substance (purely formal relations between linguistic units that create significance) and form (those features of linguistic units that are related to the physical properties of their manifestations).

The original concept of the phonological structure of languages was also proposed by the British researcher J. R. Furse and his London school of structuralism. In Furse's model, the concept of prosody played a significant role, understood as a meaningful unit that covers more than one segment (background); thus, the role of classical phonemic analysis was reduced and at the same time a fairly simple analysis of such phenomena as, for example, assimilation was given.

The ideas of structuralism also developed in the USSR, in particular, within the framework of the Moscow (R.I. Avanesov) and Leningrad (L.V. Shcherba) phonological schools.

Universal classifications and generative phonology

Significant progress in the development of instrumental phonetics has led to the fact that many generalizations regarding the sound structure of the languages of the world have received a solid phonetic basis. The first significant work, where the goal was to create a universal classification of possible sounds of natural language, was the book by R. O. Jacobson, Gunnar Fant and Morris Halle "Preliminaries of speech analysis". In this work, an attempt is made to present a universal classification of distinctive segments based on their acoustic correlates.

The development of generative phonology is usually associated with the work of Morris Halle "The Sound System of the Russian Language". Halle noted that many phenomena, which are very similar from a phonetic point of view, are described in completely different ways within the framework of traditional phonological models. As an example, he cited assimilation by voicing (sandhi in Russian): in the traditional description, voicing in the syntagma (corresponds to spelling I could) can be described as an alternation of two phonemes (since /k/ and /g/ in Russian are undoubtedly different phonemes, cf. bark and mountain). At the same time, a completely analogous process of voicing in the syntagma [ʒe dʒ bɨ] (to burn) is described in other terms (of allophonic variation). Halle argued that a description in terms of a universal classification of sounds (according to which the voiced feature is distinctive for both /g/ and /dʒ/ ) is more adequate to the actual functioning of the language system.

The most significant contribution to the approval of generative phonology was made by the work of N. Chomsky and M. Halle "The Sound Pattern of English" ("The Sound Pattern of English", SPE). It was the first to formulate the provisions that the grammar of a language (its phonological aspect) is a set of sounds / segments and rules for their transformation (phonological rules). Rules can be applied either randomly or in a specific order. The concept of phoneme, allophone and syllable were excluded from the terminological arsenal. According to the principles of SPE, a segment undergoes transformation in a certain environment; moreover, the latter can be characterized as a segment with certain characteristics, or as a sequence of a certain number of segments. The system for representing phonological rules includes a set of differential features that have the meaning "+/-". Only the most significant features are used in the rule representation formula. For example, the stunning of voiced consonants at the end of a word in Russian in the system of rules of generative phonology is written as

Consonant-sonor

In most cases, the order in which the rules are applied turns out to be a necessary condition for an adequate description of phonological transformations. Some rules can be applied several times (cyclically) at different stages of morpholonic derivation. Thus, the rule of removing supershort (ь, ъ) in Russian is applied each time when morphemes containing these segments are added to the stem. The provisions of the SPE on cyclicity in the process of derivation were further developed in the theory of lexical phonology (P. Kiparsky, G. E. Bui, E. Rubakh). Another direction in the development of generative phonology was autosegment phonology (J. Goldsmith) and the theory of feature geometry (J. Clements).

Modern phonological theories

Leningrad Phonological School

Our phonemes of speech perception turn out to be identical to the concept of phonemes developed by the Leningrad Phonological School (LPS). (Please allow me not to rename it to St. Petersburg. Not at all out of special love for Comrade V.I. Lenin, but because it was formed under this very name). The founder of this school, Academician Lev Vladimirovich Shcherba, worked in the first half of the 20th century in St. Petersburg - Petrograd - Leningrad. He and his students focused on the task of teaching foreign languages, setting the correct pronunciation. Most foreign language textbooks in their phonetic part use the concepts and terminology developed by Shcherba. Shcherba's phonological theory itself was best presented in his textbook Phonetics of the French Language. In the future, these same concepts were supported by researchers involved in the instrumental study of sound speech and the design of automatic speech recognition systems.

Moscow Phonological School

The concept of speech production phonemes turns out to coincide with the phonological system according to the theory of the Moscow Phonological School (MPS). A prominent representative of this school is Alexander Alexandrovich Reformatsky. The main works in which the views of this trend are formulated are devoted to the description of the native (Russian) language. Initially, each phonological school considered its constructions as the only true doctrine of the sound structure of the language. In the course of time, however, mainly in the depths of the Moscow school, the tendency to discuss problems in a comprehensive manner and to synthesize phonological theories prevailed. Ruben Ivanovich Avanesov, one of the IDF founders, made the first attempt at such a synthesis. He put forward the concept of “weak phonemes”, which, along with “strong” ones, are part of linguistic signs. If the phoneme of speech perception is a set of indistinguishable sounds determined by the position in speech, the phoneme of speech production is a program for choosing one or another sound depending on the position, then Avanesov’s weak phoneme is a set of differential features (those and only those) that must be specified for definition of sound in this position. From the point of view of the structure of the linguistic mechanism, Avanesov's phonemes really occupy an intermediate position between the phonemes of speech production and speech perception. They are associated with commands to the executive organs of speech, developed by programs for the implementation of signs in order to create one or another acoustic effect corresponding to the required phoneme of speech perception.

Prague Phonological School

Another phonological theory, intermediate between the theories of LPS and MPS, was developed by the so-called Prague Phonological School (PPS), which arose in Prague simultaneously with MPS and LPS by the works of Russian linguists who emigrated from the revolution. It was this school that became most famous in the West, and its most prominent representative, Nikolai Sergeevich Trubetskoy, is considered the founder and classic of world phonology. Similarly to Avanesov, Trubetskoy distinguishes two types of sound units in the composition of a word - phonemes and archiphonemes. Archphonemes appear in those cases when the conditions of the speech chain do not make it possible to recognize which particular phoneme of speech production was the basis for the appearance of a given sound. The concept of an archphoneme essentially coincides with the concept of Avanesov's weak phoneme. Another interpretation of the phenomenon of neutralization of phoneme differences in the speech chain was given by the Moscow phonologist Pyotr Savich Kuznetsov in the concept of hyperphoneme. A hyperphoneme is the set of all phonemes that can give a given sound. From the point of view of the structure of the language mechanism, such a unit corresponds to the development of a system of hypotheses regarding the comparison of the chain of phonemes of speech perception perceived by hearing with one or another sign (word) represented in memory by a chain of phonemes of speech production.

American phonology

In the same years, at the beginning of the 20th century, a school of descriptive phonology developed in the United States, which solved the problem of describing the languages of the American Indians. Their concept was close to the views of the Leningrad phonological school. In particular, the American dicryptivists most clearly formulated the procedure for dividing the speech stream into phonemes of speech perception. In the post-war years, under the influence of the advances in computer technology, American linguists for the first time directly raised the question of the technical modeling of language ability. The pioneer of these works was also a native of Russia (or rather from Poland) Naum Chomsky (Americans pronounce this name as Noum Chomsky). His work founded the direction called generative linguistics. Its task was set as the task of constructing a formal model (automaton) for the production (generation) of correct statements in a particular language. The phonological part of the generative theory arose thanks to the work of another Russian, Roman Osipovich Yakobson, who, in connection with the Second World War, emigrated from Prague (where he was a prominent member of the Prague School) to America. Describing the generation (production) of speech, generative phonology naturally came to a concept close to the Moscow phonological school. True, it must be said that at first the generativists tried to interpret the production of speech too abstractly as an action of some kind of formal calculus, like algebra, which, however, led to the emergence of the theory of formal languages within the framework of mathematics, which already has an indirect relation to linguistics. The general scheme of phonetic speech production in generative phonology is that linguistic signs, through successive transformations according to language rules, are transformed from an internal (deep) representation in the phonemes of speech production into a surface representation by speech sound types. Accepting the terminology of generativists, we can call the phonemes of speech production - deep phonemes, and the phonemes of speech perception - surface phonemes.

Notes

Phonetics and phonology

Basic concepts

Phonetics	Speech sound Speech flow Segmentation Articulatory apparatus Phonation Articulation Place of formation of consonants Formant Vowels Consonants Stress Tone Intonation Syllable Mora IPA RLA Phonetic transcription Universal phonetic classifications
Phonology	Phoneme Opposition Position Neutralization Differential sign Minimal pair Phonologisation Allophone Phoneme variant Phoneme variation Archiphoneme Hyperphoneme Alternation Phonemic transcription

Personalities

I. A. Baudouin de Courtenay N. S. Trubetskoy L. V. Shcherba L. R. Zinder M. I. Matusevich L. V. Bondarko V. B. Kasevich R. I. Avanesov V. N. Sidorov A. A Reformatsky M. V. Panov R. O. Jacobson N. Chomsky M. Halle G. Fant

Phonological concepts

Kazan Linguistic School Phonological concept of N. S. Trubetskoy Petersburg Phonological School Moscow Phonological School Phonological concept of R. I. Avanesov Phonological concept of M. V. Panov Generative phonology

Sections and disciplines

Articulatory phonetics Acoustic phonetics Perceptual phonetics Prosody Accentology Orthoepy Extranormal phonetics

Morphology Morphology Syntax Portal:Linguistics

Phonology languages of the world
Esperanto () Finnish () Gujarati () Hawaiian () Hindi-Urdu () Hungarian () Greek: Ancient Greek () / Koine () / modern () Eskimo (

Phonology also studies the sounds of a language, but from a functional and systemic point of view, as discrete elements that distinguish between signs and texts of a language.

Phonology- a section of the language that studies the structural and functional patterns (the role of sounds in the language system) of the sound structure of the language.

The basic concept and the basic unit of phonology is a phoneme, or a phonological distinction. (differential) feature. Phoneme- this is the smallest unit of the sound structure of the language, capable of distinguishing larger units (morphemes and words).

When a segmental phoneme is chosen as the main unit of the phonological level, the description of this level (over which the suprasegmental or prosodic one is built, including stress, tone, intonation, etc.) is largely reduced to identifying different positional combinatorial variants (allophones) of each phoneme. Many phonological schools and directions, when deciding on the allocation of phonemes and their variants, turn to the grammatical (morphological) role of the corresponding sound units. A special morphonological level is introduced and the linguistic discipline that studies it is morphonology, the subject of which is the study of the phonological composition of the morphological units of the language - morphs (parts of word forms) - and various kinds of grammatically determined alternations of phonemes.

Phoneme functions:

distinctive

Constitutive (for construction).

Baudouin de Courtenay, Shcherba, Trubetskoy, Yakobson dealt with the problems of phonemes.

If sounds are related to speech, then phonemes are related to language. Sound is a variant, phoneme is an invariant.

For example: Danish, phonemes |t|, |s| form the sound [ts].

The concept of phonological opposition.

Phonological opposition- this is the opposition of phonemes in the language system.

The classification of phonological oppositions was developed by Trubetskoy (PLK) in the 30s of the 20th century.

Criteria:

1. by the number of participants:

- binary opposition– 2 participants |b|vs|s|.

- ternary opposition(3 members)

|b| (labial), |d| (front-lingual), |r|, (back-lingual).

Group opposition (more than 3 participants)

2. by occurrence in a given language:

- proportional oppositions(can be proportioned)

voiced - deaf

soft - hard

nasal - non-nasal

- isolated(no proportion, no other similar opposition)

For example: |p| and |l|.

3. in relation to members of the opposition:

- privative. The difference is in the 1st differentiated feature. Whoever has a certain sign is called mark and roved, who do not have a sign - non-marked and roved.

For example: a sign is sonority. |p| and |b|. |b| will be marked, since it is voiced.

- gradual(different degree of manifestation of the trait).

For example, |a| |o| |y| - a different degree of openness, i.e. a different degree of manifestation of this feature.

- equivalent(when units are opposed on several grounds and as a result they are equal (on grounds).

For example: |b| vs|c'| signs:

Softness / sonority

Labial/anterolingual

Hinged / slotted

4. by volume of distinctive power:

|t| and |n|, there and us - always differ in speech.

|t| and |d|, rod and pond - do not differ in speech.

- permanent opposition- when phonemes have different strengths regardless of their opposition. For example, |y|.

- neutral opposition- when in a certain position any sign is neutralized, i.e. the phoneme does not perform a distinctive function.

[pr u t], |d| - phoneme, [t] - sound, because in a weak position, in a strong phoneme will give the sound [d].

PHENOMENA OF THE MORPHEM SEAM

A morpheme suture (or junction of morphemes) is the boundary between two adjacent morphs.

When a derivative word is formed, the connecting morphs are mutually adapted. According to the laws of the Russian language, not all combinations of sounds are allowed on the border of morphemes. On the border of morphemes (on the morphemic seam), four types of phenomena can occur:

1. alternation of phonemes (the end of one morph changes, adapting to the beginning of another);

2. interfixation (an insignificant (asemantic) element is inserted between two morphs - interfix);

3. superposition (or interference) of morphs - the end of one morph is combined with the beginning of another;

4. truncation of the generating stem (the end of the generating stem is cut off and is not included in the derived word).

Outstanding achievements in the development of phonology belong to I.A. Baudouin de Courtenay, N.S. Trubetskoy, R.O. Yakobson, L.V. Shcherbe, N.S. Krushevsky, S.I. Kartsevsky, N.F. Yakovlev, N.K. Uslar.

The study of the plan of language expression (sound structure) has a long history. For example, in India, in I millennium BC there was a classification of sounds into vowels and consonants, stress and intonation, alternations of sounds were studied. In Europe, this happened later. In 1873, from the German language through French, the concept of the sound of a language appeared in Europe and Russia. With the introduction of the concept of phoneme, the question of the relationship between the sound side of the language and the plan of content began to be resolved.

Baudouin de Courtenay in the 70s 19th century came to the idea of a discrepancy between the physical and functional properties of sound. He proposed to distinguish between sound as a physiological-acoustic phenomenon and phoneme as an established idea of sound, as a mental equivalent of sound. Thus, the first idea of the phoneme had a pronounced psychological character. Phonemes were presented as certain nodes around which the sound diversity of speech was grouped. Baudouin was the first to distinguish between phonetic variants determined by positional and combinatorial conditions and historically determined alternations of phonemes in a morpheme. The psychological concept of the phoneme played an important role in the development of phonology, but it failed to answer many fundamental questions, including the clear ways to identify phonemes.

Baudouin's student L.V. Shcherba developed and enriched the theory of the phoneme. He tried to combine a psychological foundation with a functional one. Phonemes were defined as those sounds in our minds that allow us to discern the meaning of words. This means that sound units that are similar in acoustic and articulatory terms and associated with the same meaning are combined into one phoneme. On the other hand, sounds in which the physical difference is associated with differences in meaning are different phonemes. The direct connection of the phoneme with meaning, according to Shcherba, is also manifested in its ability to function as a separate word (the book Phonetics of the French Language, 1937). A red thread runs through the idea that the main criterion for identifying a phoneme is its meaningful function. Language is the general, and speech is the particular. Speech has a wide variety of sounds. In the language, they are combined into a relatively small number of sound types capable of differentiating words and forms, i.e. serve the purposes of human communication. These sound types are phonemes, and the real set of sounds that form a sound type are the shades of phonemes. The most typical hue for a given phoneme is a hue that is pronounced in an isolated form and is perceived by a native speaker as a speech embodiment of the phoneme. All other shades are not perceived by us, we need special phonetic training of the ear.

The contribution to the formation of phonology of the teachings of Jones is highly appreciated.

Distinguishing features

Each member of any opposition differs from the other due to various phonological features. So, the initial sound of the word house different from the initial sound of the word volume the fact that his voice is involved in his education, that is, he is voiced. Similarly, the last sound of a word moss different from the last sound of the word mok(from get wet) by the fact that the first is slotted, and the second is explosive. All linguistic oppositions can be represented in this way: of course, there are oppositions whose members differ in more than one feature: cf. about in ate - about h ate .

The signs by which the backgrounds of different phonemes are contrasted in a given language are called distinctive, or differential. The set of distinguishing features depends on the structure of the phonological system of a given language. So, in English or Thai, the distinguishing feature is the presence of aspiration in consonants: the first sounds of English. pin and bin differ precisely in the presence or absence of aspiration. On the contrary, in Russian or Italian, aspiration is not a distinguishing feature: if you pronounce the Russian word drank breathed after the first consonant, its meaning will not change. In Russian or Irish, hard (non-palatalized) and soft (palatalized) consonants are contrasted, cf. Russian ox - led. By contrast, in English velarized and non-velarized [l] are allophones: pill pronounced with velarized [ɫ], and lip- with the usual [l] (the distribution depends on the position of the sound in the syllable).

The system of distinguishing features can be built on a binary basis, when members are contrasted according to the principle of the presence and absence of articulation (for example, [+ voice] for voiced consonants - [-voice] for deaf consonants), or on a privative basis, when only the presence of an articulatory characteristic is a sign , and its absence is not registered in the system (eg [voice] for voiced consonants - for deaf consonants). The privative feature system is widely used in feature geometry theory and in optimality theory.

Types of oppositions

Phonological typology

For phonological typology, see more Vocal systems, Consonant systems

Universal phonological classifications

Development of phonology

Baudouin de Courtenay

Fundamentals of Phonology and the Prague Circle

American structuralism

The criteria used by Trubetskoy were very close to the distribution-based methods that were being actively developed at that time in American descriptivism, in the works of Leonard Bloomfield, Morris Swadesh and others. Edward Sapir was partly close to the structuralists in his views. In particular, in the well-known work “Sound patterns in language”, he emphasized that the linguistic significance of articulatory events is due not to their physical nature, but to how they relate to other events in the system of a given language: for example, the sound produced when a candle is blown out with acoustically similar to the sound that appears in a number of varieties of English in words which or white ([ʍ] ), but their linguistic significance is completely different.

In American structuralist phonology, the notion of two levels of representation has been developed. These two levels were introduced for the analysis of facts, like the stunning of final voiced in languages such as German or Russian. Thus, for Trubetskoy the sound sequence was analyzed in phonological terms as /raT/, with an archphoneme (a unit with an incomplete set of feature specifications) in final position (where the neutralization took place). The phonological representation /raT/ in this case correlates with two lexical units, orthographically Rad"wheel" and Rat"advice". In the procedural interpretation proposed by the American structuralists, these two units have a different phonemic composition, /rad/ and /rat/, respectively (cf. the genitive case forms rates and Rades); a rule is postulated that translates /d/ into /t/ at the end of a word. Moreover, in the early versions of American structuralism, the number of levels does not exceed two, even if this requires extremely non-trivial rules for the transition between them.

European schools of structuralism

The original concept of the phonological structure of languages was also proposed by the British researcher J. R. Furse and his London school of structuralism. In Furse's model, the concept of prosody played a significant role, understood as a unit that creates significance, covering more than one segment (background); thus, the role of classical phonemic analysis was reduced and at the same time a fairly simple analysis of such phenomena as, for example, assimilation was given.

The ideas of structuralism also developed in the USSR, in particular, within the framework of the Moscow (R.I. Avanesov) and Leningrad (L.V. Shcherba) phonological schools.

Universal classifications and generative phonology

The development of generative phonology is usually associated with the work of Morris Halle "The Sound System of the Russian Language". Halle noted that many phenomena, which are very similar from a phonetic point of view, are described in completely different ways within the framework of traditional phonological models. As an example, he cited assimilation by voicing (sandhi in Russian): in the traditional description, voicing in the syntagma (corresponds to spelling I could) can be described as an alternation of two phonemes (because /k/ and /g/ in Russian they are undoubtedly different phonemes, cf. bark and mountain). At the same time, a completely analogous process of voicing in the syntagma [ʒe dʒ bɨ] (to burn) is described in other terms (of allophonic variation). Halle argued that a description in terms of a universal classification of sounds (according to which the sign of voicedness is distinctive both for /g/, and for /dʒ/), is more adequate to the actual functioning of the language system.

Consonant-sonor

In most cases, the order in which the rules are applied turns out to be a necessary condition for an adequate description of phonological transformations. Some rules can be applied several times (cyclically) at different stages of morphological derivation. Thus, the rule of removing supershort (ь, ъ) in Russian is applied each time when morphemes containing these segments are added to the stem. The provisions of the SPE on cyclicity in the process of derivation were further developed in the theory of lexical phonology (P. Kiparsky, G. E. Bui, E. Rubakh).

Another direction in the development of generative phonology was autosegmental phonology (J. Goldsmith) and the theories of syllable (J. Clements and S. Keizer) and feature geometry (J. Clements) that developed on its basis. Within the framework of this theory, the syllable and its parts, segments, as well as tones and differential features are considered as separate independent elements of the phonological system. Features form a hierarchical structure subordinate to the segment, but they can change independently of the segment. For example, the process of assimilation is interpreted as the operation of separating a feature from the root of a segment and its association with a neighboring segment. There are different directions in the theory of feature geometry, in which the set of differential features that describe the location of the segment formation is defined in different ways. The sign can correspond either to the main active articulator (lips, tip of the tongue, back of the tongue, etc.) or to the passive articulator (alveoli, palate, etc.). Feature geometry has become the main representational theory for modern US phonological schools.

The main phonological theory at present is the theory of optimality (A. Prince and P. Smolensky). Within the framework of this theory, the concept of successive application of the generation rules was replaced by the concept of choosing the optimal form in accordance with a certain group of constraints. Optimality theory describes the grammar of a language as a process of interaction of three main components: GEN (generator) - a component responsible for generating an infinite number of possible forms (candidates) based on lexical morphemes, CON (restrictions) - a set of universal restrictions applied to surface forms, and EVAL (evaluation) - a component that selects the optimal candidate form and screens out candidates that do not meet the restrictions. Optimality theory proceeds from the notion that such constraints are universal for all languages, can conflict with each other, are applied instantly, and form a strict hierarchy. More recent interpretations of optimality theory also recognize that individual constraints may not be in a hierarchical relationship with each other. In optimality theory, different languages differ only in the order in which constraints are ranked. The theory of optimality has been criticized from various positions, but the greatest criticism is the inability of the theory to adequately explain the cases of phonetic irregularity (opacity), when the process of converting the original form into a surface one requires the presence of intermediate forms.

Modern phonological theories

Leningrad Phonological School

Our phonemes of speech perception turn out to be identical to the concept of phonemes developed by the Leningrad Phonological School (LPS). The founder of this school, Academician Lev Vladimirovich Shcherba, worked in the first half of the 20th century in St. Petersburg - Petrograd - Leningrad. He and his students focused on the task of teaching foreign languages, setting the correct pronunciation. Most foreign language textbooks in their phonetic part use the concepts and terminology developed by Shcherba. Shcherba's phonological theory itself was best presented in his textbook Phonetics of the French Language. In the future, these same concepts were supported by researchers involved in the instrumental study of sound speech and the design of automatic speech recognition systems.

Moscow Phonological School

Prague Phonological School

Another phonological theory, intermediate between the theories of LPS and PPS, was developed by the so-called Prague Phonological School (PPS), which arose in Prague simultaneously with PPS and LPS by the works of Russian linguists who emigrated from the revolution. It was this school that became most famous in the West, and its most prominent representative, Nikolai Sergeevich Trubetskoy, is considered the founder and classic of world phonology. Similarly to Avanesov, Trubetskoy distinguishes two types of sound units in the composition of a word - phonemes and archiphonemes. Archphonemes appear in those cases when the conditions of the speech chain do not make it possible to recognize which particular phoneme of speech production was the basis for the appearance of a given sound. The concept of an archphoneme essentially coincides with the concept of Avanesov's weak phoneme. Another interpretation of the phenomenon of neutralization of phoneme differences in the speech chain was given by the Moscow phonologist Pyotr Savvich Kuznetsov in the concept of a hyperphoneme. A hyperphoneme is the set of all phonemes that can give a given sound. From the point of view of the structure of the language mechanism, such a unit corresponds to the development of a system of hypotheses regarding the comparison of the chain of phonemes of speech perception perceived by hearing with one or another sign (word) represented in memory by a chain of phonemes of speech production.

American phonology

In the same years, at the beginning of the 20th century, a school of descriptive phonology developed in the United States, which solved the problem of describing the languages of the American Indians. Their concept was close to the views of the Leningrad phonological school. In particular, the American descriptivists most clearly formulated the procedure for dividing the speech stream into phonemes of speech perception. In the post-war years, under the influence of the advances in computer technology, American linguists for the first time directly raised the question of the technical modeling of language ability. The pioneer of these works was also a native of Russia (or rather, from Poland) Noam Chomsky (Americans pronounce this name as Noum Czámsky). His work founded a branch called generative linguistics. Its task was set as the construction of a formal model (automaton) for the production (generation) of correct statements in a particular language. The phonological part of the generative theory arose thanks to the work of another Russian, Roman Osipovich Yakobson, who, in connection with the Second World War, emigrated from Prague (where he was a prominent member of the Prague School) to America. Describing the generation (production) of speech, generative phonology naturally came to a concept close to the Moscow phonological school. True, it must be said that at first the generativists tried to interpret the production of speech too abstractly as an action of some kind of formal calculus, like algebra, which, however, led to the emergence of the theory of formal languages within the framework of mathematics, which already has an indirect relation to linguistics. The general scheme of phonetic speech production in generative phonology is that linguistic signs, through successive transformations according to language rules, are transformed from an internal (deep) representation in the phonemes of speech production into a surface representation by speech sound types. Accepting the terminology of generativists, we can call the phonemes of speech production deep phonemes, and the phonemes of speech perception - surface phonemes.

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An excerpt characterizing Phonology

The morning was warm and grey. Princess Marya stopped on the porch, never ceasingly horrified by her spiritual abomination and trying to put her thoughts in order before entering him.
The Doctor stepped down the stairs and approached her.
"He's better today," said the doctor. - I was looking for you. You can understand something from what he says, the head is fresher. Let's go. He is calling you...
Princess Mary's heart beat so violently at this news that she turned pale and leaned against the door so as not to fall. To see him, to talk to him, to fall under his gaze now, when Princess Mary's whole soul was overwhelmed by these terrible criminal temptations, was excruciatingly joyful and terrible.
“Come on,” the doctor said.
Princess Marya went in to her father and went up to the bed. He lay high on his back, with his small, bony arms covered with lilac knotted veins, on the blanket, with his left eye fixed straight and his right eye squinting, with motionless eyebrows and lips. He was all so thin, small and miserable. His face seemed to have shriveled or melted, shrunken features. Princess Mary came up and kissed his hand. His left hand squeezed her hand so that it was clear that he had been waiting for her for a long time. He tugged at her hand, and his eyebrows and lips moved angrily.
She looked at him fearfully, trying to guess what he wanted from her. When she shifted her position and shifted so that her left eye could see her face, he calmed down, not taking his eyes off her for a few seconds. Then his lips and tongue moved, sounds were heard, and he began to speak, timidly and imploringly looking at her, apparently afraid that she would not understand him.
Princess Mary, straining all her powers of attention, looked at him. The comic labor with which he rolled his tongue forced Princess Marya to lower her eyes and with difficulty suppress the sobs rising in her throat. He said something, repeating his words several times. Princess Mary could not understand them; but she tried to guess what he was saying, and repeated inquiringly the elephants he had said.
“Gaga – fights… fights…” he repeated several times. It was impossible to understand these words. The doctor thought that he had guessed right, and, repeating his words, asked: is the princess afraid? He shook his head negatively and repeated the same thing again...
“My soul, my soul hurts,” Princess Mary guessed and said. He moaned affirmatively, took her hand and began to press it to various places on his chest, as if looking for a real place for her.
- All thoughts! about you … thoughts,” he then spoke much better and more clearly than before, now that he was sure that he was understood. Princess Mary pressed her head against his hand, trying to hide her sobs and tears.
He ran his hand through her hair.
“I called you all night…” he said.
“If I knew…” she said through her tears. - I was afraid to enter.
He shook her hand.
- Didn't you sleep?
“No, I didn’t sleep,” said Princess Mary, shaking her head negatively. Involuntarily obeying her father, she now, just as he spoke, tried to speak more in signs and, as it were, also with difficulty rolling her tongue.
- Darling ... - or - my friend ... - Princess Marya could not make out; but, probably, from the expression of his look, a tender, caressing word was said, which he never said. - Why didn't you come?
“And I wished, wished for his death! thought Princess Mary. He paused.
- Thank you ... daughter, friend ... for everything, for everything ... sorry ... thank you ... sorry ... thank you! .. - And tears flowed from his eyes. “Call Andryusha,” he suddenly said, and something childishly timid and distrustful expressed itself in his face at this request. It was as if he himself knew that his demand was meaningless. So, at least, it seemed to Princess Mary.
“I received a letter from him,” answered Princess Mary.
He looked at her with surprise and timidity.
- Where is he?
- He is in the army, mon pere, in Smolensk.
He was silent for a long time, closing his eyes; then in the affirmative, as if in answer to his doubts and in confirmation that he now understood and remembered everything, nodded his head and opened his eyes.
“Yes,” he said clearly and quietly. - Russia is dead! Ruined! And he sobbed again, and tears flowed from his eyes. Princess Mary could no longer restrain herself and wept too, looking at his face.
He closed his eyes again. His sobs stopped. He made a sign with his hand to his eyes; and Tikhon, understanding him, wiped away his tears.
Then he opened his eyes and said something that no one could understand for a long time and, finally, he understood and conveyed only Tikhon. Princess Mary was looking for the meaning of his words in the mood in which he spoke a minute before. Either she thought that he was talking about Russia, then about Prince Andrei, then about her, about her grandson, then about his death. And because of this, she could not guess his words.
“Put on your white dress, I love it,” he said.
Understanding these words, Princess Marya sobbed even louder, and the doctor, taking her by the arm, led her out of the room to the terrace, persuading her to calm down and make preparations for her departure. After Princess Mary left the prince, he again spoke about his son, about the war, about the sovereign, twitched his eyebrows angrily, began to raise a hoarse voice, and with him came the second and last blow.
Princess Mary stopped on the terrace. The day cleared up, it was sunny and hot. She could understand nothing, think of nothing, and feel nothing, except for her passionate love for her father, a love which, it seemed to her, she had not known until that moment. She ran out into the garden and, sobbing, ran down to the pond along the young linden paths planted by Prince Andrei.
“Yes… I… I… I.” I wished for his death. Yes, I wanted it to end soon... I wanted to calm down... But what will happen to me? Why do I need peace of mind when he is gone, ”Princess Marya muttered aloud, walking quickly through the garden and pressing her hands on her chest, from which sobs frantically burst out. Walking around the circle in the garden, which led her back to the house, she saw m lle Bourienne (who remained in Bogucharovo and did not want to leave) and an unfamiliar man walking towards her. It was the leader of the district, who himself came to the princess in order to present to her the need for an early departure. Princess Mary listened and did not understand him; she led him into the house, offered him breakfast, and sat down with him. Then, apologizing to the leader, she went to the door of the old prince. The doctor, with an alarmed face, came out to her and said that it was impossible.
- Go, princess, go, go!
Princess Marya went back into the garden and under the hill by the pond, in a place where no one could see, sat down on the grass. She did not know how long she had been there. Someone's running female steps along the path made her wake up. She got up and saw that Dunyasha, her maid, obviously running after her, suddenly, as if frightened by the sight of her young lady, stopped.
“Please, princess ... prince ...” Dunyasha said in a broken voice.
“Now, I’m going, I’m going,” the princess began hastily, not giving Dunyasha time to finish what she had to say, and, trying not to see Dunyasha, she ran to the house.
“Princess, the will of God is being done, you must be ready for anything,” said the leader, meeting her at the front door.
- Leave me. It is not true! she yelled angrily at him. The doctor wanted to stop her. She pushed him away and ran to the door. “And why are these people with frightened faces stopping me? I don't need anyone! And what are they doing here? She opened the door, and the bright daylight in that previously dim room terrified her. There were women and a nurse in the room. They all moved away from the bed, making way for her. He lay still on the bed; but the stern look of his calm face stopped Princess Marya on the threshold of the room.
"No, he's not dead, it can't be! - Princess Mary said to herself, went up to him and, overcoming the horror that seized her, pressed her lips to his cheek. But she immediately pulled away from him. Instantly, all the strength of tenderness for him, which she felt in herself, disappeared and was replaced by a feeling of horror for what was before her. “No, he is no more! He is not there, but there is right there, in the same place where he was, something alien and hostile, some kind of terrible, terrifying and repulsive secret ... - And, covering her face with her hands, Princess Marya fell into the hands of the doctor, who supported her.
In the presence of Tikhon and the doctor, the women washed what he was, tied a handkerchief around his head so that his open mouth would not stiffen, and tied his diverging legs with another handkerchief. Then they put on a uniform with medals and laid a small shriveled body on the table. God knows who and when took care of this, but everything became as if by itself. By night, candles burned around the coffin, there was a cover on the coffin, juniper was sprinkled on the floor, a printed prayer was placed under the dead, shrunken head, and a deacon sat in the corner, reading a psalter.
As horses shied away, crowded and snorted over a dead horse, so in the living room around the coffin crowded people of strangers and their own - the leader, and the headman, and the women, and all with fixed, frightened eyes, crossed themselves and bowed, and kissed the cold and stiff hand of the old prince.

Bogucharovo was always, before Prince Andrei settled in it, a private estate, and the men of Bogucharov had a completely different character from those of Lysogorsk. They differed from them in speech, clothing, and customs. They were called steppes. The old prince praised them for their endurance in their work when they came to help clean up the Bald Mountains or dig ponds and ditches, but did not like them for their savagery.
The last stay in Bogucharovo of Prince Andrei, with his innovations - hospitals, schools and easier dues - did not soften their morals, but, on the contrary, strengthened in them those character traits that the old prince called savagery. Some kind of obscure talk always went between them, either about listing them all as Cossacks, or about a new faith to which they would be converted, then about some kind of royal lists, then about an oath to Pavel Petrovich in 1797 (about which they said that then even the will came out, but the gentlemen took it away), then about Peter Feodorovich, who will reign in seven years, under whom everything will be free and it will be so simple that nothing will happen. Rumors about the war in Bonaparte and his invasion combined for them with the same vague ideas about the Antichrist, the end of the world and pure will.
In the vicinity of Bogucharov there were more and more large villages, state-owned and quitrent landlords. There were very few landowners living in this area; there were also very few serfs and literates, and in the life of the peasants of this area were more noticeable and stronger than in others, those mysterious jets of Russian folk life, the causes and significance of which are inexplicable to contemporaries. One of these phenomena was the movement between the peasants of this area to move to some kind of warm rivers, which manifested itself about twenty years ago. Hundreds of peasants, including Bogucharov's, suddenly began to sell their livestock and leave with their families somewhere to the southeast. Like birds flying somewhere beyond the seas, these people with their wives and children strove to go there, to the southeast, where none of them had been. They went up in caravans, bathed one by one, ran, and rode, and went there, to the warm rivers. Many were punished, exiled to Siberia, many died of cold and starvation on the way, many returned on their own, and the movement died down by itself just as it had begun without an obvious reason. But the underwater streams did not stop flowing in this people and gathered for some new force, which had to manifest itself in the same strange, unexpected way, and at the same time simply, naturally and strongly. Now, in 1812, for a person who lived close to the people, it was noticeable that these underwater jets produced a strong work and were close to manifestation.
Alpatych, having arrived in Bogucharovo some time before the death of the old prince, noticed that there was unrest among the people and that, contrary to what was happening in the Bald Mountains on a sixty-verst radius, where all the peasants left (leaving the Cossacks to ruin their villages), in the steppe zone , in Bogucharovskaya, the peasants, as was heard, had relations with the French, received some papers that went between them, and remained in their places. He knew through the courtyard people devoted to him that the peasant Karp, who had recently traveled with a state-owned cart, and who had a great influence on the world, returned with the news that the Cossacks were devastating the villages from which the inhabitants came out, but that the French did not touch them. He knew that another peasant had even brought yesterday from the village of Visloukhovo, where the French were stationed, a paper from the French general, in which the inhabitants were declared that no harm would be done to them and that everything that was taken from them would be paid for if they stayed. As proof of this, the peasant brought from Visloukhov one hundred rubles in banknotes (he did not know that they were fake), given to him in advance for hay.
Finally, and most importantly, Alpatych knew that on the very day he ordered the headman to collect carts for the export of the princess's convoy from Bogucharov, in the morning there was a gathering in the village, at which it was supposed not to be taken out and wait. Meanwhile, time was running out. The leader, on the day of the death of the prince, on August 15, insisted on Princess Marya that she leave on the same day, as it was becoming dangerous. He said that after the 16th he was not responsible for anything. On the day of the prince's death, he left in the evening, but promised to come to the funeral the next day. But the next day he could not come, because, according to the news he himself received, the French suddenly moved in, and he only managed to take away his family and everything valuable from his estate.
For about thirty years, Bogucharov was ruled by the headman Dron, whom the old prince called Dronushka.
Dron was one of those physically and morally strong men who, as soon as they enter the age, grow a beard, so, without changing, live up to sixty or seventy years, without one gray hair or lack of a tooth, just as straight and strong at sixty years old like at thirty.
Dron, shortly after moving to the warm rivers, in which he participated, like others, was made headman steward in Bogucharovo, and since then he has remained flawlessly in this position for twenty-three years. The men were more afraid of him than the master. Gentlemen, and the old prince, and the young, and the manager, respected him and jokingly called him a minister. During all the time of his service, Dron was never drunk or sick; never, not after sleepless nights, not after any kind of work, did not show the slightest fatigue and, not knowing the letter, never forgot a single account of money and pounds of flour for the huge convoys that he sold, and not a single shock of snakes for bread on every tithe of the Bogucharov fields.
This Dron Alpatych, who came from the devastated Bald Mountains, called to himself on the day of the prince's funeral and ordered him to prepare twelve horses for the carriages of the princess and eighteen carts for the convoy, which was to be raised from Bogucharov. Although the peasants were quitrents, the execution of this order could not meet with difficulties, according to Alpatych, since there were two hundred and thirty taxes in Bogucharovo and the peasants were prosperous. But Elder Dron, having listened to the order, silently lowered his eyes. Alpatych told him the men he knew and from whom he ordered to take carts.
The drone answered that these peasants had horses in a cart. Alpatych named other men, and those horses did not have, according to Dron, some were under state-owned carts, others were powerless, and the horses of others died from starvation. Horses, according to Dron, could not be collected not only for wagon trains, but also for carriages.
Alpatych carefully looked at Dron and frowned. Just as Dron was an exemplary headman, so Alpatych not without reason managed the prince's estates for twenty years and was an exemplary manager. He was eminently able to understand by instinct the needs and instincts of the people with whom he dealt, and therefore he was an excellent manager. Glancing at Dron, he immediately realized that Dron's answers were not an expression of Dron's thoughts, but an expression of that general mood of the Bogucharov world, by which the headman had already been captured. But at the same time, he knew that Dron, who had profited and hated by the world, had to fluctuate between two camps - the masters and the peasants. He noticed this hesitation in his gaze, and therefore Alpatych, frowning, moved closer to Dron.
- You, Dronushka, listen! - he said. - Don't talk to me empty. His Excellency Prince Andrei Nikolaevich themselves ordered me to send all the people and not stay with the enemy, and there is an order from the king. And whoever remains is a traitor to the king. Do you hear?
“I’m listening,” Dron answered, without raising his eyes.
Alpatych was not satisfied with this answer.
- Hey, Dron, it will be bad! Alpatych said, shaking his head.
- The power is yours! Drone said sadly.
- Hey, Dron, leave it! Alpatych repeated, taking his hand out of his bosom and solemnly pointing it to the floor under Dron's feet. “It’s not like I see right through you, I can see right through everything three arshins under you,” he said, peering at the floor under Dron’s feet.
The drone was embarrassed, glanced briefly at Alpatych and lowered his eyes again.
- You leave the nonsense and tell the people that they were going to go from their houses to Moscow and prepare the carts tomorrow morning under the princess's convoy, but don't go to the meeting yourself. Do you hear?
The drone suddenly fell at its feet.
- Yakov Alpatych, fire me! Take the keys from me, fire me for Christ's sake.
- Leave it! Alpatych said sternly. “I can see right through you three arshins,” he repeated, knowing that his skill in walking for bees, knowing when to sow oats, and the fact that for twenty years he had been able to please the old prince, had long acquired the fame of a sorcerer and that his ability to see three arshins under a person is attributed to sorcerers.
Dron got up and wanted to say something, but Alpatych interrupted him:
- What did you think? Eh?.. What do you think? BUT?
What should I do with the people? Dron said. - It blew up completely. I also tell them...
“That’s what I say,” said Alpatych. – Do they drink? he asked shortly.
- All perturbed, Yakov Alpatych: they brought another barrel.
- So you listen. I'll go to the police officer, and you tell the people, and so that they leave it, and so that there are carts.
“I am listening,” Dron answered.
More Yakov Alpatych did not insist. He had ruled over the people for a long time, and he knew that the chief means of getting the people to obey was to show them no doubt that they might disobey. Having obtained from Dron a submissive “I am listening with”, Yakov Alpatych was satisfied with this, although he not only doubted, but was almost sure that the carts would not be delivered without the help of a military team.
And indeed, by the evening the carts had not been collected. There was again a meeting in the village near the tavern, and at the meeting it was supposed to drive the horses into the forest and not give out the wagon. Without saying anything about this princess, Alpatych ordered to lay down his own luggage from those who came from the Bald Mountains and prepare these horses for the princess's carriages, and he himself went to the authorities.

X
After her father's funeral, Princess Marya locked herself in her room and did not let anyone in. A girl came up to the door to say that Alpatych had come to ask for orders to leave. (This was even before Alpatych's conversation with Dron.) Princess Marya got up from the sofa on which she was lying, and through the closed door she said that she would never go anywhere and asked to be left alone.
The windows of the room in which Princess Mary lay were to the west. She lay on the sofa facing the wall and, fingering the buttons on the leather pillow, saw only this pillow, and her vague thoughts were focused on one thing: she thought about the inevitability of death and about that spiritual abomination of hers, which she had not known until now and which came out during her father's illness. She wanted, but did not dare to pray, did not dare, in the state of mind in which she was, to turn to God. She lay in this position for a long time.
The sun had set on the other side of the house, and with slanting evening rays through the open windows illuminated the room and part of the morocco pillow, which Princess Marya was looking at. Her train of thought suddenly stopped. She unconsciously got up, straightened her hair, got up and went to the window, involuntarily breathing in the coolness of a clear but windy evening.
“Yes, now it’s convenient for you to admire in the evening! He is gone, and no one will bother you, ”she said to herself, and, sinking into a chair, she dropped her head on the windowsill.
Someone in a gentle and quiet voice called her from the side of the garden and kissed her on the head. She looked back. It was m lle Bourienne, in a black dress and pleats. She quietly approached Princess Marya, kissed her with a sigh, and immediately burst into tears. Princess Mary looked at her. All previous encounters with her, jealousy of her, were remembered by Princess Marya; I also remembered how he had recently changed to m lle Bourienne, could not see her, and, therefore, how unfair were the reproaches that Princess Mary made to her in her soul. “And whether I, whether I, who wanted him dead, should condemn anyone! she thought.
Princess Mary vividly imagined the position of m lle Bourienne, recently distant from her society, but at the same time dependent on her and living in a strange house. And she felt sorry for her. She looked meekly inquiringly at her and held out her hand to her. M lle Bourienne immediately began to cry, began to kiss her hand and talk about the grief that had befallen the princess, making herself a participant in this grief. She said that the only consolation in her grief was that the princess allowed her to share it with her. She said that all former misunderstandings must be destroyed before the great grief, that she felt pure in front of everyone, and that from there he saw her love and gratitude. The princess listened to her, not understanding her words, but occasionally looking at her and listening to the sounds of her voice.
“Your situation is doubly terrible, dear princess,” m lle Bourienne said after a pause. – I understand that you could not and cannot think of yourself; but I am obliged to do this by my love for you ... Alpatych was with you? Did he talk to you about leaving? she asked.
Princess Mary did not answer. She did not understand where and who was supposed to go. “Is it possible to do something now, to think about something? Doesn't it matter? She didn't answer.
“Do you know, chere Marie,” said m lle Bourienne, “do you know that we are in danger, that we are surrounded by the French; driving is now dangerous. If we go, we will almost certainly be taken prisoner, and God knows ...
Princess Mary looked at her friend, not understanding what she was saying.
“Ah, if anyone knew how I don’t care now,” she said. - Of course, I would never want to leave him ... Alpatych told me something about leaving ... Talk to him, I can’t do anything, I don’t want to ...
- I spoke to him. He hopes that we will have time to leave tomorrow; but I think it would be better to stay here now,” said m lle Bourienne. - Because, you see, chere Marie, to fall into the hands of soldiers or rebellious peasants on the road - it would be terrible. - M lle Bourienne took out from her reticule an announcement on a non-Russian unusual paper by the French General Rameau that the inhabitants should not leave their homes, that they would be given due protection by the French authorities, and submitted it to the princess.
“I think it is better to address this general,” said m lle Bourienne, “and I am sure that you will be given due respect.
Princess Marya read the paper, and dry sobs twitched her face.
- Through whom did you get it? - she said.
“Probably they knew I was French by name,” m lle Bourienne said, blushing.
Princess Mary, paper in hand, got up from the window and with a pale face left the room and went to the former study of Prince Andrei.
“Dunyasha, call Alpatych, Dronushka, or someone to me,” said Princess Mary, “and tell Amalya Karlovna not to come in to me,” she added, hearing the voice of m lle Bourienne. – Hurry up to go! Drive faster! - said Princess Mary, horrified at the thought that she could remain in the power of the French.
“So that Prince Andrei knows that she is in the power of the French! So that she, the daughter of Prince Nikolai Andreevich Bolkonsky, asked Mr. General Ramo to protect her and enjoy his blessings! - This thought horrified her, made her shudder, blush and feel attacks of anger and pride that she had not yet experienced. Everything that was difficult and, most importantly, insulting in her position, was vividly presented to her. “They, the French, will settle in this house; Mr. General Ramo will take the office of Prince Andrei; will sort out and read his letters and papers for fun. M lle Bourienne lui fera les honneurs de Bogucharovo. [Mademoiselle Bourienne will receive him with honors in Bogucharovo.] They will give me a little room out of mercy; soldiers will ravage the fresh grave of their father in order to remove crosses and stars from him; they will tell me about the victories over the Russians, they will pretend to express sympathy for my grief ... - thought Princess Mary not with her own thoughts, but feeling obliged to think for herself with the thoughts of her father and brother. For her personally, it didn't matter where she stayed and whatever happened to her; but at the same time she felt herself a representative of her late father and Prince Andrei. She involuntarily thought with their thoughts and felt with their feelings. Whatever they said, what they would do now, she felt it necessary to do the very thing. She went to Prince Andrei's office and, trying to penetrate his thoughts, pondered her position.
The demands of life, which she considered destroyed with the death of her father, suddenly arose before Princess Mary with a new, still unknown force and seized her. Excited, blushing, she walked around the room, demanding to her first Alpatych, then Mikhail Ivanovich, then Tikhon, then Dron. Dunyasha, the nanny and all the girls could not say anything about the extent to which what m lle Bourienne announced was true. Alpatych was not at home: he went to the authorities. The summoned Mikhail Ivanovich, the architect, who appeared to Princess Mary with sleepy eyes, could not say anything to her. With exactly the same smile of agreement with which he had been accustomed for fifteen years to answer, without expressing his opinion, the appeals of the old prince, he answered the questions of Princess Marya, so that nothing definite could be deduced from his answers. The called old valet Tikhon, with a sunken and haggard face, bearing the imprint of incurable grief, answered "I'm listening with" to all the questions of Princess Marya and could hardly refrain from sobbing, looking at her.
Finally, the headman Dron entered the room and, bowing low to the princess, stopped at the lintel.
Princess Mary walked across the room and stopped in front of him.
“Dronushka,” said Princess Mary, seeing in him an undoubted friend, that very Dronushka who, from his annual trip to the fair in Vyazma, brought her every time and served his special gingerbread with a smile. “Dronushka, now, after our misfortune,” she began and fell silent, unable to speak further.
“We all walk under God,” he said with a sigh. They were silent.
- Dronushka, Alpatych has gone somewhere, I have no one to turn to. Are they telling me the truth that I can't even leave?
“Why don’t you go, your excellency, you can go,” said Dron.
- I was told that it was dangerous from the enemy. My dear, I can’t do anything, I don’t understand anything, there’s no one with me. I certainly want to go at night or tomorrow early in the morning. Drone was silent. He glanced frowningly at Princess Marya.
“There are no horses,” he said, “I also told Yakov Alpatych.
- Why not? - said the princess.
“All from God’s punishment,” said Dron. - What horses were dismantled under the troops, and which died, now what a year. Not to feed the horses, but not to die of hunger ourselves! And so they sit for three days without eating. There is nothing, ruined completely.
Princess Mary listened attentively to what he was saying to her.
Are the men ruined? Do they have any bread? she asked.
“They die of starvation,” said Dron, “let alone carts…
“But why didn’t you say, Dronushka?” Can't help? I will do everything I can ... - It was strange for Princess Mary to think that now, at such a moment when such grief filled her soul, there could be people rich and poor and that the rich could not help the poor. She vaguely knew and heard that there was master's bread and that it was given to peasants. She knew, too, that neither her brother nor her father would have denied the need to peasants; she was only afraid to make a mistake somehow in her words about this distribution of bread to the peasants, which she wanted to dispose of. She was glad that she had an excuse for caring, one for which she was not ashamed to forget her grief. She began to ask Dronushka for details about the needs of the peasants and about what is masterful in Bogucharov.
“We have the master’s bread, bro?” she asked.
“The Lord’s bread is whole,” Dron said proudly, “our prince did not order to sell it.
“Give him to the peasants, give him everything they need: I give you permission in the name of your brother,” said Princess Mary.
Drone did not answer and took a deep breath.
- You give them this bread, if it will be enough for them. Distribute everything. I command you in the name of a brother, and tell them: whatever is ours, so is theirs. We will spare nothing for them. So you say.

Portal for the student. Self-training

Acoustics of speech sounds

Articulation of speech sounds

Classification of speech sounds

Syllable

Supersegmental units of language

Modifications of sounds in the flow of speech

Phonology

The most important concepts of phonology

Phonemes, allophones and oppositions

Distinguishing features

Types of oppositions

Phonological typology

Universal phonological classifications

Development of phonology

Baudouin de Courtenay

Fundamentals of Phonology and the Prague Circle

American structuralism

European schools of structuralism

Universal classifications and generative phonology

see also

Modern phonological theories

Notes

The concept of phonological opposition.

Criteria:

Distinguishing features

Types of oppositions

Phonological typology

Universal phonological classifications

Development of phonology

Baudouin de Courtenay

Fundamentals of Phonology and the Prague Circle

American structuralism

European schools of structuralism

Universal classifications and generative phonology

see also

Modern phonological theories

Leningrad Phonological School

Moscow Phonological School

Prague Phonological School

American phonology

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Notes

An excerpt characterizing Phonology

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