Have there been incidents with you when, while reading the works of Russian classics, you did not understand what they were writing about? Most likely, this was not due to your inattention to the plot of the work, but because of the writer's style, which includes obsolete words, dialectisms.

V. Rasputin, V. Astafiev, M. Sholokhov, N. Nekrasov, L. Tolstoy, A. Chekhov, V. Shukshin, S. Yesenin liked to express themselves with words of this type. And this is only a small part of them.

Dialectisms: what is it and how many types exist

Dialects are words whose area of ​​distribution and use is limited to some territory. They are widely used in the vocabulary of the rural population.

Examples of dialectisms in the Russian language show that they have individual features regarding phonetics, morphology, and vocabulary:

1. Phonetic dialectisms.

2. Morphological dialectisms.

3. Lexical:

• actually lexical;
• lexico-semantic;

4. Ethnographic dialectisms.

5. Word-building dialectisms.

Dialectisms are also found at the syntactic, phraseological levels.

Types of dialectisms as separate features of the original Russian people

In order to recognize the original features of the dialect of the Russian people, it is necessary to consider dialectisms in more detail.

Examples of dialectisms:

• The replacement of one or more letters in a word is typical for phonetic dialectisms: millet - millet; Khvedor - Fedor.
• Word changes that are not the norm in terms of matching words in sentences are characteristic of morphological dialectisms: at me; spoke to smart people (substitution of cases, plural and singular).
• Words and expressions that are found only in a certain locality, which do not have phonetic and derivational analogues. Words whose meaning can only be understood from the context are called lexical dialectisms. In general, in the well-known dictionary use, they have equivalent words that are understandable and known to everyone. The following dialectisms (examples) are typical for the southern regions of Russia: beet - beets; tsibula - onion.
• Words that are used only in a particular region, which have no analogues in the language due to their correlation with the characteristics of the life of the population, are called "ethnographic dialectisms". Examples: shanga, shanga, shaneshka, shanechka - a dialectism denoting a certain type of cheesecake with a top potato layer. These delicacies are widespread only in a certain region; they cannot be characterized in one word from general use.
• Dialectisms that have arisen due to a special affixal design are called derivational: guska - goose, pokeda - yet.

Lexical dialectisms as a separate group

Due to their heterogeneity, lexical dialectisms are divided into the following types:

• Actually lexical: dialectisms that have a common meaning with general literary ones, but differ from them in spelling. They can be called peculiar synonyms of commonly understood and well-known words: beets - sweet potato; stitch - track.
• Lexico-semantic. Almost the exact opposite of proper lexical dialectisms: they have a common spelling and pronunciation, but differ in meaning. Correlating them, it is possible to characterize as homonyms in relation to each other.

For example, the word "peppy" in different parts of the country can have two meanings.

1. Literary: energetic, full of energy.
2. Dialect meaning (Ryazan): smart, neat.

Thinking about the purpose of dialectisms in the Russian language, we can assume that, despite the differences with general literary words, they replenish the stocks of the Russian literary vocabulary along with them.

The role of dialectisms

The role of dialectisms for the Russian language is diverse, but first of all they are important for the inhabitants of the country.

Functions of dialectisms:

1. Dialectisms are one of the most important means of oral communication for people living in the same territory. It was from oral sources that they penetrated into written ones, giving rise to the following function.
2. The dialectisms used at the level of district and regional newspapers contribute to a more accessible presentation of the information provided.
3. Fiction takes information about dialectisms from the colloquial speech of residents of specific regions and from the press. They are used to convey local features of speech, and also contribute to a more vivid transmission of the character of the characters.

Some expressions slowly but surely fall into the general literary fund. They become known and understood by everyone.

The study of the functions of dialectisms by researchers

P.G. Pustovoit, exploring the work of Turgenev, focused on dialectisms, examples of words and their meaning, he names the following functions:

• characterological;
• cognitive;
• speech dynamization;
• cumulation.

V.V. Vinogradov based on the works of N.V. Gogol identifies the following series of functions:

• characterological (reflective) - it contributes to coloring the speech of characters;
• nominative (naming) - manifests itself when using ethnographisms and lexical dialectisms.

The most complete classification of functions was developed by Professor L.G. Samotik. Lyudmila Grigoryevna singled out 7 functions for which dialectisms are responsible in a work of art:

Modeling;

nominative;

emotive;

Culminative;

Aesthetic;

phatic;

Characterological.

Literature and dialectisms: what threatens the abuse?

Over time, the popularity of dialectisms, even at the oral level, decreases. Therefore, writers and correspondents should use them sparingly in their work. Otherwise, the perception of the meaning of the work will be difficult.

Dialectisms. Examples of inappropriate use

When working on a work, you need to think over the relevance of each word. First of all, you should think about the appropriateness of using dialect vocabulary.

For example, instead of the dialect-regional word "kosteril" it is better to use the general literary "scold". Instead of "promised" - "promised".

The main thing is to always understand the line of moderate and appropriate use of dialect words.

Dialecticisms should help the perception of the work, and not hinder it. To understand how to use this figure of the Russian language correctly, you can ask for help from the masters of the word: A.S. Pushkin, N.A. Nekrasov, V.G. Rasputin, N.S. Leskov. They skillfully, and most importantly, moderately used dialectisms.

The use of dialectisms in fiction: I.S. Turgenev and V.G. Rasputin

Some works of I.S. Turgenev is difficult to read. Studying them, you need to think not only about the general meaning of the literary heritage of the writer's work, but also about almost every word.

For example, in the story "Bezhin Meadow" we can find the following sentence:

“With quick steps I walked a long “area” of bushes, climbed a hill and, instead of this familiar plain ˂…˃, I saw completely different places unknown to me”

An attentive reader has a logical question: “Why did Ivan Sergeevich put in brackets the seemingly ordinary and appropriate word “area”?”.

The writer personally answers it in another work “Khor and Kalinich”: “In the Oryol province, large continuous masses of bushes are called “squares”.

It becomes clear that this word is widespread only in the Oryol region. Therefore, it can be safely attributed to the group of "dialectisms".

Examples of sentences using terms of a narrow stylistic orientation used in the speech of residents of certain regions of Russia can be seen in the stories of V.G. Rasputin. They help him show the identity of the character. In addition, the personality of the hero, his character is reproduced precisely through such expressions.

Examples of dialectisms from the works of Rasputin:

• Cool down - cool down.
• To roar - to rage.
• Pokul - for now.
• Engage - get in touch.

It is noteworthy that the meaning of many dialectisms cannot be understood without context.

Sometimes, when reading works of Russian literature of the 17th-19th centuries, many people are faced with such a problem as a misunderstanding of individual words or even entire phrases. Why is this happening? It turns out that the whole point is in special dialect words that intersect with the concept of lexical geography. What is dialectism? What words are called dialectisms?

The concept of “dialectism”

Dialect is a word, which is used in a certain area, understandable to the inhabitants of a certain territory. Most often, dialectisms are used by residents of small villages or villages. Interest in such words arose among linguists as early as the 18th century. Chess, Dal, Vygotsky made a great contribution to the study of the lexical meanings of words in the Russian language. Examples of dialectisms indicate that they can be diverse in their appearance.

There are the following types of dialectisms:

• Phonetic. For example, only one letter or sound in a word is replaced. “bears” instead of “bags” or “Khvedor” instead of “Fyodor”;
• Morphological. For example, there is confusion of cases, numerical substitution. “Sister came”, “I have”;
• Word-building. The population during the conversation changes suffixes or prefixes in words. For example, goose - goose, pokeda - yet;
• Ethnographic. These words are used only in a certain area. They appeared on the basis of natural or geographical features. There are no more analogues in the language. For example, shanezhka - a cheesecake with potatoes or "ponyova" - a skirt;
• Lexical. This group is divided into subsections. She is the most numerous. For example, onions in the southern regions are called tsybuls. And the needle in the northern dialects is needles.

It is also customary to divide dialects into 2 dialects: southern and northern. Each of them separately conveys the whole flavor of local speech. Central Russian dialects stand apart, as they are close to the literary norms of the language.

Sometimes such words help to understand the order and life of people. Let's analyze the word "House". In the north, it is customary to call each part of the house in its own way. The canopy and the porch are the bridge, the rest rooms are the hut, the attic is the ceiling, the hayloft is the wind, and the fat is the room for pets.

There are dialecticisms at the syntactic and phraseological levels, but they are not studied separately by scientists.

Examples of “local” words in literature

It happens that previously the word was not used at all, only sometimes it was possible to hear dialectisms in artistic speech, but over time they become common and are included in the dictionary of the Russian language. Example, the verb "to rustle". Initially, it was used in the work of art “Notes of a Hunter” by I.S. Turgenev. It meant "onomatopoeia". Another word is "tyrant". That was the name of the man in the play by A.N. Ostrovsky. Thanks to him, this word is firmly entrenched in our everyday speech. Dialectal used to be such nouns as - tues, grip and owl. Now they have quite confidently occupied their niche in the explanatory dictionaries of the modern language.

Passing on the rural life of the Ryazan peasants, S. Yesenin in each of his poems uses any dialects. Examples of such words are as follows:

• in a dilapidated shushun - a type of women's outerwear;
• in a bowl kvass - in a barrel made of wood;
• dracheny - food from eggs, milk and flour;
• popelitsa - ashes;
• damper - a lid on a Russian stove.

A lot of "local" words can be found in the works of V. Rasputin. Each sentence from his story is replete with dialectisms. But they are all skillfully used, as they convey the character of the heroes and the assessment of their actions.

• to freeze - to freeze, to cool;
• pokul - bye, goodbye:
• to roar - to rage, to rage.

Mikhail Sholokhov in "Quiet Don" was able to convey the beauty of the Cossack speech through the dialect dialect.

• base - peasant yard;
• haidamak - robber;
• kryga - ice floe;
• chill - virgin soil;
• occupancy - water meadow.

In the author's speech of "Quiet Flows the Don" there are whole phrases that show us the way of families. The formation of dialectisms in speech occurs in various ways. For example, the prefix “for” says that the object or action should become the same as the original object. For example, twisted, harried.

Also in the "Quiet Don" there are many possessive pronouns, which are formed with the help of suffixes -in, -ov. Natalya's duck, Christon's back.

But there are especially many ethnographic dialects in the work: savory, Siberian, chiriki, zapashnik.

Sometimes, when reading a work of literature, it is impossible to understand the meaning of a word without context, which is why it is so important to read texts thoughtfully and completely. What words are called dialectisms, you can find out by looking at the Dictionary of Russian Folk Dialects. In the usual explanatory dictionary, you can also find such words. Near them there will be a mark of the region, which means “regional”.

The role of dialects in the modern language

The role of such words is difficult to overestimate. They are designed to perform important functions:

The dialect is now mainly spoken only by the older generation. In order not to lose the national identity and value of such words, literary critics and linguists should do a lot of work, they should look for speakers of dialects and add the found dialectisms to a special dictionary. Thanks to this, we will preserve the memory of our ancestors and restore the link between generations.

The significance of works with dialect usage is very great. Indeed, despite the great difference with the literary language, they, although slowly, but enrich vocabulary Russian vocabulary fund.

“With quick steps I walked a long “area” of bushes, climbed a hill and, instead of the expected familiar plain (...), I saw completely different, unknown places to me” (I. S. Turgenev “Bezhin Meadow”) . Why did Turgenev put the word "square" in quotation marks? Thus, he wanted to emphasize that this word in this sense is alien to the literary language. Where did the author borrow the highlighted word from and what does it mean? The answer is found in another story. “In the Oryol province, the last forests and squares will disappear in five years ...” - says Turgenev in “Khor and Kalinich” and makes the following note: “Squares” are called large continuous masses of bushes in the Oryol province.

Many writers, depicting village life, use the words and set phrases of the folk dialect common in the area (territorial dialect). Dialect words used in literary speech are called dialectisms.

We meet dialectisms in A. S. Pushkin, I. S. Turgenev, N. A. Nekrasov, L. N. Tolstoy, V. A. Sleptsov, F. M. Reshetnikov, A. P. Chekhov, V. G. Korolenko, S. A. Yesenina, M. M. Prishvin, M. A. Sho-lokhova, V. M. Soloukhina, I. V. Abramov, V. I. Belova, V. M. Shukshina, V. G. Rasputin, V. P. Astafiev, A. A. Prokofiev, N. M. Rubtsov and many others.

Dialect words are introduced by the author, first of all, to characterize the character's speech. They indicate both the social position of the speaker (usually belonging to a peasant environment) and his origin from a particular area. “All around are such gullies, ravines, and in the ravines all the cases are found,” the boy Ilyusha says at Turgenev, using

Oryol word for snake. Or from A. Ya. Yashin: “I’m walking along the oseks once, I look, something is moving. Suddenly, I think, a hare? - says the Vologda peasant. Here is the inconsistency c and h, inherent in some northern dialects, as well as the local word "osek" - a fence of poles or brushwood that separates a pasture from a hayfield or village.

Writers who are sensitive to language do not overload the speech of the characters with dialectal features, but convey its local character with a few strokes, introducing either a single word or a phonetic characteristic of the dialect.

(sound), derivational or grammatical form.

Dialectisms can also be used in the author's speech.

Often writers turn to such local words that name objects, phenomena of rural life and do not have correspondences in the literary language. Let us recall Yesenin's poems addressed to his mother: "Don't go on the road so often / In an old-fashioned shabby husk." Shushun is the name of women's clothing such as a jacket worn by Ryazan women. We find similar dialectisms in modern writers. For example-

FEDOR IVANOVICH BUSLAEV (1818-1897)

Already the first major work of Buslaev "On the teaching of the national language" (1844) made his name widely known. It developed a completely new methodological system, which affirmed the close connection between the theory and practice of teaching, the principles of conscious assimilation of the material, and taking into account the age characteristics of students. In the study of the Russian language and its history, Buslaev was the first to use the comparative historical method, which later became the main method of all philological studies. Buslaev's capital work also played an important role in the development of comparative historical linguistics.<0пыт исторической грамматики рус­ского языка» (1858).

The emergence of the so-called mythological school, a special scientific direction, which recognized mythology as the basis of all folk art culture, is associated with the name of Buslaev in Russian literary criticism and folklore. In his numerous works, Buslaev showed the organic unity of language, mythology and folk poetry that existed in antiquity. Poetry was at that distant time, as it were, a single epic tale, from which all the main genres of oral folk art subsequently emerged.

quality. And until now, the scientist argued, our epics, fairy tales, songs, proverbs, sayings and riddles retain their ancient mythological basis. The mythological traditions of the Indo-European family of peoples were common. This explains the similarity of plots, motifs and images in folklore. these peoples. Mythology, Buslaev emphasized, is not only the basis of poetic creativity. It contains data on folk philosophy and on the laws of thought in general, it is necessary to look for the beginnings of knowledge, character and ancient rites in it. Exploring mythology, Buslaev sought to determine the folk origins of culture, to reveal the essence of the folk worldview.

Buslaev made a great contribution to the formation and development of other scientific areas. He was one of the first to show the importance of the historical communication of peoples in enriching national cultures, in the transition of poetic works from East to West, including Russia. Buslaev, independently of Western European scientists, substantiated the possibility of spontaneous generation of folklore plots and motifs among different peoples. He did a lot for the establishment in Russian folklore of the historical study of oral folk art. Buslaev's works on folk poetry, Old Russian literature and Old Russian art are collected in the collections Historical Essays on Russian Folk Literature and Art (two volumes, 1861),<еМои досуги» (два тома. 1886) и «Народная поэзия» (1887).

measures, at Rasputin:<Из всего класса в чир­ках ходил только я». В Сибири чирки - ко­жаная легкая обувь обычно без голенищ, с опушкой и завязками. Употребление таких слов помогает более точно воспроизвести быт деревни.

Writers use dialect words when depicting a landscape, which gives the description a local flavor. So, V. G. Korolenko, drawing a harsh path down the Lena, writes: “Across its entire width, “hummocks” stuck out in different directions, which the angry fast river threw at each other in the fall in the fight against the terrible Siberian frost.” And further: “For a whole week I have been looking at a strip of pale sky between high banks, at white slopes with a mourning border, at “padi” (gorges) mysteriously creeping out from somewhere in the Tunguska deserts ... "

The reason for the use of dialectism may also be its expressiveness. Drawing the sound that the reeds being moved apart, I. S. Turgenev writes: “... the reeds ... rustled, as we say” (meaning the Oryol province). In our time, the verb "rustle" is a commonly used word of the literary language, the modern reader would not have guessed about its dialectal origin if it were not for this note of the writer. But for the time of Turgenev, this is dialectism, which attracted the author with its onomatopoeic character.

Different ways of presenting dialectisms in the author's speech are also associated with the difference in artistic tasks. Turgenev, Korolenko usually single them out and give them an explanation. In their speech, dialectisms are like inlays. Belov, Rasputin, Abramov introduce dialect words on equal terms with literary ones. In their works, both are intertwined like different threads in a single fabric. This reflects the inseparable connection of these authors with their heroes - the people of their native land, the fate of which they write about. So dialectisms help to reveal the ideological content of the work.

Literature, including fiction, serves as one of the conductors of dialect words into the literary language. We have already seen this with the example of the verb "to rustle". Here's another example. The word "tyrant", well known to all of us, entered the literary language from the comedies of A. N. Ostrovsky. In the dictionaries of that time, it was interpreted as "stubborn" and appeared with territorial marks: Pskov, tas/?(skoe), ostash(kovskoe). The entry of dialectism into the literary

(normalized) language is a lengthy process. Replenishment of the literary language at the expense of dialect vocabulary continues in our time.

A DIARY

^ Diary - literary work in ^,

the form of daily entries (most often dated), contemporary to the events described. Like many other literary forms (letters, memoirs), he moved into literature from real life. Literature has long appreciated the advantages that the diary has: already J. Swift in "The Diary for Stella" and D. Defoe in "Robinson Crusoe" used the ability of the diary to create the impression of authenticity, vitality. The diary initially assumes complete frankness, sincerity of thoughts and feelings of the writer. These properties give the diary an intimacy, lyricism, passionate intonation, which are difficult to compare with other, more objective genres.

There are at least three variations in the use of the diary as a genre in literature. The first is a purely literary, entirely fictional diary, which is either the work itself (“Diary of an Extra Man” by I. S. Turgenev, “Notes of a Madman” by N. V. Gogol, “My Brother Plays the Clarinet” by A. G. Aleksin), or a significant part of it (“Pechorin’s Journal” in M. Yu. Lermontov’s “A Hero of Our Time”, Onegin’s album, which remained in the drafts of Pushkin’s “Eugene Onegin”).

The second variety is the real diaries of writers, either pre-destined for publication (The Diary of a Writer by F. M. Dostoevsky), or kept for themselves (the diary of L. N. Tolstoy).

In both cases, the degree of literary completeness of the diaries is different; as a rule, they include heterogeneous material, not limited by the momentary interests of their authors. The diaries of writers, scientists, artists, and other figures of culture and art, not even intended for publication, nevertheless are very expressive, rich in thoughts, feelings, ideas, and their artistic value often competes with specially created diaries of literary heroes. The reader's attitude to the diary as an unconditionally reliable historical document

Encyclopedic Dictionary of a Young Literary Critic

Illustrations by N. Kuzmin to N. V. Gogol's story to Notes of a madman.

that allows you to successfully use a fictional diary in a historical narrative about a real person.

The third variety is the diaries of ordinary people - simply dated entries about various feelings and events that worried the author. When such a diary belongs to a gifted person, it can become an extraordinary phenomenon of the so-called documentary literature. So he entered the world fund of works on the fight against fascism "The Diary of Anne Frank". Sounded no less strongly in the "Blockade Book"

A. M. Adamovich and D. A. Granin diary of a twelve-year-old Leningrader Yura Ryabinkin. The ingenuous notes of this boy, full of either hope, or despair, or almost adult courage, are combined in the Blockade Book with the diary of the secretary of the Academy of Sciences G. A. Knyazhev, a man mature in years and wise by experience, and the diary of a mother wholly absorbed in saving her children from starvation.

The strength of the impression made by a diary depends to a large extent on its context, historical and literary. Therefore, the lines written by the hand of Tanya Savicheva, who died in Leningrad, are so shocking. That is why the diaries of Leo Tolstoy are so permanently attracted to them. Therefore, the loss of the diaries of A. S. Pushkin, destroyed by himself, is so irreparable.

The diary is a testament to time. It is not for nothing that historians, archivists, writers, filmmakers consider the diaries of ordinary people who have not done anything special to be precious finds. It was in these diaries that the spirit of the time was most forcefully captured.

The literary significance of the diary goes far beyond the works written in its form. The diary can be called “Letters of a Russian traveler”, like N. M. Karamzin, “Not a day without a line”, like Yu. K. Olesha, “Notes of a young doctor”, like M. A. Bulgakov, or not have a name -

HOW TO KEEP A LITERARY DIARY

In order to better remember the contents of the books read. You can keep a literary diary. It will help you in preparing for exams, reports, speeches. Working with a diary develops the ability to independently formulate thoughts about what you have read.

Primary school students usually write down brief information about the book in a diary: the name of the author, the title, the names of the main characters of the book, and sometimes summarize the content.

High school records are more difficult. In addition to the author and title, it is necessary to indicate the imprint of the book: place of publication, publisher, year. This will help you later find it faster in the library. The diary notes the time of writing the work, as well as the time referred to in the book.

After describing the theme of the work, outline its content in general terms, and then formulate for yourself the idea of ​​the book. Then write down the general impression of what you read.

thoughts that arose in the process of reading, reasoning about the heroes of the story, dwell on those places that made a particularly strong impression on you, express critical remarks. In the diary you can speculate about the features; artistic form - about composition, author's style; compare this work with others< прочитанными произведениями тог(же автора или других писателей Hi аналогичную тему.

The form of keeping a diary is free. You can go back to what you have already written, or talk about events related to reading, about disputes over a book, about the opinions of friends. You keep a literary diary) only for yourself. Keeping a diary; develops the skill of independent thinking. In addition, later re-reading it will be interesting and useful.

niya - all the same, he retains the freshness and honesty of his view of the world and himself. True, there is an area of ​​literature in which falsity and hypocrisy, narrow-mindedness and hypocrisy, captured in diary entries, only help to create a revealing image of their author - this is the area satire. It was for this purpose that A. N. Ostrovsky introduced Glumov’s diary into his play “Enough Stupidity for Every Wise Man”.

The diary is one of the most democratic literary genres. Keeping a diary is available to every literate person, and the benefits it brings are enormous: daily entries, albeit small, in a few lines, teach attention to yourself and others, develop introspection skills, cultivate sincerity, observation, the ability to control yourself, develop discipline, taste to a word, an exact judgment, a strict phrase. Rereading past entries can help the author to see himself as if from the outside, to be ashamed of a hasty condemnation or unreasonable enthusiasm, to be surprised at foresight, to rejoice at insight, or to be upset by myopia in relations with people. At-

the habit of keeping a diary can help a person out in difficult moments of life, when he is left alone in the face of grief or an insoluble conflict, loss or choice. Even without becoming a literary event, the diary is still a cultural phenomenon.

In Russian classical verse, originating from M.V. Lomonosov and V.K. Trediakovsky, strict laws of metrics and rhythm dominated, five syllabo-tonic meters dominated: iambic, trochee, dactyl, anapaest, amphibrach. Almost until the beginning of the 20th century. poetry mastered the syllabo-tonic verse (cf. versification).

But at the same time, one could not help but feel that these meters and rhythms do not exhaust the richness of the sound of poetic speech, that there are possibilities in it that remain outside the scope of syllabotonics. For the strict philologists Lomonosov and Trediakovsky, for the receptive A.P. Sumarokov and the experimenter A.A. Rzhevsky, the main task was to fix the inviolability of the laws of metrics and rhythm in the minds of readers. Poets with a heightened sense of the living language, the natural sound of poetic speech, could not help but feel next to them the presence of completely different laws of the organization of verse - above all, the laws of folk song. From here come the rhythmic experiments of G. R. Derzhavin. So far, on a very small scale, on very limited material, the classical metric began to “shake”, new rhythms appeared.

The first approaches to "non-classical" metrics, apparently, should be considered the appearance of various "liberties" in the metrics of classical combinations of different three-syllable meters within the same poem, the appearance of strong non-metric stresses in the chorea.

To an even greater extent, the so-called logaeds are removed from syllabotonics - verses in which stresses are distributed according to a predetermined scheme that does not coincide with any syllabo-tonic meter:

You swore to be faithful forever, You gave me the goddess of burden as a guarantee, The cold North blew once stronger - The oath disappeared. (A. N. Radishchev)

In these "Safic stanzas" the stress falls in the first three verses of each stanza on the 1st, 3.5, 8, 10th syllables, and in the fourth - on the 1st and 4th. Most often, logaeds were imitations of ancient sizes. Logaeds appeared much less frequently, reflecting the poet's natural sense of rhythm:

On that familiar mountain I come a hundred times a day; I stand, leaning on the staff, And I look into the valley from the top. (V. A. Zhukovsky, from I. V. Aunt)

They loved each other so long and tenderly. With deep longing and insanely rebellious passion! (M. Yu. Lermontov, from G. Heine)

In the first example, in all verses the stress falls on the 2nd, 4th and 7th syllables, in the second - on the 2nd, 4th, 7th, 9th and 11th syllables.

The next degree of "liberation" was dolnik - a meter, in which, subject to a different number of strong points within a verse, the number of weak points (unstressed syllables) between them fluctuates, sometimes one or two, and predict in advance how many of these syllables will be in the next verse, impossible:

A dark-skinned youth wandered along the alleys, By the lake shores he was sad, And for a century we cherish the Barely audible rustle of steps. (A. A. Akhmatova)

The first two verses give us the inertia of the three-foot anapaest, we are ready to hear the same meter in the third verse, but instead we hear the stresses on the 3rd, 6th and 8th (and not the 9th!) syllables. And in the next verse - another variation: the stress is 3, b and 8th syllable. These two verses are not an anapaest, but neither are they a trochee, nor are they any of the other syllabo-tonic meters. This is a dolnik.

The example from Akhmatova gives us the simplest pattern, most similar to any of the classic sizes. But the dolnik has forms that are no longer at all similar to silla botonics:

I enter dark temples, Perform a poor rite. There I wait for the Beautiful Lady In the flickering of red lamps.

(A. A. Blok)

The only regularity of such a verse is that it has three stresses (that is why it is called a three-stressed or three-ict dolnik), but the number of unstressed syllables between them (and up to the first stressed one) fluctuates freely within 1-2 syllables. In the Blok verses cited, these

syllables are distributed along the lines as follows: 1-, 1-2, 2-1-2, 1-2-1 and 1-1-2 syllables.

It is not by chance that we say that strong places, and not stressed syllables, are a constant element in the dolnik. As in the syllabo-tonic meters, in the dolnik not necessarily all strong places have accents:

As simple courtesy dictates, He came up to me, smiled, Half affectionately, half lazily Touched my hand with a kiss ... (A. A. Akhmatova)

In the third verse there are not three stresses, as it should be according to theory, but only two. One stress is "missed", and the inter-stress interval increases to 5 syllables. However, rhythmic inertia gives us the opportunity to hear that there is no “retreat” here, that we have the same three-ict dolnik in which one of the strong places (on the 6th syllable) is not filled with stress.

Inside one meter - dolnik - we find a significant number of rhythmic variations, sometimes bringing it closer to some more regulated verse (to the classical meter or logaed), sometimes more free. For example, in the early poems of M. I. Tsvetaeva, the dolnik often ossifies into logaed:

You step heavily and drink hard, And a passer-by is in a hurry from you. Wasn't Rogozhin clutching a garden knife in such fingers.

The combination of a four- and two-ict dolnik of the same forms (with strong places on the 3rd, 5th, 8th and 10th syllables for a four-ict one, on the 3rd and 5th for a two-ict one) will be repeated throughout the entire poem.

However, the intervals between strong places may not be limited to 1-2 syllables, but vary for different forms in the range of 0-1-2 or 1-2-3 syllables. Such a verse is called a tactician:

Valkyries fly, bows sing. The cumbersome opera is coming to an end. Haiduks with heavy fur coats On the marble stairs are waiting for gentlemen.

Already the curtain is ready to fall tightly, The fool still applauds in the district, Cabbers dance around the fires. Such and such a card! Departure. End. (O. E. Mandelstam)

This is an example of a well-regulated tak-tovik that comes down to two forms: with strong places on the 2nd, 5th, 9th and 11th syllables (lines 1, 2, 5 and 8) and on the 2nd, 5th, 8th and 10th syllables (lines 3, 4, 6 and 7, and only in

verse 3 has no emphasis on the strong point). Tak-tovik can also be much freer:

A black man was running around the city. He extinguished the lanterns, climbing the stairs. Slow, white dawn approached, Together with the man climbed the stairs.

(A. A. Blok)

A peculiar form of tactician is the verse of Russian epics, historical songs and literary imitations of them. S. Yesenin, Y. Smelyakov, E. Yevtushenko and many others often turned to the dolnik in their work.

Drama (from the Greek drama - "action") - a kind of literature, one of three, along with epic and lyrics. The basis of the drama, as the original meaning of the word indicates, is action. In this, the drama is close to the epic: in both cases, there is an objective image of life - through events, actions, clashes of heroes, struggle, that is, through the phenomena that make up the outside world. But what is described in the epic as an accomplished event (or system of events), in the drama appears as a living action unfolding in the present time (before the eyes of the viewer!) Shown through conflicts and in the form of a dialogue.

From the noted differences, one should not conclude that one literary type is superior to another, although the superiority of an epic work covering a wider range of events may seem obvious at first glance. Drama achieves emotional and aesthetic impact with its own artistic means, inherent only to it. Having no other opportunity than remarks, to speak<Јot себя», драматург переносит центр тяже­сти на изображение самого процесса дейст­вия, делая зрителя (или читателя) живым свидетелем происходящего.

The position of the playwright is manifested in the very principle of selecting the phenomena of life for stage action.

A drama has a particularly strong emotional impact if it is staged in a theatre, where the actors, with their art, give the dramatic characters the appearance of living people. Life itself appears before the viewer, only the events taking place on the stage do not happen, but are played out. A theatrical performance combines a wide variety of art forms: poetic word and music, painting and architecture, dance and facial expressions, etc. It is the result of the joint creative efforts of a playwright, actor, director, graphic designer, musician, up to the stage engineer. The fact that the drama reveals the huge possibilities of emotional and aesthetic impact inherent in it only

so-forms: I-m layer-8 and 10-m only in

Encyclopedic Dictionary of a Young Literary Critic

Illustration by D. Bisgi for the drama by A. N. Ostrovsky “Gro-

in synthesis with other types of art, is its most important feature as a literary genre. The tension and concentration of the

matic characters require from the dramaturg special rigor in the conduct of the plot. the action in a drama must be purposeful, as well as the behavior of its characters, coherent and harmonious both in the main parts, and in the smallest details. This requirement for a dramatic plot has been called "unity of action." V. G. Belinsky pointed out: “The action of the drama should be focused on one interest and be alien to secondary interests ^ ..) everything in it should be directed towards one goal, one intention.”

The classicists insisted most decisively on the unity of action, elevating it, along with the unity of place and time, into the famous rule of three unities (cf. Classicism). But the unity of action in a drama is not only its logicality, harmony, as the classicists believed, it is - more broadly - its concentration, tension, no matter what means they are achieved, in accordance with the laws of the stage. That is why the three-term development of the plot is most consistently traced in the drama: the plot - the development of the action (including the climax) - the denouement. Most often, the external expression of the sequence of the course of a dramatic action is the division of the drama into acts, each of which captures some phase of the unfolding conflict.

ARTISTIC WORD

Usually such a circle is organized for children of middle school age. In his classes, they learn expressive reading. The work is useful for those who want to participate in drama or literary circles. However, the artistic word circle has its own task: by mastering the skills of expressive reading, to discover the word and its music in a new way.

Try to clearly, slowly, loudly read aloud Pushkin's lines from The Bronze Horseman about Eugene, who ... runs and hears behind him As if thunder rumbles, Heavy-zeon galloping On the shocked pavement ... Not only alliteration of consonants, but also the sound stressed vowels convey the roar, heaviness, formidable majesty of the Bronze Horseman. The amazing sonority of these lines is both perceived and conveyed best through reading aloud. Artistic reading reveals the hidden possibilities not only of poetic

nogo, but also prosaic text. It is easy to verify this by listening to the recordings of such masters of the artistic word as V. I. Kachalov, V. Yakhontov, V. Aksenov, D. Zhuravlev, S. Yursky and others. Listening to recordings is an indispensable element of classes. But, of course, someone else's performance is not an example to follow. Everyone must learn to read in their own way.

The choice of a prose or poetic text for reading is determined by the capabilities of the performer and his tastes, which may be imperfect. so that the advice of the leader of the circle and comrades often turns out to be very useful.

After the text is selected, it is analyzed in class: they analyze the content, meaning, and also the psychological basis on which the reader will have to rely. After all, he will have to convey the feelings and thoughts of the characters in reading, and this requires a detailed understanding of the passage.

There are difficulties in the performance of both poetry and prose. Poems require extremely careful attention.

"T from the drama of the plot: the purpose of the heroes, the connection with the parts, the same requirement taught the name." Belinsky

Nstve action-1 leading him to-enn in the banner-t (see. class in the drama - harmony, - wider - 1ryazhennost, achieved, &J. Here is an honorable pro-tion of the plot:

The unity of action does not necessarily imply a sharp intrigue, a rapidly developing plot; there are many dramas, especially in the literature of the 20th century, in which there is neither one nor the other. The founder of this line in dramaturgy is considered to be A.P. Chekhov, who updated the dramatic plot with his plays "The Seagull", "Uncle Vanya", "Three Sisters", "The Cherry Orchard". But also in those dramas where. it seems that “nothing is happening”, the unity of action is observed, and it is created by the unity of mood, feelings, by which the characters live. The subtext plays the most important role in this (a dialogue constructed in a special way, where the most important and significant is hushed up, and the speech emphasizes the secondary and insignificant; thus, the omissions carry a greater poetic and semantic load than the “spoken”, expressed in words).

Dramaturgy of the Chekhov type convincingly reveals the role of the word in drama as the most important, along with action, visual means. The dramatic word organized into dialogues is especially active in the form of replicas, a kind of mutual verbal blows, which are exchanged at lightning speed by the characters conducting the dialogue on the stage. The drama uses both poetry and prose. Until the 18th century, as in the entire artistic line, to melody, to semantic and rhythmic pauses, to rhythmic interruptions, to alliterations - all this must be conveyed in reading. Not as easy as it might seem, and reading prose. After all, gesture, facial expressions, acting, which are absolutely necessary for the reader, must be united by a common tone, a single intonation of performance.

Being engaged in a circle of artistic reading, you will learn not only to hear and convey the music of the word, but also to place complex logical stresses in the text. In the process of preparing a passage, your understanding of the content of a literary work as a whole will deepen. Classes in the circle will help you master the basics of stage speech, which includes working on pronunciation, correcting speech shortcomings.

Young readers will be able to work on literary montages, small dramatizations, hold reading competitions in a circle, in a class or at school.

literature, the poetic form prevailed in the drama. Contemporary drama equally uses both forms, although prose undoubtedly predominates in it.

The noted features of the drama are among its most general, generic features that distinguish drama from epic and lyrical works. Drama is divided into a number of major varieties, ljf^ Depending on the nature of the conflicts, ^PJ^ goals of the struggle that the characters are waging, on the feelings arising from the viewer or reader, dramatic works are divided into tragedy, comedy, drama(in the narrow sense of the word). In the process of long historical development, each of these dramatic types is divided into a number of specific genres: in comedy - farce, vaudeville, satirical, lyrical comedy, etc. Tragedy shows the greatest genre stability, since the subject of its depiction is not a specific reality in all its diversity, but general problems of being, morality, important for mankind in all epochs.

A special type of dramatic action is carnival, which represents the most important link in folk culture: the direct play of the crowd during a street carnival, the reincarnation of its participants in traditional roles. The original carnival scenes had the meaning of rituals, then they acquired a purely theatrical, playful character. Carnival characters usually clearly reflect the types created by the creative imagination of the people, and the plots - the people's attitude to certain phenomena of life. Especially rich in genre varieties is modern drama, which has found a tendency to merge opposite dramatic types (tragifarces, tragicomedies). dramas and epics (various chronicles, scenes, etc.), dramas and lyrics. Modern playwrights strive for individual genre originality of their plays, so it is not possible to take a general look at the whole variety of genres of modern dramaturgy. It is noteworthy that, along with the traditional, theatrical drama, whole new branches arise in it: film, television, and radio dramaturgy.

Drama in the narrow sense of the word is a play with a sharp conflict, which, however, unlike the tragic, is not so elevated, more mundane, ordinary and somehow resolved. Drama combines the tragic and comic beginnings, which is why it is often called the middle genre. She

nikla in the 18th century. in educational dramaturgy (Didro, Beaumarchais, Lessing) as a genre that sought to overcome the one-sidedness of classic tragedy and comedy. The drama received a special flourishing in the heyday of realism in the 19th century.

In Russian literature, outstanding works in the genre of drama belong to A. S. Pushkin (“Mermaid”), M. Yu. Lermontov (“Strange Man”, “Masquerade”), A. N. Ostrovsky (“Thunderstorm”, “Guilty Without Guilt ”), N. V. Gogol (“Players”), A. V. Sukhovo-Kobylin (“Krechinsky’s Wedding”, “Deed”, “Death of Tarelkin”), L. N. Tolstoy (“The Living Corpse”) , M. Gorky (“The Petty Bourgeois”, “At the Bottom”, “Enemies”), B. A. Lavrenev (“The Break”), A. E. Korneych-ku (“Platon Krechet”, “Front”), K. M. Simonov (“Russian People”), A. N. Arbuzov (“Tanya”, “City at Dawn”), V. S. Rozov (“Forever Alive”, “Capercaillie Nest”), M. F. Shatrov ( “Bolsheviks”, “Sixth of July”, “So we will win!”), A. I. Gelman (“Minutes of one meeting”, “Alone with everyone”) and others.

OLD RUSSIAN LITERATURE

The concept of "Old Russian literature" includes literary works of the XI-XVII centuries. The literary monuments of this period include not only literary works proper, but also historical works (chronicles and chronicle stories), descriptions of travels (they were called walks), teachings, lives (stories about the life of people ranked by the church as a host of saints), messages, essays of the oratorical genre, some texts of a business nature. In all these monuments there are elements of artistic creativity, an emotional reflection of modern life.

The vast majority of ancient Russian literary works did not retain the names of their creators. Old Russian literature, as a rule, is anonymous, and in this respect it is similar to oral folk art. The literature of Ancient Russia was handwritten: the works were distributed by copying texts. In the course of the manuscript existence of works for centuries, texts were not only copied, but often reworked due to changes in literary tastes, the socio-political situation, in connection with personal

passions and literary abilities of scribes. This explains the existence of various editions and variants of the same monument in the manuscript lists. Comparative textual analysis (see. Textology) editions and variants allows researchers to restore the literary history of the work and decide which text is closest to the original, author's, how it changed over time. Only in the rarest cases do we have the author's lists of monuments, and very often in later lists texts come to us that are closer to the author's than in the lists of earlier ones. Therefore, the study of ancient Russian literature is based on an exhaustive study of all lists of the studied work. Collections of ancient Russian manuscripts are available in major libraries in various cities of the USSR, in archives and museums. Many works have been preserved in a large number of lists, many in a very limited number. There are works represented by a single list: "Instruction" by Vladimir Monomakh, "The Tale of Woe-Misfortune", etc., in a single list, the "Tale of Igor's Campaign" has come down to us, but he also died during Napoleon's invasion of Moscow in 1812 G.

A characteristic feature of Old Russian literature is the repetition in different works of different times of certain situations, characteristics, comparisons, epithets, metaphors. The literature of Ancient Russia is characterized by "etiquette": the hero acts and behaves as he should, according to the concepts of that time, act, behave in given circumstances; specific events (for example, a battle) are depicted using constant images and forms, everything has a certain ceremoniality. Old Russian literature is solemn, majestic, traditional. But over the seven hundred years of its existence, it has gone through a difficult path of development, and within the framework of its unity, we observe a variety of themes and forms, a change in old and the creation of new genres, a close connection between the development of literature and the historical destinies of the country. All the time there was a kind of struggle between living reality, the creative individuality of the authors and the requirements of the literary canon.

The emergence of Russian literature dates back to the end of the 10th century, when, with the adoption of Christianity in Russia as the state religion, service and historical-narrative texts in Church Slavonic were to appear. Ancient Russia

through Bulgaria, from where these texts mainly came, she immediately joined the highly developed Byzantine literature and the literature of the southern Slavs. The interests of the developing Kievan feudal state demanded the creation of their own, original works and new genres. Literature was called upon to instill a sense of patriotism, to affirm the historical and political unity of the ancient Russian people and the unity of the family of ancient Russian princes, and to expose princely feuds.

Tasks and themes of literature in the 11th - early 13th centuries. (questions of Russian history in its connection with world history, the history of the emergence of Russia, the struggle against external enemies - the Pechenegs and Polovtsians, the struggle of princes for the throne of Kiev) determined the general character of the style of this time, called by Academician D.S. Likhachev the style of monumental historicism. The emergence of Russian chronicle writing is connected with the beginning of Russian literature. As part of later Russian chronicles, the Tale of Bygone Years has come down to us - a chronicle compiled by the ancient Russian historian and publicist monk Nestor around 1113. At the heart of the Tale of Bygone Years, which includes both a story about world history and records by year about events in Russia, and legendary legends, and narrations about princely strife, and laudatory characteristics of individual princes, and philippics condemning them, and copies of documentary materials, lie even earlier chronicles that have not come down to us. The study of lists of Old Russian texts makes it possible to restore the lost names of the literary history of Old Russian works. 11th century dated and the first Russian

"Apostles. The first Russian Fedorov book printed by Ivan Slavzell

life (princes Boris and Gleb, abbot of the Kiev-Pechersk monastery Theodosius). These lives are distinguished by literary perfection, attention to the pressing problems of our time, and the vitality of many episodes. The maturity of political thought, patriotism, publicism, and high literary skill are also characteristic of the monuments of oratorical eloquence Ilarion’s “Sermon on Law and Grace” (1st half of the 11th century), the words and teachings of Cyril of Turov (IZO-1182). The "Instruction" of the great Kiev prince Vladimir Monomakh (1053-1125) is imbued with concern for the fate of the country, with deep humanity.

In the 80s. 12th century an author unknown to us creates the most brilliant work of ancient Russian literature - ^ The Tale of Igor's Campaign. The specific topic to which the "Word" is devoted is the unsuccessful campaign in 1185 to the Polovtsian steppe of the Novgorod-Seversky prince Igor Svyatoslavich. But the author is concerned about the fate of the entire Russian land, he recalls the events of the distant past and the present. and the true hero of his work is not Igor, not the Grand Duke of Kiev Svyatoslav Vsevolodovich, to whom much attention is paid in the Lay, but the Russian people, the Russian land. In many ways, the “Word” is associated with the literary traditions of its time, but, as a work of genius, it is distinguished by a number of features that are unique to it: the originality of the processing of etiquette techniques, the richness of the language, the refinement of the rhythmic construction of the text, the nationality of its very essence and the creative rethinking of oral techniques. folk art, special lyricism, high civic pathos. According to K. Marx, the main idea is

Encyclopedic Dictionary of a Young Literary Critic

The real essence of the “Word ...” is the call of the Russian princes to unity just before the invasion ... of the Mongol hordes (Marx K., Engels F. Soch. Vol. 29. P. 16).

The main theme of the literature of the period of the Horde yoke (1243 of the 13th century - the end of the 15th century) is national-patriotic. The monumental-historical style takes on an expressive tone: the works created at that time bear a tragic imprint and are distinguished by lyrical elation. The idea of ​​strong princely power acquires great significance in literature. Both in the annals and in separate stories (“The Tale of the Devastation of Ryazan by Batu”), written by eyewitnesses and going back to oral tradition, it tells about the horrors of the enemy invasion and the infinitely heroic struggle of the people against the enslavers. The image of an ideal prince - a warrior and a statesman, a defender of the Russian land - was most clearly reflected in the Tale of the Life of Alexander Nevsky (70s of the XIII century). A poetic picture of the greatness of the Russian land, Russian nature, the former power of the Russian princes appears in the “Word about the destruction of the Russian land” - in an excerpt from a work that has not come down completely, dedicated to the tragic events of the Horde yoke (1st half of the 13th century).

Literature of the 14th century - 50s 15th century reflects the events and ideology of the time of the unification of the principalities of northeastern Russia around Moscow, the formation of the Russian people and the gradual formation of the Russian centralized state. During this period, ancient Russian literature began to show interest in the psychology of an individual, in his spiritual world (though still within the bounds of religious consciousness), which led to the growth of the subjective principle. An expressive-emotional style arises, characterized by verbal sophistication, ornamental prose (the so-called "weaving of words"). All this reflects the desire to depict human feelings. In the 2nd half of the 15th - early 16th century. stories appear, the plot of which goes back to oral stories of a novelistic nature (“The Tale of Peter, the Prince of the Horde”, “The Tale of Dracula”, “The Tale of the Merchant Basarga and his son Borzosmysl”). The number of translated monuments of a fictional nature is significantly increasing, and the genre of political legendary works (“The Tale of the Princes of Vladimir”) is becoming widespread.

In the middle of the XVI century. Old Russian writer and publicist Yermolai-Erasmus creates

The Tale of the Life of Alexander Boische. Miniature of the Face-Nevsky. Ice arch. 16th century

"The Tale of Peter and Fevronia" is one of the most remarkable works of literature of Ancient Russia. The story is written in the tradition of an expressive-emotional style, it is built on the legendary legend of how a peasant girl, thanks to her mind, became a princess. The author widely used fairy-tale techniques, at the same time, social motives sound sharply in the story. "The Tale of Peter and Fevronia" is largely connected with the literary traditions of its time and the previous period, but at the same time it is ahead of modern literature, it is distinguished by artistic perfection, bright individuality.

In the XVI century. the official character of literature is enhanced, its distinctive feature is pomp and solemnity. Works of a generalizing nature, the purpose of which is to regulate the spiritual, political, legal and everyday life, are widely disseminated. The "Great Menaions of the Chetya" are being created - a 12-volume set of texts intended for everyday reading for each month. At the same time, “Domostroy” was written, which sets out the rules of human behavior in the family, detailed tips for housekeeping, rules for the relationship between

Old Russian literature

KPovvst about Peter and Favronius of Murom. Fevronia for

weaving. Detail of an icon from the end of the 16th - machalda of the 15th 11th century.

people. In literary works, the individual style of the author is more noticeable, which is especially clearly reflected in the messages of Ivan the Terrible. Fiction is increasingly penetrating into historical narratives, giving the narrative a greater plot of interest. This is inherent in the "History of the Grand Duke of Moscow" by Andrei Kurbsky, and is reflected in the "Kazan History" - an extensive plot-historical narrative about the history of the Kazan kingdom and the struggle for Kazan by Ivan the Terrible.

In the 17th century the process of transforming medieval literature into modern literature begins. New purely literary genres are emerging, the process of democratization of literature is underway, and its subject matter is expanding significantly. Events of the Time of Troubles and the Peasant War of the late 16th - early 17th centuries. change the view of history and the role of an individual in it, which leads to the liberation of literature from church influence. The writers of the Time of Troubles (Avraamiy Palitsyn, I.M. Katyrev-Rostovsky, Ivan Timofeev, etc.) try to explain the deeds of Ivan the Terrible, Boris Godunov, False Dmitry, Vasily Shuisky not only as a manifestation of divine will, but also

the value of these acts from the person himself, his personal characteristics. In literature, there is an idea of ​​the formation, change and development of a human character under the influence of external circumstances. A wider circle of people began to engage in literary work. The so-called posad literature is born, which is created and exists in a democratic environment. A genre of democratic satire arises, in which state and church orders are ridiculed: legal proceedings are parodied (“The Tale of the Shemyakin Court”), church service (“Service to the Tavern”), sacred writing (“The Tale of the Peasant son"), clerical practice (^ The Tale of Yersh Ershovich", "Ka-lyazinsky petition"). The nature of the lives is also changing, which are increasingly becoming real biographies. The most remarkable work of this genre in the XVII century. is the autobiographical "Life" of Archpriest Avvakum (1620-1682), written by him in 1672-1673. It is remarkable not only for its lively and vivid story about the author’s harsh and courageous life path, but also for its equally vivid and passionate depiction of the social and ideological struggle of his time, deep psychologism, preaching pathos, combined with full revelation confession. And all this is written in a lively, juicy language, sometimes high bookish, sometimes bright colloquial and everyday.

The rapprochement of literature with everyday life, the appearance of a love affair in the narrative, psychological motivations for the hero's behavior are inherent in a number of stories of the 17th century. (“The Tale of Grief-Misfortune”, “The Tale of Savva Grud-tsyn”, “The Tale of Frol Skobeev”, etc.). Translated collections of a novelistic character appear, with short edifying, but at the same time anecdotally entertaining stories, translated chivalric novels (“The Tale of Bove the King Wich”, “The Tale of Yeruslan Lazarevich”, etc.). The latter, on Russian soil, acquired the character of original, “their own” monuments and eventually entered popular popular literature. In the 17th century poetry develops (Simeon Polotsky, Sylvester Medvedev, Karion Istomin and others). In the 17th century the history of great ancient Russian literature ended as a phenomenon that was characterized by common principles, which, however, underwent certain changes. Old Russian literature, with its entire development, prepared the Russian literature of modern times.

GENRE

A genre is a historically developing and developing type of work of art.

The spiritual and creative activity of a person, culture, writing are invariably clothed in stable genre forms. Everything that we write: a diary, a letter, a school essay, a report, an article in a wall newspaper - all these are certain genres with their own laws and requirements. It is simply impossible to write any text outside the genre. Let's say you take a blank sheet of paper and put on it a few phrases that capture your impressions or thoughts. You didn’t think about any genres at that moment, you didn’t set any special literary tasks for yourself, but this fragmentary record, against your will, has something to do with a certain genre - a prose fragment (it was widely represented among German romantics, and in our time it is found in the book of the Soviet writer Yu. K. Olesha<Ни дня без строчки») . Отсюда, конечно, вовсе не следует, что ваша фрагментарная запись - литера­турное произведение. У фрагмента как худо­жественного жанра свобода и глубина суж­дения должны сочетаться с виртуозной отто­ченностью выражения. Дело в другом - в цепкости и властности жанровых тради­ций: они дают возможность каждому, кто берется за перо, выбрать подходящий угол зрения, и в то же время они предъявляют к каждому автору строгий счет, напоминая ему о высоких образцах, о примере предше­ственников.

The word "genre" in French means "genus", but in the old days genres were called epic, lyric and drama which today it is customary to consider categories as generic (cf. Genera and types of literature). The concept of "genre" has become identical with the concept of "kind" (cf. Genera and types of literature). In some literary periods, writers attach heightened importance to the problems of the genre, and genre theory goes hand in hand with practice: this was the case, for example, in the era classicism with its strict hierarchy of literary types and a system of creative instructions for each of them. In other times

Genres are thought and talked about less, although their development does not stop and does not slow down.

The two most important conditions for the existence of a genre are its long, strong literary memory and its continuous historical evolution. It would seem that there is little external similarity between The Bronze Horseman by A. S. Pushkin, Nightingale Garden by A. A. Blok and Vasily Terkin by A. T. Tvardovsky, but there is a connection between these works in the very method of construction, in the way reflections and refractions of reality, since they belong to the same genre ~ poem. There are unexpected genre overlaps, connecting threads that are not immediately noticeable, but nevertheless strong. So, novel N. G. Chernyshevsky "What to do?", Projecting the future ideal society (description of the workshops, Vera Pavlovna's fourth dream), historically goes back to the tradition of the utopian novel of the Renaissance ("Utopia" by T. Mora, "City of the Sun" by T. Campanella, etc. .). And the satirical chapters of the novel are very reminiscent of Renaissance pamphlets: it is not for nothing that Chernyshevsky called one of the chapters “Eulogy to Marya Alekseevna” by analogy with Erasmus of Rotterdam’s “Praise of Stupidity”. Genre ode, seemingly finally abandoned by Russian poetry at the beginning of the 19th century, it is revived by V. V. Mayakovsky, one of whose poems is called “Ode to the Revolution”. And the point here is not so much in the subjective intentions of the authors, but in the objectively existing "memory of the genre" (an expression of the Soviet literary critic M. M. Bakhtin). Genres do not die, they never go into the past irrevocably, they can only retreat, go to a siding, and the possibility of returning is always open for them - if time requires it, the logic of literary development will require it.

Each genre is a living, developing organism, a continuously evolving system (Yu. N. Tynyanov pointed this out in his works). All literary genres together form an integral system that demonstrates the richness of the possibilities of the artistic word in the creative re-creation of reality. In this system, every link is irreplaceable. Therefore, it is impossible to elevate some genres over others, and world literature gradually abandoned the hierarchies of genres, from dividing them into "high" and "low". Voltaire's half-joking aphorism, "All kinds of poetry are good, except the boring," apparently, will forever remain true for

culture.

Genres participate in a kind of exchange of creative experience. This is both natural and fruitful for literature. Many works combine the features of different genres, the boundaries between literary types are sometimes made mobile, open, but the center of each of them can be found at any time.

The process of interaction of genres is revived during periods of renewal of all literature. So it was, for example, at the time of the formation and flourishing of the Russian realism XIX century, when A. S. Pushkin creates a work of an unusual, experimental genre - a novel in verse, when in prose there are no rigid boundaries between a story and a story, between a story and a novel. L. N. Tolstoy wrote: “Starting from“ Dead souls" by Gogol and to "The House of the Dead" by F. M. Dostoevsky, in a new

period of Russian literature there is not a single artistic prose work, a little out of mediocrity, which would fit perfectly into the form of a novel, poem or short story. For this reason, the author of "War and Peace" refused to attribute his work to any traditional genre: "This is not a novel, still less a poem, still less a historical chronicle."

Nevertheless, "War and Peace" did not at all remain outside the system of genres, l Tolstoy himself later said that it was "like the Iliad", feeling the involvement of his work in the ancient tradition of the epic. Over time, scientists came to the conclusion about the two-genre nature of this work and defined it as an epic novel: this turned out to be possible also because the “non-standard” “War and Peace” laid the foundation for a new

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Dialectisms and their variety in works of art in Russian literature

Type: creative work

The words rogach and fork (fork) are widespread in Ukrainian dialects; the literary name in the Ukrainian language is rogach.

For a modern urban student, the lines of S. Yesenin from the poem “In the House” sound completely mysterious:

It smells of loose dragons,

At the threshold in a bowl of kvass,

Over turned stoves

Cockroaches climb into the groove.

Soot curls over the damper,

In the oven, the threads of popelits,

And on the bench behind the salt shaker -

Husks of raw eggs.

Mother with grips will not cope,

An old cat sneaks up to the shawl

For fresh milk

Restless chickens chuckle

Over the shafts of the plow,

In the yard I will have a slender dinner

And in the window on the canopy are sloped,

From the fearful noise

From the corners puppies are curly

They crawl into collars.

S.A. Yesenin, according to contemporaries, was very fond of reading this poem in 1915–1916. in front of the public. Literary critic V. Chernyavsky recalls: “... He had to explain his vocabulary, - there were “foreigners” around, - and neither the “groove”, nor the “dezhka”, nor the “sloping”, nor the “sloping” were understandable to them. The poet - a native of the village of Konstantinovo, Ryazan province - often used his own, Ryazan words and forms in his works, incomprehensible to the inhabitants of the city, to those who are familiar only with the literary language. Chernyavsky calls them "foreigners". Most of us are foreigners. Therefore, we explain the meaning of the highlighted words. Incomprehensible in the text of the poem are not only Ryazan words, i.e. directly dialectisms, but also such expressions that characterize the life of any village (collar, plow, stove, damper).

Drachona (drochena) - this is the name of a thick pancake, often made from wheat flour, smeared with an egg on top, or potato pancakes. It is these meanings that are most common in the villages of the Ryazan region. In other Russian dialects, the given word can mean a completely different dish.

Dezhka - the word is very widespread in the southern dialect. This wooden tub was made by coopers, there were several bowls on the farm, they were used for pickling cucumbers, mushrooms, and for storing water, kvass, and for making dough. As you can see, kvass is poured in this bowl.

Modern youth understands the word stove as a “small stove”. In fact, the stove is a small recess in the outer or side wall of the oven for drying and storing small items.

Popelitsa - formed from the dialect word popel - ashes.

Fork - a device with which the pots are taken out of the oven (see figure), is a curved metal plate - a slingshot, attached to a handle - a long wooden stick. The word, although it denotes an object of peasant life, is included in the literary language, and therefore in dictionaries it is given without a mark of the region. (regional) or dial. (dialect).

Mahotka is a clay pot.

Low, sneaking - these words are given with dialectal stress.

The words shafts (an element of a harness), as well as a plow (a primitive agricultural tool), are included in the literary language, we will find them in any explanatory dictionary. It's just that they are not well known, because they are usually associated with an old, bygone village, a traditional peasant economy. And there is no information about the words sloping (probably sloping) and noise (noise) in dialect dictionaries. And dialectologists, without special research, cannot say whether there are such words in Ryazan dialects or whether they are inventions of the poet himself, i.e. writer's occasionalisms.

So, a dialect word, phrase, construction included in a work of art to convey local color when describing village life, to create a speech characteristic of characters, is called dialectism.

Dialectisms are perceived by us as something outside the literary language, not corresponding to its norms. Dialectisms are different depending on what trait they reflect. Local words that are unknown to the literary language are called lexical dialectisms. These include the words dezhka, mahotka, drachena, popelitsa. If they are listed in dictionaries, then they are marked regional (region).

In our example, the word stove appears, which in the literary language means a small stove, but in dialect it has a completely different meaning. This is semantic (semantic) dialectism (from the Greek semanticos - denoting). The word is known to the literary language, but its meaning is different.

A variety of lexical dialectisms are ethnographic dialectisms. They designate the names of objects, foods, clothes, peculiar only to the inhabitants of a certain area - in other words, this is the dialect name of a local thing. “Women in plaid panevs threw wood chips at slow-witted or overzealous dogs,” writes I.S. Turgenev. Paneva (poneva) - a type of women's clothing such as a skirt, characteristic of peasant women from the south of Russia, they wear it both in Ukraine and in Belarus. Panevs, depending on the area, differ in their material and colors. Here is another example of ethnography from the story of V.G. Rasputin's “French Lessons”: “Even earlier, I noticed with what curiosity Lydia Mikhailovna looks at my shoes. Of the entire class, I was the only one wearing teal.” In Siberian dialects, the word chirki means light leather shoes, usually without tops, with edging and ties.

Let us once again pay attention to the fact that many lexical and semantic dialectisms can be found in the explanatory dictionaries of the literary language marked reg. (regional). Why are they included in dictionaries? Because they are often used in fiction, in newspapers, magazines, in colloquial speech, when it comes to village problems.

Often it is important for writers to show not only what the character says, but also how he says it. For this purpose, dialect forms are introduced into the characters' speech. It is impossible to get past them. For example, I.A. Bunin, a native of the Oryol region, who brilliantly knew the dialect of his native places, writes in the story “Tales”: “This Vanya from the stove, then, getting off, putting on Malachai, girds himself with a sash, puts a piece of knuckle in his bosom and goes to this very guard.” Kushachkyom, kryushechkyu - convey the peculiarities of the pronunciation of the Oryol peasants.

Dialectisms play an important role in the works of Russian literature. Dialectisms are words or combinations of words that are common in a limited area and used by the literary language, but not included in its system.

In a work of art, dialect vocabulary primarily fills the speech of ordinary people and is used by them in an informal setting, which is due to the conditions of oral communication, in which interlocutors choose the most famous ones from a huge number of words, those that are more often perceived by ear. People's speech can reflect the phonetic, word-formation, grammatical features of the dialect.

Pavel Lukyanovich Yakovlev (1796 - 1835), brother of the lyceum friend A.S. Pushkin, in order to show the originality of local Russian dialects, wrote an "elegy" in the Vyatka dialect, the content of which must be "translated" into Russian, because it contained many incomprehensible dialectisms. Judge for yourself, here is an excerpt from the "Vyatka Elegy" and its literary translation:

“Everyone was bashing that I was a smart, important kid. Where I am, it has always been sugat. And now? I'm not a twirl like a stream. Oh, when I close my balls and they put a mitten on me ... "

“Everyone said that I was a neat kid, well done. Where I am, it's always crowded. And now? I no longer frolic like a bird! . Oh when, when I will close my eyes and they will sprinkle me with juniper!”

Who would have thought that such familiar words as balls, plant, in the Vyatka dialect have a completely different meaning?

This, of course, does not mean that a strict ban is imposed on dialect words. Not! Artists of the word skillfully use expressive dialectisms. M. A. Sholokhov achieved great skill in this in "The Quiet Don", "Virgin Soil Upturned", "Don Stories". From these works, readers learned many Don realities. Remember the Sholokhov bases, gossip, kuren and others.

The interest of writers in dialectisms is dictated by the desire to truthfully reflect the life of the people. The dialectisms in Turgenev's Bezhin Meadow do not seem inappropriate to us: “Why are you crying, you forest potion?” - about a mermaid; “Gavrila bailed that her voice, they say, is so thin”; “What happened the other day in Varnavitsy…”; “The elder is stuck in the alley. she frightened her own yard dog so much that she was off the chain, and through the wattle fence, and into the dog. Local words in the speech of the boys gathered around the fire do not require "translation".

And if the writer was not sure that he would be understood correctly, he explained the dialecticisms: “He went to the meadow, you know, where he goes down with death, because there is a buchilo; you know, it's still overgrown with reeds. » And in this phrase, some clarifications need to be made: "Sugibel is a sharp turn in a ravine"; "Buchilo is a deep pit with spring water" - these are the notes of I. S. Turgenev.

In Russian literature of the XIX century. two traditions were defined in the use of dialectisms: “the tradition of I. Turgenev” and “the tradition of L. Tolstoy”. In accordance with the first, dialectisms in the text had to be explained (by selecting synonyms, in footnotes, in brackets, etc.). For example, in “Hunting Tales” by I.S. Turgenev, we read: In the Oryol province, the last forests and squares will disappear in five years ... (and a note is immediately given in the footnote: “Squares” are called large continuous masses of bushes in the Oryol province; the Oryol dialect is generally distinguished by a lot of original, sometimes very accurate, sometimes quite ugly , words and phrases); I, an inexperienced person and not “living” in the village (as we say in Orel), have heard enough of such stories; He was rejected as a person who was not fit for any job - "lying", as we say in Orel.

According to the second tradition, dialectisms were not explained, only the context indicated their meaning. Here, for example, how L.N. Tolstoy:

And do you have a bad hut?

That is what we are waiting for with the woman that is about to crush someone, - Churis said indifferently. - The other day, and then the roll from the ceiling killed my woman!

2.2 Dialectisms and their types in works of art.

There are dialectisms recorded in the explanatory dictionaries of the literary language with the mark "regional", and extra-literary dialectisms, known only in dialects. Examples of dialectisms, fixed in the dictionaries of the literary language with the mark reg. (regional word): poskotina - “pasture, pasture, directly adjacent to the village, fenced on all sides by a fence”; brodni - "soft leather boots with long tops", biryuk - "wolf". This litter is often combined with others: dad, prost. and region - "father"; batozhye, region, obsolete. - “batogi”, etc. Compare: “Near the cattle he wanted to turn into the bushes” (M. Perevozchikov); “Friends-comrades, tired during the day, began to trample their walks to the beat” (N. Volokitin). Examples of non-literary dialectisms: vekhotka - “a washcloth, sponge or other device for washing in a bath”; tower - "attic". Wed: “The aunt removed a milestone from the wall and asked the quiet Senka: “Will you wash yourself or go with you?” (M. Perevozchikov); “The tower of the house was distinguished by tense silence” (A. Shcherbakov).

The selection of dialectisms in the modern literary language was entirely determined by literary texts, and not by any scientific principle (displaying dialect vocabulary of wide distribution, opposed vocabulary, etc.). From acquaintance with folk speech through literature, a person “endures respect for the idea of ​​nationality ..., he will see the Russian people in the direct manifestations of his spiritual life” (A.A. Shakhmatov). The dictionaries of the literary language also reflect words that have a territorial restriction in use, but without the mark of the region, and vocabulary denoting ancient peasant realities: karbaas and karbas - “a cargo rowing or small sailing vessel on the White Sea and the rivers flowing into it”; chaldON - “a native Russian inhabitant of Siberia”, pimY - “felt boots in Siberia and the Urals”, sorOga - “a common name for roach (the north of the European part of the country, the Urals, Siberia and other regions)”, as well as klunya - “a room for threshing and folding sheaves”, katsavEyka - “Russian women's folk clothes, a kind of swing top sweater on wadding, fur or lined”.

Extra-literary dialectisms are recorded in special dictionaries, usually associated with the work of individual writers.

Dialectisms differ from their counterparts in the literary language. They are:

1) grammatical (that is, having features that are manifested in the formation of forms of parts of speech, in the transition from one grammatical gender to another, etc.): a lamb - “a lamb, a lamb, a sacrificial animal” (“He personally took the lamb to slaughter to the devil". A. Cherkasov), meet - "meet" ("Shot, spent - and drink for a sweet soul." V. Zikunov);

2) phonetic (reflecting the features of the sound system of the dialect), for example, okane ("Lady! Lady! - she called, Go-ko, go-ko, I'll give you something!". V. Astafiev);

3) lexical-phonetic (having a different vowel in separate words: have breakfast, tease (“Guys, get up! Let’s have breakfast!” M. Koryakina); “These sheaves also appeared on Ovchinnikov’s haunts - I ran away from them, not to tease so as not to covet. S. Zalygin);

4) actually lexical (local names of objects and phenomena that have synonyms in the literary language: a gusset - “belt” (“Thin, bony, with rags in split braids, with an old gusnik hanging under a white shirt, the grandmother is unhurried.” V. Astafiev hawker - “reveler, drunkard” (“Vereshchaga immediately recognized the redhead: this is Artyushko Shelunin, the first swearing and started the hawkers.” A. Chmykhalo);

5) semantic (popular words with a different meaning than in the literary language): much - “very” (“The rogue learned a lot.” A. Chmykhalo); collar - “a guard standing at the gate” (“Overko Shcherbak’s collar next gnashed with iron, closing the Spassky Gate with a pood lock.” A. Chmykhalo);

6) derivational, (which differ from the same-root synonyms of the literary language by separate affixes): pink salmon - “hump, a piece of bread” (“And the dogs that broke into the store, also threw a humpback on the hunchback.” V. Borodin); gorodchansky - “city” (“The gorodchanka’s spiny tail thought something, huh?” A. Cherkasov);

7) phraseological (stable combinations that are found only in dialects): carry a drum - “talk nonsense” (V. Astafiev), tear up the boloni - “laugh very much” (“He is a funny man and talks about the adventures that happened to him, so hilarious, that you will tear the boloni.” V. Astafiev);

8) ethnographic (words denoting special objects known only in a limited regional culture; words indicating the specificity of the conceptual articulation of reality by native speakers): drachena, or drachona, - “grated potatoes fried with butter” (“Are drachena, fried kharyuz ". V. Astafiev); lagoon - lagukha - la-gushek - lagushka - lagushok - “a small vessel for storing liquid, a small barrel with a hole in the bottom plugged with a “plug” (“On the sleigh in orderly order stood ... lagoons of moonshine.” P. Astrov; “And you slaz, there, in the bottom of the barrel, a lagoon with mash is hidden". V. Astafiev, "I rushed into the closet to the lagush, where since July ... bird cherry tincture" N. Volokitin; P. Petrov, "I'll tie a camp with tar around your neck" K. Sedykh); to help is “a joint work of neighbors and relatives, at the end of which refreshments are served” (“Braga was sour in the old lagoon, steamed for help in the mowing.” V. Astafiev).

1. Designate the place of dialectisms in the modern Russian literary language ..

2. Analyze the works of art of the selected authors in terms of the use of dialectisms in them.

4. Consider the question of how folk speech affects the expressiveness of the language of the work.

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“With quick steps I passed a long“ area ”of bushes, climbed a hill and, instead of the expected familiar plain (...), I saw completely different, unknown places to me” (I. S. Turgenev, “Bezhin Meadow”). Why did Turgenev put the word "square" in quotation marks? Thus, he wanted to emphasize that this word in this sense is alien to the literary language. Where did the author borrow the highlighted word from and what does it mean? The answer is found in another story. “In the Oryol province, the last forests and squares will disappear in five years ...” - Turgenev says in “Khora and Kalinich” and makes the following note: “Squares” are called large continuous masses of bushes in the Oryol province.

Many writers, depicting village life, use the words and set phrases of the folk dialect common in the area (territorial dialect). Dialect words used in literary speech are called dialectisms.

We meet dialectisms in A. S. Pushkin, I. S. Turgenev, N. A. Nekrasov, L. N. Tolstoy, V. A. Sleptsov, F. M. Reshetnikov, A. P. Chekhov, V. G. Korolenko, S. A. Yesenina, M. M. Prishvin, M. A. Sholokhova, V. M. Soloukhina, I. V. Abramova, V. I. Belova, V. M. Shukshina, V. G. Rasputin, V. P. Astafiev, A. A. Prokofiev, N. M. Rubtsov and many others.

Dialect words are introduced by the author, first of all, to characterize the character's speech. They indicate both the social position of the speaker (usually belonging to a peasant environment) and his origin from a particular area. “All around are such gullies, ravines, and in the ravines all the cases are found,” says Turgenev’s boy Ilyusha, using the Oryol word for a snake. Or from A. Ya. Yashin: “I’m walking along the oseks once, I look - something is moving. Suddenly, I think, a hare? - says the Vologda peasant. Here is the indistinction c and h, inherent in some northern dialects, as well as the local word "osek" - a fence of poles or brushwood that separates a pasture from a hayfield or village.

Writers who are sensitive to language do not overload the speech of the characters with dialectal features, but convey its local character with a few strokes, introducing either a single word or a phonetic (sound), derivational or grammatical form characteristic of the dialect.

Often writers turn to such local words that name objects, phenomena of rural life and do not have correspondences in the literary language. Let us recall Yesenin's poems addressed to his mother: "Don't go on the road so often / In an old-fashioned shabby husk." Shushun is the name of women's clothing such as a jacket worn by Ryazan women. We find similar dialectisms in modern writers. For example, in Rasputin: "Of the whole class, only I went in teals." In Siberia, chirki are light leather shoes, usually without tops, with edging and ties. The use of such words helps to more accurately reproduce the life of the village. Writers use dialect words when depicting a landscape, which gives the description a local flavor. So, V. G. Korolenko, drawing a harsh path down the Lena, writes: “Across its entire width, “hummocks” stuck out in different directions, which the angry fast river threw at each other in the fall in the fight against the terrible Siberian frost.” And further: “For a whole week I have been looking at a strip of pale sky between high banks, at white slopes with a mourning border, at “padi” (gorges) mysteriously creeping out from somewhere in the Tunguska deserts ... "

The reason for the use of dialectism may also be its expressiveness. Drawing the sound that reeds being moved apart, I. S. Turgenev writes: "... the reeds ... rustled, as we say" (meaning the Oryol province). In our time, the verb "rustle" is a commonly used word of the literary language, the modern reader would not have guessed about its dialectal origin if it were not for this note of the writer. But for the time of Turgenev, this is dialectism, which attracted the author with its onomatopoeic character.

Different ways of presenting dialectisms in the author's speech are also associated with the difference in artistic tasks. Turgenev, Korolenko usually single them out and give them an explanation. In their speech, dialectisms are like inlays. Belov, Rasputin, Abramov introduce dialect words on equal terms with literary ones. In their works, both are intertwined like different threads in a single fabric. This reflects the inextricable connection of these authors with their heroes - the people of their native land, about the fate of which they write. So dialectisms help to reveal the ideological content of the work.

Literature, including fiction, serves as one of the conductors of dialect words into the literary language. We have already seen this with the example of the verb "to rustle". Here's another example. The word "tyrant", well known to all of us, entered the literary language from the comedies of A. N. Ostrovsky. In the dictionaries of that time, it was interpreted as "stubborn" and appeared with territorial marks: Pskov(skoe), tver(skoe), ostash(kovskoe).

The entry of dialectism into the literary (standardized) language is a long process. Replenishment of the literary language at the expense of dialect vocabulary continues in our time.

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