Method of conversation in psychodiagnostics. Psychodiagnostic possibilities of conversation

common in psychology.

A survey is a method of collecting primary information based on direct (conversation, interview) or indirect (questionnaire) interaction between the researcher and the interviewee (respondent). The source of information in this case is the verbal or written judgment of the individual.

The main difficulties in using this method are obtaining sincere answers and the ability of the researcher to objectively evaluate the results.

An interview is a method of obtaining the necessary information through a direct, purposeful conversation between the interviewer and the respondent, when the interviewer (interviewer) only asks questions, and the respondent (respondent) answers them.

During the interview, feedback is somewhat weakened - the interviewer only records the respondent's statements, trying to maintain a neutral position.

An interview can be standardized (according to a plan, with possible conversation options, with a developed strategy and tactics), non-standardized (free - without strict detailing of questions, with free tactics) and partially standardized.

The interview can be diagnostic or clinical, depending on the purpose.

A clinical interview is a method of therapeutic conversation that helps a person to become aware of their internal problems.

Interview rules:

1. The rule of voluntariness;

2. The rule of availability. Questions should be clear, concise, as far as possible, not annoying or humiliating;

3. The interview should not be long and boring.

Most often, the interview has the following structure:

a) introduction, setting up for a conversation, for cooperation;

b) general questions;

c) free statements of the subject;

d) clarifying questions;

e) relieving the tension that has arisen and expressing gratitude for participating in the conversation.

The interpretation of the results obtained during the interview is not without subjectivity, therefore they should be considered in conjunction with the data of other diagnostic methods.

The main condition for a successful interview is the creation of a friendly atmosphere, establishing contact with the interviewee. And here an important role is played by the opening speech and the first questions of the researcher, which should inspire confidence and a desire to cooperate in the respondent.

Benefits of a standardized interview:

a) obtaining data more reliable and more comparable with each other;

b) errors in the formulation of questions are minimized;

c) high qualification of the interviewer is not required.

Disadvantages:

a) closer contact with the respondent is difficult;

b) questions may be ambiguously understood by the respondent;

c) the impossibility of additional questions.

Benefits of a non-standardized interview:

a) the possibility of presenting questions in accordance with the level of the respondent;

b) the possibility of creating a more natural, relaxed environment;

c) flexibility in a changing situation;

d) the possibility of obtaining more in-depth information.

Disadvantages:

a) difficulties in comparing the obtained data.

4. 1. Tasks for independent work on mastering the course section
Explore with the interview method:

The main motives for entering a particular educational institution and faculty;

The main motives for making a particular decision (for example, marriage, education, voting on a particular issue, etc.);

The lifestyle of a particular group of people;

Tastes, interests of various groups of the population (musical, artistic, cinema, fashion, etc.).

№/№: 3; 7; 8; 15; 17; 18; 27; 30.
4. 2. An example of a psychodiagnostic study using an interview.

Subject of study: The attitude of young people to the police.

The purpose of the study: Determination of the attitude of young people to the police.

Research method: Standardized interview.

Object of study: Students of Moscow State University, faculties: socio-psychological, philological, legal. Age 18 - 22 years. A total of 42 people, incl. 20 - men, 22 - women.

(As an example, data from a study conducted by one of the students of Moscow State University is given).

Interview Questions Answers

1. What feelings do you have when you see a uniformed policeman you don't know? 28% noted indifference, neutrality of feelings at the sight of law enforcement officers; 23% - a feeling of apprehension, alertness, tension, anxiety that arises in them; 19% - feelings of curiosity, interest; 19% - indicated feelings of antipathy, contempt; 9% - noted a feeling respect.

2. Do you think that seeing a policeman on the street changes your behavior? 52% answered negatively; 47% - that when they see a policeman they begin to control their actions more, avoid meeting their eyes, try to get around; 9% - said that when they see a policeman, they smile.

3. Do you think that the police really protect or can protect you? 33% said that the police do nothing for them; 28% - that the police protect them; 9% said that the police are only able to harm them: take them to a detention center, to a sobering-up station; 4% answered that the police can protect and undeservedly offend; 13% believe that the police protect them, but not effectively enough: if they arrive on time, they will save lives, but they will not return the stolen goods; 9% are sure that the police will protect them if necessary.

4. If you were given the opportunity to make changes in the activities of the police, what would you suggest doing first? 43% suggested changing the culture of communication and, in general, the level of education of ATC employees; 23% indicated the need to strengthen personal responsibility; 44% would make changes to the uniform of employees, to some laws.

Conclusion: The results of the conducted psychodiagnostic study indicate that the image of the police that has developed among the majority of respondents in many respects does not correspond to the ideal, it does not carry the features of a mandatory, strict, fair system capable of effectively solving the problems of law enforcement. The majority of respondents see the police as a strong, but often uncontrollable, unfair and erroneous system.

Topic 5. PSYCHODIAGNOSTIC CONVERSATION AS A VARIETY OF INTERVIEW

A conversation is a method of obtaining information based on verbal (verbal) communication. This is a relatively free dialogue between the researcher and the researched on a certain topic. This is the main method of psychological counseling.

Psychological conversation is divided into psychodiagnostic and psychocorrectional.

The conversation, as a rule, is not limited in time and, at times, hardly fits into the originally set direction. The interviewer sets the topic himself.

The main condition for a successful interview is the creation of a friendly atmosphere, establishing contact with the interviewee.

The conversation requires special sensitivity and flexibility, the ability to listen and at the same time conduct it according to a given plan, to understand the emotional states of the interlocutor, reacting to their changes, to fix external manifestations (gestures, facial expressions), to see the subtext of communication. It takes years to master this method. And here an important role is played by the opening speech and the first questions of the researcher, which should inspire confidence and a desire to cooperate in the respondent.

It is recommended to start the conversation with neutral questions, relying on the supposed mutual agreement about the obvious facts. The respondent should see in the face of the researcher a person who seeks to understand him, does not criticize, does not condemn his statements.

When conducting a conversation, it is necessary to remember the peculiarities of the age of the interviewee.

The conversation becomes a method of scientific knowledge only when its conduct is determined by the goals and objectives of the study, acts as a means of collecting primary information. It is necessary to fix the answers so as not to retell the answers of the subject.
5. 1. Task for independent work on mastering the course section

To study, using the method of psychodiagnostic conversation, the psychological origins of conflict problems:

The relationship of the child with peers;

Relationships in the system "parent - child";

marital relations;

Relationships in the "supervisor - subordinate" system;

№/№: 7; 9; 15; 17; 18; 20; 23; 24; 27; 30.
5. 2. An example of a psychodiagnostic conversation.
Extract from the protocol of psychodiagnostic research.

Subject of study: Problems in marital relations.

Research situation: Consultation with a psychologist.

Reason for contacting: Difficult relationship between the client and her husband.

Purpose of the study: To reveal the psychological origins of marital problems.

Research method: Psychodiagnostic conversation.

Object of study: A young woman, 27 years old.

Symbols: K - client; P is a psychologist.

P. - I'm listening to you.

K. - I don't know where to start.

P. - Are you afraid to say something wrong?

K. - Well... I'm not satisfied with my married life.

P. - Tell us what does not suit you?

K. - I used to live in the city of N, I worked at a factory. The future husband came there on a business trip. He made a huge impression on me right away. Before that, I had my fiancé, he was in the army, in principle I was free. At first I did not know that he was married, I found out about it a year later. For me then it was not important, because. I had some kind of rear - the groom in the army. I did not consider that I was alone and continued to communicate with him. We didn't have sex then. He left in the summer. He said that he would come in a year and a half. He really came. My fiancé also returned from the army. But he was no longer interested in me. I moved it to 2nd plan. I was in love with L. He said that he was divorcing his wife, that it didn’t work out for him there, that she turned out to be of easy virtue, she doesn’t want to give birth, but he wants a child. I then decided for myself that I would really get what I want. I won't miss my chance. I really wanted to be near him. Of course, we had an intimate relationship and I got pregnant. He then, as it turned out, was just going to get a divorce. I wanted to have an abortion. He left, but we had a phone conversation. And in the end, he said: "Maybe you shouldn't have an abortion at all?" Eventually we got married. I didn't like the fact that he was drinking. But he did not so much abuse as he did not refuse to drink. And I thought then that I could re-educate him, that since he had a child, he would take the family more seriously, because in his first marriage, he said that he easily left his wife, went with friends somewhere to rest and I was surprised then how she tolerates it. He said: "She takes it easy." And then she herself began to do it, extramarital affairs appeared. This, of course, irritated him very much, and he decided that he did not need such a wife. And now I think that then it might be presumptuous, I acted very stupidly, deciding that I would be able to re-educate him, but in fact I can’t do anything. There were conversations with him that it would be time to end all this. He thinks that he is doing okay, and if I want something else, he does not hold me and we can disperse. I don't know whether to stay with him or leave...

P. - Do I understand correctly that you are not satisfied that your husband is often not at home?

K. - Yes, but... Of course, I want to stay with him, but...

P. - That is, you are not thinking about whether to get a divorce or not, but about how to make him behave a little differently? Are you looking for a means to influence him?

K. - I don't know how to do it. I tried, arranged a boycott for him when he did not come home to spend the night, did not cook for him. We didn't talk. But after 2 weeks, I begin to approach him myself, to sort things out myself. He says: "I behave absolutely normal, and when you will change, I do not know." It's always my fault in situations like this. Now we haven't spoken for 2 weeks.

P. - Who is not talking to whom?

K. - He is with me.

P. - Is he with you?

K. - Yes.

P. - So he is offended by you?

K. - Yes, but I don't know why.

P. - Don't even guess?

K. - (after a pause of 3 s.) The fact that I am offended by him because of drinking and not coming home, as the owner ... he absolutely ... I don’t know ... He practically does not communicate with the child - he does not walk, does not play, very rarely, only when he's in a good mood.

K. - He constantly tells me: "You change your ways. You and I won't get along. You don't like to give in." He has pride over the edge, I have, in principle, too. When I wanted to marry him, I did everything, I became a "sheep", if only he was with me.

P. - A wolf in sheep's clothing. That is, he does not want to concede in anything.

K. - When I first went to my parents from him with a child, I told him: "I don't want to live like this anymore." He tried to persuade me to come back on the phone, he promised that he would not give me a reason again. But still, nothing had changed when I returned.

P. - And why did you come back then?

P. - And without you? Do you see that he is also worried? Your attitude, as it were, manifested itself there, but here, when you are together, it drowns in endless grievances.

K. - It just got cold there, and I began to be drawn to him, especially since he calls, waits, asks about the child. I think he wants us to have a family. He is proud, in principle, that he has a house, that he has an attractive wife ... But I can't help it when he brings his friends when they drink.

P. - And you want him to stay at home.

K. - Naturally, he should not only stay at home, but also not drink, and pay more attention to his family. To be family. You go for a walk, you look: dad, mom, child or two children - how nice, and you are alone ... I always have a feeling of insecurity, fragility. I also have such a complex that I believe that our marriage is because of the child. Before, when I told him this, he said: “Well, what are you. Who do you take me for?” That I am not indifferent to him, and the child has nothing to do with it. I can't feel, how shall I say, stuck, oppressed. It doesn't give me peace. He wants to live freely so that I don't interfere with him. I'm offended. I'm not used to being pushed like that.

P. - And you this situation that...?

K. - Depressing, I can't help myself.

P. - But what would you like to do?

K. - I would like to make him fall in love with me just as I do. And by the way, for myself, I know - I could get away from him, if I had someone appeared, I would not feel my uselessness. Maybe for him, with his character, pride, this is what needs to be done.

(This concludes the 1st psychodiagnostic part of the consultation).

Conclusion of the psychologist (on this part of the consultation): The reason for the client's visit to the consultation: the interaction of two classes of problems - family and personal.

The family does not realize its functions - a common household, raising children, joint spending of organized free time. There is no mutual understanding in the family, the reason for which is different ideas about the proper behavior of the husband and wife in the family. The wife is unhappy with her husband's frequent drinking and his absence from home. The husband would like to live freely so that his wife does not interfere with him.

She does not feel love, care from his side. This problem is exacerbated by the client's personal problems: her self-doubt, her fear of losing, being alone, her dominance, the desire to insist on her own, which leads to illogicality, inconsistency in building relationships, and loosening of already established relationships.

Topic 6. QUESTIONNAIRE AS A VIEW OF SURVEY METHOD
Questionnaire is a structurally organized questionnaire, which is answered in writing. This is a very common method, mainly used in sociology, and from the psychological branches - in social psychology.

The questionnaire as a research method was first developed by D. Galton in England in 1870. The advantages of questionnaires as a method are:

The ability to simultaneously explore the opinion of a large number of people on any issue;

Relative ease of statistical processing, especially when using computer programs;

Using the questionnaire method in psychology, the attitudes of population groups to certain phenomena of social reality (satisfaction with working conditions, government decisions, etc.), socio-psychological characteristics of the individual (needs, interests, motives, value orientations, attitudes, stereotypes) are studied .

This is not an easy method. To obtain high-quality psychological information, the following rules must be observed when compiling questionnaires.

Question formulation requirements:

They should be understandable for the category of people under study;

Concise;

Eliminate ambiguity in understanding;

Do not annoy, do not humiliate dignity;

Well and clearly printed.

In terms of form, questions are divided into open, closed and semi-closed; direct and indirect.

Open-ended questions involve free answers, do not contain possible answers. They are much rarer than closed ones. Ready-made answers are not expected here. The respondent answers such questions at his own discretion. Compared to closed ones, the information in this case is more complete (and this is their plus), and processing and interpretation are difficult, ambiguous, which makes it difficult to compare the answers of different subjects. In addition, such questionnaires require more time to complete.

Closed questions provide ready-made answers.

The undoubted advantage of closed questions is the uniformity of answers and the relative ease of data processing, and the disadvantage is a less accurate interpretation, an approximate answer, and the absence of the necessary answer.

In this regard, there is a way out in the use of semi-closed questions, containing, along with ready-made answer options, the possibility of presenting your answer option, in a wording like: State your option if there is no answer you need.

In the case of closed questions, the respondent is required to choose one answer that corresponds to his opinion. Can be one of two (yes / no; agree / disagree), three answers (yes / half the time / no), five (always / most of the time / half the time / rarely / never), etc. .

The questionnaire usually consists of:

a) an introductory part containing an appeal to the respondent, explaining the objectives of the survey, an indication of the rules for filling out, the addressee of using the data received;

b) as a rule, the questionnaire begins with the so-called passport, where the respondent is asked to provide some information about himself (for example, gender, age, level of education, place of work, residence, marital status, number of children, etc.). The choice of questions for the passport is due to the further ranking of the information received. For example, if family problems are being studied, then, of course, the question of marital status, the number of marriages, and the length of time they have lived together is included in the passport. If problems related to the position held are being investigated, then questions related to education, work experience in a particular position, etc. may be included in the passport.

c) then the main questions go in the questionnaire. There should not be many of them (no more than 15 - 25 for the entire survey). They must be formulated accordingly (as mentioned above).

At the end of the questionnaire, you are asked to thank the respondent.

6. 1. Tasks for independent work on mastering the course section

a) study the theoretical section of the course;

b) develop a questionnaire in accordance with the requirements for compiling questionnaires and conduct appropriate psychodiagnostic studies on the following topics:

Motives for making decisions on issues: choosing a profession, getting married, entering a university, obtaining a 2nd higher education, etc.;

Interests, needs, value orientations, political views, national stereotypes of a particular group of people;

Satisfaction of one or another group of people with the socio-psychological climate of the team, family, work, profession, leadership of the organization, government activities, etc.

№/№: 3; 4; 7; 15; 17; 18; 22; 30.
6. 2. An example of a psychodiagnostic study using the questionnaire method.
Extract from the protocol of psychodiagnostic research.

Subject of study: The process of socialization of a modern teenager.

The purpose of the study: To study the socio-psychological characteristics of the socialization of a modern teenager in 5 areas: family, school, reference group, intimate-personal communication, socio-economic activity.

Research method: Questionnaire survey.

Object of study: 533 students of 9-10 grades of secondary school.

(As an example, a study conducted by a student of the FPC in one of the city's schools is given).

QUESTIONNAIRE QUESTIONS YES (%)

1. Do you enjoy interacting with your family members?2. Do you tell your family about your experiences, anxieties, failures?3. Do you feel confident in the family circle?4. When you're in a tough situation, do you want advice from your parents? 20% - 68%

5. Do you think that high human well-being is the result of hard work?6. Do you think about how you can earn money?7. Do you earn money?8. Do you need money for your own needs?9. Would you like to have the right not to study, but to go and earn money? 27.5%75.5%19.7%87.8%30.1%

10. Would you like to study at the institute after graduation?11. Do you like getting knowledge in subjects at school?12. Do you use the knowledge gained at school in subjects in your real life?13. Do teachers at school tell you about how to be successful in life and avoid trouble?14. Do you like criticizing teachers? 92.5%52.6%11.6%51.5%32.5%

15. Do you spend your free time in the company of your peers? 16. Do you like to be in the center of attention of your company?17. Do you follow the laws that are accepted in your company?18. Can you always stand up for yourself?19. Can you protect the weak? 69.7%46.8%37.5%25%25%

20. Is it necessary at your age to have a real friend?21. Can you say that you have a true friend?22. Can you say that you yourself are a true friend?23. Do you think that at your age it is possible to experience a feeling of deep sympathy, love?24. Does love have negative consequences in your life? 98%74.5%63.2%95%53.4%

Psychologist's conclusion: It is difficult for a modern teenager to form such value orientations that would contribute to his painless entry into the system of socio-economic relations. The reason for this is the changed socio-economic situation and, as a result, the weakening of the reference function of the modern family in terms of the formation of long-term personal attitudes of the child (questions 1-4).

At present, adolescents are in no hurry to create close and long-term relationships with their peers, but prefer easier and non-committal contacts, however, the need for deep intimate-personal communication remains unsatisfied (questions 15-19).

A modern teenager strives to receive from school not only subject knowledge, but also a certain life experience that would help him to be more effective in the social environment in the future. But this need today is largely deprived in view of the inability of the modern school to transmit such experience (questions 10 - 14, 20 - 24).

The need of a teenager for individual economic activity, which has arisen at the present stage of development of socio-economic relations, does not find its full and true satisfaction.

The negative manifestations that accompany the early involvement of a teenager in economic relations are due, on the one hand, to the lack of a real possibility of the most complete and adequate satisfaction of this need, and on the other hand, to the unformedness of the relevant cultural traditions (questions 5–9).

Send your good work in the knowledge base is simple. Use the form below

Students, graduate students, young scientists who use the knowledge base in their studies and work will be very grateful to you.

Federal Agency for Education

State educational institution

Higher professional education

Penza State University

Faculty of Economics and Management

Department: "Marketing"

on the course "Psychodiagnostics"

"Psychodiagnostic possibilities of conversation"

Made by a student of the group

07EO1 Sorokovikova Ya.D.

Checked Ph.D. Rozhnov

Ruslan Vladimirovich

Introduction

1. Basic types of conversations

2. Structure of the conversation

3. Types of conversations

4. Reflective and non-reflective listening

5. Verbal communication during the conversation

6. Non-verbal communication during the conversation

7. Classification of question types

8. Sample Conversations

Bibliographic list

Introduction

The method of conversation is a psychological verbal-communicative method, which consists in conducting a thematically oriented dialogue between a psychologist and a respondent in order to obtain information from the latter.

Conversation is a method of collecting primary data based on verbal communication. It, subject to certain rules, makes it possible to obtain no less reliable information than in observations about past and present events, about stable inclinations, motives for certain actions, about subjective states.

It would be a mistake to think that conversation is the easiest method to use. The art of using this method is to know how to ask, what questions to ask, how to make sure you can trust the answers you get. It is very important that the conversation does not turn into an interrogation, since its effectiveness in this case is very low.

Conversation as a method of psychodiagnostics has some differences in the form and nature of the organization.

The possibilities of conversation as a dialogue - a tool for meeting a person with a person - are connected, in particular, with the breadth of the choice of the type of conversation in the spectrum from "completely controlled" to "practically free". The main criteria for classifying a conversation as a certain type are the features of a pre-prepared plan (program and strategy) and the nature of the standardization of the conversation, i.e. its tactics. Under the program and strategy, as a rule, they mean a set of semantic topics compiled by the questioner in accordance with the goals and objectives of the conversation and the sequence of movement between them. The higher the degree of standardization of the conversation, the more strict, defined and unchanging the set and form of questions in it, i.e., the more rigid and limited is the tactics of the questioner. The standardization of the conversation also means that the initiative in it moves to the side of the questioner.

1. Basic types of conversations

Fully controlled conversation involves a rigid program, strategy and tactics;

· standardized conversation -- persistent program, strategy and tactics;

· partly standardized -- persistent program and strategy, tactics are much freer;

• free - the program and strategy are not predetermined, or only in general terms, the tactics are completely free.

Almost free conversation - the absence of a pre-formulated program and the presence of an initiative position in the conversation with the one with whom it is conducted.

Fully and partly standardized conversation allows comparison of different people; conversations of this type are more capacious with respect to time, may draw on less experience of the questioner, and limit unintended effects on the subject.

However, their great disadvantage is that they do not seem to be a completely natural procedure, having a more or less pronounced connotation of an examination survey, and therefore fettering immediacy and triggering defense mechanisms.

As a rule, this type of conversation is resorted to if the interviewers have already established cooperation with the interlocutor, the problem under study is simple and is rather partial.

A conversation of a free type is always focused on a particular given interlocutor. It allows you to receive a lot of data not only directly, but also indirectly, maintain contact with the interlocutor, has a strong psychotherapeutic content, and ensures high spontaneity in the manifestation of significant signs. This type of conversation is characterized by especially high requirements for professional maturity and the level of the questioner, his experience and ability to use the conversation creatively.

In general, the procedure for conducting a conversation suggests the possibility of including various modifications in it - tactics that make it possible to especially enrich its content. So, in conversations with children, dolls, various toys, paper and pencil, and dramatic scenes justify themselves well. Similar techniques are also possible in conversations with adults; it is only necessary that they organically enter the conversation system. The presentation of specific material (for example, a scale) or a discussion of the content of the drawing just made by the subject becomes not only a “hook” for the further course of the conversation, deploying its programs, but also allows you to obtain additional indirect data about the subject.

2. Conversation Structure

Despite the obvious variety of types of conversation, they all have a number of permanent structural blocks, the consistent movement along which ensures the complete integrity of the conversation.

The introductory part of the conversation plays a very important role in the composition. It is here that it is necessary to interest the interlocutor, to involve him in cooperation, that is, “to set him up for joint work.

What matters is who initiated the conversation. If it takes place on the initiative of a psychologist, then its introductory part should interest the interlocutor in the topic of the upcoming conversation, arouse the desire to participate in it, and make clear the significance of his personal participation in the conversation. Most often this is achieved by appealing to the interlocutor's past experience, by showing a benevolent interest in his views, assessments, and opinions.

The subject is also informed about the approximate duration of the conversation, its anonymity, and, if possible, about its goals and further use of the results.

If the initiator of the upcoming conversation is not the psychologist himself, but his interlocutor, who turns to him about his problems, then the introductory part of the conversation should clearly demonstrate mainly the following: that the psychologist is tactful and careful about the positions of the interlocutor, he does not condemn anything, but also does not justifies, accepting him as he is.

In the introductory part of the conversation, the first test of its stylization takes place. After all, the set of expressions and turns used by the psychologist, the appeal to the interlocutor depend on the age of the latter, gender, social status, living environment, level of knowledge. In other words, the vocabulary, style, conceptual form of statements should evoke and maintain a positive reaction in the interlocutor and a desire to give complete and true information.

The duration and content of the introductory part of the conversation fundamentally depend on whether it will be the only one with this interlocutor or whether it can develop; what are the objectives of the study, etc.

At the initial stage of the conversation, the non-verbal behavior of the psychologist plays a special role in establishing and maintaining contact, indicating understanding and support of the interlocutor.

It is impossible to give a ready-made algorithm for the introductory part of the conversation, a repertoire of phrases and statements. It is important to have a clear idea of its goals and objectives in this conversation. Their consistent implementation, establishing a strong contact with the interlocutor allows you to move on to the next, second stage.

It is characterized by the presence of general open questions on the topic of the conversation, causing as many free statements as possible by the interlocutor, his presentation of his thoughts and experiences. This tactic allows the psychologist to accumulate certain factual event information.

Successful completion of this task allows you to move on to the stage of a detailed direct discussion of the main topic of the conversation (This logic of the development of the conversation is also implemented within the development of each private semantic topic: one should move from general open questions to more specific, specific ones). Thus, the third stage of the conversation is a detailed study of the content of the issues under discussion.

This is the culmination of the conversation, one of its most difficult stages, since here everything depends only on the psychologist, on his ability to ask questions, listen to answers, and observe the behavior of the interlocutor. The content of the stage of such a study is completely determined by the specific goals and objectives of this conversation.

The final phase is the end of the conversation. The transition to it is possible after the successful and sufficiently complete completion of the previous stage of the study. As a rule, in one form or another, attempts are made to ease the tension that arises during the conversation, and appreciation for cooperation is expressed. If the conversation involves its subsequent continuation, then its completion should keep the interlocutor ready for further joint work.

Of course, the described stages of the conversation do not have rigid boundaries. The transitions between them are gradual and smooth. However, "jumping" through the individual phases of the conversation can lead to a sharp decrease in the reliability of the data received, disrupt the process of communication, the dialogue of the interlocutors.

3. Types of conversation

Conversations differ depending on the psychological task pursued. There are the following types:

Therapeutic conversation

Experimental conversation (in order to test experimental hypotheses)

Autobiographical conversation

Collection of subjective anamnesis (collection of information about the personality of the subject)

Collecting an objective anamnesis (gathering information about acquaintances of the subject)

・Telephone conversation

The interview is referred to both as a conversation method and a survey method.

4. Reflective and non-reflective listening

There are two styles of conversation, and in its course one can replace the other depending on the context.

Reflective listening is a style of conversation that assumes active verbal interaction between the psychologist and the respondent.

Reflective listening is used to accurately control the correctness of the perception of the information received. The use of this style of conversation may be associated with the personal characteristics of the respondent (for example, a low level of development of communication skills), the need to establish the meaning of the word that the speaker had in mind, cultural traditions (communication etiquette in the cultural environment to which the respondent and the psychologist belong ).

Three main techniques for maintaining a conversation and controlling the information received:

1. Clarification (using clarifying questions)

2. Paraphrasing (formulation of what the respondent said in his own words)

3. Verbal reflection by the psychologist of the respondent's feelings

4. Summary

Non-reflexive listening is a style of conversation that uses only the minimum necessary words and techniques of non-verbal communication on the part of the psychologist, from the point of view of expediency.

Non-reflexive listening is used in cases where there is a need to let the subject speak out. It is especially useful in situations where the interlocutor shows a desire to express his point of view, discuss topics of concern to him, and where he has difficulty expressing problems, is easily confused by the intervention of a psychologist, and behaves enslavedly due to the difference in social position between the psychologist and the respondent.

5. Verbal communication in progressconversations.

Verbal communication in the process of conversation in a general sense involves the ability to correctly address your interlocutor, ask questions and listen to his answers.

One of the main methods of treatment that allows the interlocutor to more clearly express his thoughts, feelings, problems, and the psychologist to understand him, is the so-called "You-approach" - the study of a person in order to better understand him. Let us ask ourselves: what would we be interested in in this case? How would we react in the place of our interlocutor? These are already the first steps in the direction of the “You-approach”15. In verbal terms, it is realized in the transition from statements in the first person to formulations directly addressed to the interlocutor. For example, instead of "I would like ..." - "Do you want ..."; “It seems to me ...” - “Your problem seems to be ...”, or: “Probably you are more interested in talking about ...”. The same applies to the statement and transmission of facts. For example, instead of: “Although you don’t know,” “How do you know ...”; “Probably you haven’t heard…” – “You probably already heard about it…”. Any person is more willing to talk about their own problems and desires, and no interlocutor is an exception to this rule.

It is possible to encourage the interlocutor to express his thoughts by “minimizing answers”, i.e., by deliberately using in his speech neutral, essentially insignificant phrases that allow the conversation to continue meaningfully. Such responses are not mere remarks that are made when there is nothing to answer; they help to express approval, understanding, interest, invitation, to speak freely and naturally. Research has shown that the simplest neutral remark, or an affirmative tilt of the head, encourages the interlocutor and makes him want to continue communication. It is only important that the responses come naturally and are always really neutral.

The most common minimum responses are:

"Yes?"; "Go on, go on, this is interesting"; "Understand"; "Could you elaborate..."

These remarks are neutral, they are sometimes called "opening", that is, those that contribute to the development of the conversation, especially at its very beginning * listener silence can be misinterpreted as disinterest or disagreement.

On the other hand, some short remarks, on the contrary, can become a hindrance in communication, because can be understood as coercion to it. These are statements of the following type: “Why is this?”; “Give me at least reasons for that”; "Why not?"; "Well, it can't be that bad..." They are more likely to end the conversation than to continue it.

Questions are of fundamental importance in the conduct of the conversation. With their help, you can:

Conduct the processes of information transfer by the interlocutor in a certain direction, corresponding to the program of the conversation;

Take the initiative in the conversation;

Activate the interlocutor in order to move from monologue speech to dialogue;

Give the interlocutor the opportunity to prove himself, prove his knowledge, demonstrate his opinions, assessments, views and positions.

6. Non-verbal communication in progressconversations

In addition to verbal communication, there are non-verbal elements in the conversation, such as: facial expressions, intonation and timbre of voice, postures and gestures, interpersonal space and visual contact.

Non-verbal communication allows you to more accurately understand what is said. In the case when non-verbal "messages" contradict the spoken words, one should be especially careful about this circumstance. Contradictory gestures and words of the interlocutor should be answered in an emphatically thoughtful way, leaving yourself time to assess what is happening and make a decision. For example, the speaker agrees with you, but at the same time shows signs of doubt: he makes frequent pauses, asks questions, his face expresses surprise, etc. In this case, a statement like this is possible: “You seem to be skeptical about this? And what could it be connected with? Such a statement expresses attention to what the interlocutor says and does, without causing him anxiety or a defensive reaction.

So, the effectiveness of the conversation depends not only on attention to the words of the speaker, but also, to no lesser extent, on the understanding of non-verbal signals - gestures and facial expressions of the speaker. Analysis of the content of verbal and non-verbal communication allows you to correctly interpret the content of the conversation and, therefore, increases the level of reliability of its results.

7. Classification of question types

The conversation is controlled by asking questions. The one who formulates the questions leads the conversation. The question is built depending on the potential answer. There are several classifications of the types of questions used in a conversation.

I. The first one is based on the breadth of the forthcoming answer. It has three main groups of questions:

a) Closed-ended questions are questions to which a yes or no answer is expected. They are addressed to the entire volume of the meaning contained in them.

Examples: “Do you like to wander on an autumn evening in a warm and quiet rain?”; "Is that all you wanted to say?"; "It's difficult?"; "Would you rather do it yourself?"

Closed questions lead to the creation of a tense atmosphere in the conversation, since they sharply narrow the "space for maneuver" of the interlocutor, they can easily disrupt the speaker's train of thought.

They switch the focus of communication from the speaker to the listener, often forcing the speaker to take a defensive position. Consequently, the use of this type of questions is not carried out by chance, but only with a strictly defined goal - to expand or narrow the speaker's initial message, to aim directly at making a decision.

b) Open-ended questions are questions that cannot be answered "yes" or "no", they require some kind of explanation. These are the so-called “who”, “what”, “how”, “how much”, “why” questions. For example: “What is your opinion on this issue?”; “Why do you think this view is insufficient?”; "What are you going to do in the summer?"

Questions of this type allow communication to move into a kind of monologue dialogue with an emphasis on the interlocutor's monologue, i.e., to a higher level of conversation. Thanks to their use, the interlocutor is in a more active state, he has the opportunity, without preparation, at his own discretion, to build the content of the answers . Open questions can also be critical in their function, i.e., for the transition from one already fully disclosed semantic topic to another.

c) Clarifying questions - are an appeal to the speaker for clarification. They force the interlocutor to reflect, think carefully and comment on what has already been said. For example: “Is this the problem, as you understand it?”; "What do you mean?".

However, on the way to in-depth clarification of the content of the interlocutor's answer, it seems more convenient not to formulate questions, but to paraphrase, when the speaker is given his own message, but in the words of the listener. The purpose of paraphrasing is the speaker's own formulation of the message to test its accuracy. Paraphrasing can begin with the following words: “As I understand you”; “As I understand it, you say…”; "In other words, you think"; "In your opinion." When paraphrasing, only the main, essential points of the message are selected, otherwise the answer, instead of clarifying understanding, may cause confusion. It is important for the listener to be able to express someone else's thought in their own words.

II. There is another classification of questions depending on the meaning of the answers related to them:

a) "Yes - no" questions, that is, closed ones.

b) Alternative questions. The question contains in itself the possible choice that the interlocutor has to make. The answer to it will cover only part (more or less) of the meaning contained in the question.

c) Electoral questions. The question asks a certain range of "objects", without naming them specifically, from which a choice can be made.

This choice is contained in the answer to the electoral question. For example: "What's wrong with him?" - Flu.

d) X questions that do not suggest an answer. For example: "What did he say?"; “What are you going to do in the summer?” - A question of this type can be followed by any answers that are not clearly related to the semantic guidelines that are contained in the question. The coordination between the question and the X answer is confirmed by the fact that the X question cannot be structured in the same way as it is built with yes-no answers, alternative and selective answers.

This classification is not absolute and rigid.

The proposed four types of questions should be considered as the main guidelines to which specific answers may gravitate to a greater extent.

III. Another classification of questions in a conversation is based on a completely different qualitative feature, namely, the functional role of this question in the integral program of the conversation. It includes the following types of questions:

a) Subtle questions are those variables in which we want to characterize the subject. These are, in fact, questions that the interviewer himself asks himself. The content of the “latent”, “general” question gives rise to a whole fan of specific questions, the answers to which allow us to penetrate into those problems that are not explicitly formulated during the conversation,

b) Direct questions are a means of realizing an underlying question. Direct questions can be formulated in a personal form: “Do you know…”; "What do you think about...?"; "What is your opinion about ...?". They can also be formulated in an impersonal or semi-impersonal form: "Some people believe that ..."; "What about from your point of view?"

c) Filtering questions - perform the function of control questions. A positive or negative answer received on them should be repeated on questions related to them in meaning. If the subject does not have knowledge about the subject of discussion, then there can be no opinions and assessments.

a) Direct - directly related to the subject under study, the topic under discussion, for example: "Are you afraid to contact a stranger?".

b) Indirect - more indirectly related to the subject under study, leaving the subject a fairly wide choice of answers, as well as checking the sincerity of the words of the interlocutor, for example: "What do you do when you are afraid to turn to a stranger?"

c) Projective - this is a request to the interlocutor to imagine certain circumstances and express their attitude towards them: "Is everyone afraid to contact strangers?". An auxiliary question can be added to them: “Well, how are you?”.

Regardless of the specific type of questions and their classification, there are a number of general rules regarding types of statements that are unacceptable in a conversation.

Leading questions should be avoided, which, by their very wording, suggest the answer: “Do you, of course, like to read books?”; questions, the first part of which contains any evaluative position or point of view of the experimenter: “I know that people as confident as you communicate easily. Is not it?"; questions that are arbitrary, unverified, alternative in nature: “Does it easy for you to get to know other people or is it difficult for you to do this?” (the subject may hold a third point of view, which is not at all asked by this question and therefore may remain unexpressed); and, finally, questions that are too broadly formulated regarding the subject of discussion: “How do you feel about other people?”

If the experimenter's questions begin to affect an area to which the subject is painful, then this subjective pain can be mitigated with general phrases that downplay the unfavorable impression: "Everyone sometimes has to experience troubles, disappointments"; “Parents do not always understand their children correctly,” etc. Sometimes such phrases make it easier for the subject to communicate (directly or indirectly) about events, situations, and assessments that are important to him.

However, as we have already said, one should not abuse comments and express them as rarely as possible, more carefully and always thoughtfully.

The effectiveness of the conversation process largely depends on the ability to listen to the interlocutor. Listening and perceiving means, in other words, the ability not to be distracted, to maintain constant attention, steady visual contact. Since the speed of thinking is about four times the speed of speech, time should be used to analyze and draw conclusions from what is directly heard.

Thus, conducting a conversation requires the successful implementation by the psychologist of the professional ability to listen, observe, speak.

8. Conversation Examples

Correct.

K-client.

M-manager.

M: Good afternoon!

K: Hello!

M: My name is Yana. Sit down please.

K: Evgeny Nikolaevich.

M: Evgeny Nikolaevich, how can I help you?

K: I want to have an unforgettable two week vacation.

M: Where would you like to go?

K: I haven't thought about it yet. What could you offer me?

M: To begin with, I would like to clarify some points. And after that I will give you options. Have you already had experience of such trips?

K: No. I am traveling for the first time.

M: I am very glad, Evgeny Nikolaevich, that you have addressed to us. Would you like to vacation abroad?

M: And what kind of climate should be in this country? I mean, does it have to be a warm country or with real snowy winters and bitter cold?

K: We have a cool summer this year. Therefore, I would like to visit some warm paradise, bask in the sun, enjoying the sound of the surf.

M: Evgeny Nikolaevich, what a wonderful desire! And I will do my best and even more to make it happen. Something tells me that this should most likely be a hotel with good service...

K: Yes! I think a 3 star hotel will suit me.

M: Sorry for the indiscreet question, but what do you think is the star system of hotels?

K: They differ in service, location and other things.

M: Or maybe it’s better for us to first decide what service you should be provided with, and only then we will finally choose the star rating?

K: Okay, Yana. Let's try.

M: We haven't chosen a country yet and I'd like to get back to that. Should it be something more traditional (Turkey, Egypt) or something extravagant?

K: Traditional. I'm not a thrill seeker. Let's focus on Turkey. Moreover, a friend of mine visited there not so long ago and was satisfied.

M: Good. So Turkey, a hotel by the sea...

K: Uh-huh... The room should have air conditioning, a large soft bed and a gorgeous view from the window.

M: So, your hotel will be located on the first coastline. Let's move on to stardom. Since you want the room to have air conditioning then it's 4 or 5 stars as for 3 stars it's not a mandatory service. In 5 star hotels everything is the same as in 4 * hotels, but at a higher quality level. And also sometimes a second bathroom in the room and a telephone in the bathroom. Rooms are at least 16 sq.m. Accordingly, for a higher fee.

K: I think the telephone in the bathroom is overkill...

M: How much would you like to pay?

K: I think 20,000-25,000 rubles. Is this enough for 4 stars?

M: Oh yes! Evgeny Nikolaevich. This is enough.

K: Yana, unfortunately, my free time is running out and I have to leave you. But I hope we meet soon and finalize our deal.

M: Of course! How can I contact you?

K: Here's my business card. There is a work and cell phone, as well as my e-mail.

M: Good. I will send you a selection of hotels in Turkey. You choose what suits you best. We will meet at a convenient time for you. And we'll talk about the rest of the questions. And please take my business card.

K: Thank you! See you.

M: Good luck!

Wrong.

K: Hello!

M: Hello!

K: Can I sit down?

M: Yes, of course! What would you like?

K: Relax.

M: That's understandable. They all come to us for this. Have you already chosen a country?

K: Probably Turkey... But not sure yet...

M: Turkey is the most common option. Choose you won't go wrong.

K: Well... I'm not sure... Although a friend of mine recently went...

M: He must have liked it!

M: All BUT we will take into account and correct. How much are you willing to pay for a trip?

K: ... 20-25 thousand rubles ...

M: Great! How many stars should a hotel have?

K: I don't really know much about it...

M: Well, it doesn't matter! Now everyone has the Internet. Everything can be found there. Our company also has a website there. Check it out at your leisure. Make up your mind and come back to me. Let's make an agreement. And now I have to go...

K: Goodbye!

1. The manager is poorly educated and does not have clear ideas about the rules of etiquette.

2. There is no individual approach to the client. A well-established version is proposed.

3. The awareness of the conversation is very low. The manager does not say anything about the country he offers and does not even talk about the star system. Although the client hinted that he wants to know more about it. This indicates the low qualification of the manager.

4. The manager did not leave any contact information and did not ask the client for it.

Bibliographic ssqueak

1. Fundamentals of psychodiagnostics, textbook / Byzova V.M. - Syktyvkar, State. University, 1992, 59 p.

2. Annotated index of methods of socio-psychological dianostics: textbook / Kroz M.V. - M.: Publishing House of Moscow State University, 1991, 55 p.

3. Verbal and communicative methods in psychology / Nikandrov V. V. - St. Petersburg: Speech, 2002, 72 p.

4. Lectures on the methodology of specific social research / Ed. G. M, Andreeva. - M,; Publishing House of Moscow State University, 2000.

5. I'm listening to you: Tips for the leader on how to listen to the interlocutor / Atvater I. - M .: Economics, 1988, 110 p.

6. Psychological diagnostics: Textbook for universities / Ed. M.K. Akimova, K.M. Gurevich. - St. Petersburg: 2005. - 652 p.: ill.

7. Psychodiagnostics for service specialists: textbook / R.V. Rozhnov. - Penza: Information and Publishing Center of PSU, 2007. - 150p.

Psychodiagnostic conversation as a method of obtaining information based on verbal communication.

One type of survey is a conversation. Conversation as a psychological method provides for direct or indirect, oral or written receipt from the student of information about his activities, in which the psychological phenomena characteristic of him are objectified. Types of interviews: history taking, interviews, questionnaires and psychological questionnaires.

Anamnesis ( lat. from memory) - information about the past of the student, received from him or - with an objective history - from persons who know him well. An interview is a type of conversation in which the task is to get the interviewee's answers to certain (usually pre-prepared) questions. In this case, when questions and answers are presented in writing, a survey takes place.

Advantages and disadvantages of the method of conversation.

The content and plan of the conversation. Conversation is an empirical method of obtaining information about a person in communication with him, as a result of his answers to targeted questions, which is widespread in psychology and in pedagogical practice. Answers are recorded either by tape recording or by stenography. The conversation is a subjective psychodiagnostic method, since the teacher or researcher subjectively evaluates the answers, the behavior of the student, while his behavior, facial expressions, gestures, questions affect the student, causing one or another degree of openness and trust-mistrust of the subject.

Organization of the conversation. There are a number of requirements for conversation as a method. The first is ease. You can't turn a conversation into a question. The conversation brings the greatest result in the case of establishing personal contact between the researcher and the person being examined. At the same time, it is important to carefully think over the conversation, present it in the form of a specific plan, tasks, and problems to be clarified. The method of conversation involves, along with the answers and the formulation of questions by the subjects. Such a two-way conversation provides more information on the problem under study than just the answers of the subjects to the questions posed.

Types of tests and types of tasks in tests. Test (from English - test, test, check) - a standardized method of psychological measurement and diagnosis of the severity of mental and behavioral properties and states of the individual. The test is a standardized, often limited in time, test designed to establish comparable quantitative and qualitative individual psychological differences.

Standardization means that these techniques should always and everywhere be applied in the same way, from the situation and instructions received by the subject, to the methods of calculating and interpreting the data. Comparability means that the scores obtained on the test can be compared with each other regardless of where, when, how and by whom they were obtained. Of course, if the test was applied correctly. In psychodiagnostics, there are various classifications of tests.

They can be subdivided:

According to the features of the test tasks used for verbal tests and non-verbal (practical) tests;

According to the forms of the examination procedure - for group and individual tests;

By focus: intelligence tests, personality tests, special ability tests, achievement tests, creativity tests;

Depending on the presence or absence of time constraints - speed tests and performance tests;

According to the method of implementation - blank, manipulative, instrumental, computer, situational-behavioral;

On psychometric grounds, tests are divided into those based on scales of individual differences, and criteria-oriented tests;

According to the purpose of application, school readiness tests, clinical tests, professional selection tests and others are distinguished. - by composition - monometric and complex (test batteries).

Criteria Based Tests (CORT) are designed to determine the level of individual achievements relative to some criterion based on a logical-functional analysis of the content of tasks. As a criterion (or an objective standard), specific knowledge, skills, and abilities necessary for the successful completion of a particular task are usually considered. The criterion is the presence or absence of knowledge. This is the main difference between KORT and traditional psychometric tests, in which the assessment is carried out on the basis of correlating individual results with group results (orientation to the statistical norm). An essential feature of KORT is that in them individual differences are minimized (individual differences affect the duration of assimilation, and not the final result).

Speed tests - the type of diagnostic techniques in which the main indicator of the productivity of the subjects is the time to complete (volume) of test tasks. Typical speed tests usually include a large number of homogeneous tasks (items). The amount of material is chosen in such a way that in the allotted time (constant for all subjects), none of the subjects has time to cope with all the tasks. Then the indicator of productivity will be the number of correctly completed tasks. Example: proofreading test, intelligence tests. An indicator of the effectiveness of performing speed tests can also be a direct measurement of the task execution time (Schulte table).

Performance Tests focused on measuring or stating the result achieved by the test subject when performing a test task. The speed of work is not taken into account or has an auxiliary value. A time limit may apply, but serves the purpose of standardizing the study or to save time. These are the majority of personal methods, questionnaires, projective tests, questionnaires.

Verbal tests . In them, the material of test tasks is presented in verbal form. This implies that the main content of the subject's work is operations with concepts, mental actions in a verbal-logical form. Verbal tests are more often aimed at measuring the ability to understand verbal instructions, skills in operating with grammatical language forms, mastery of writing and reading.

Tests reflecting the verbal factors of intelligence most closely correlate with the criteria of general culture, awareness, and academic performance. The results of verbal tests are very sensitive to differences in the language culture of the subjects, the level of education, and professional characteristics. Difficulties are presented by the adaptation of verbal tests to the conditions of examination of subjects of a different nationality.

Non-verbal tests (practical). In them, the material of test tasks is represented by non-verbal tasks. Non-verbal tests reduce the influence of language and cultural differences on the test result. Performing a task in a non-verbal form also distinguishes the procedure for examining subjects with speech and hearing impairments, as well as persons without education. Practical tasks proved to be convenient for conducting mass test studies.

Blank tests (they used to be called "pencil and paper tests"). The use of forms is common in almost all types of test methods. The subject is offered a special survey form, a brochure, a questionnaire, etc., which contain instructions and examples of solutions, work tasks and a form for registering answers.

Advantages: simplicity of examination technique, no need for special hardware. In subject tests, the material of test tasks is presented in the form of real objects: cubes, cards, details of geometric shapes, structures and components of technical devices, etc. The most famous are the Koos cubes, the test of complex figures from the Veksler set, the Vygotsky-Sakharov test. Subject tests are mostly conducted individually. Hardware tests require the use of special equipment to conduct research and record the data obtained.

They are used to assess psychophysiological properties, study reaction time, typological features of the nervous system, to study the characteristics of perception, memory, thinking. The advantages of hardware tests include higher accuracy and objectivity of the survey results, the possibility of automating the collection of primary data. The disadvantages are the high cost of the necessary equipment and the complexity of the technical support of the psychodiagnostic laboratory. In most cases, hardware tests are carried out individually.

Computer tests - automated type of testing in the form of a dialogue between the subject and the computer. Test tasks are presented on the display screen, and the subject enters the answers from the keyboard; the survey protocol is immediately created as a data set on a magnetic media. Standard statistical packages allow you to very quickly carry out mathematical and statistical processing of the results obtained in different directions.

If desired, you can get information in the form of graphs, tables, charts, profiles. With the help of a computer, you can get an analysis of such data that is almost impossible to obtain without it: the time to complete the test tasks, the time to get the right answers, the number of refusals to decide and seek help, the time spent by the subject thinking about the answer when refusing the decision; response input time /if it is complicated/, etc. These features of the subjects are used for in-depth psychological analysis in the testing process.

Individual tests - the interaction of the experimenter and the subject takes place one on one.

Advantages: the ability to observe the subject (facial expressions, involuntary reactions), hear and fix statements that are not provided for by the instructions, fix functional states.

They are used in work with children of infancy and preschool age, in clinical psychology - testing of persons with somatic or neuropsychic disorders, people with physical disabilities, etc. As a rule, it requires a lot of time and a high level of qualification of the experimenter. Group tests allow you to simultaneously examine a group of subjects (up to several hundred people). (This is not a socio-psychological diagnosis.)

Advantages:

mass character;

Speed of data collection;

The instruction and procedure are quite simple and the experimenter does not require high qualifications;

To a greater extent, the uniformity of the conditions for the experimenter is observed; - the processing of the results is usually more objective, often on a computer.

disadvantages:

Limitation of the possibility of observation;

There is less opportunity to achieve mutual understanding with the subject, to interest him, to enlist cooperation - unidentified diseases, fatigue, anxiety, anxiety can affect the performance of the task.

Intelligence tests. They are general aptitude tests. Designed to measure the level of intellectual development (mental potential). Manifestations of intelligence are diverse, but they have something in common that allows them to be distinguished from other features of behavior. This common is the activation in any intellectual act of thinking, memory, imagination, all those mental functions that provide knowledge of the surrounding world. Accordingly, intelligence as an object of measurement is understood as those features of a person that are related to cognitive properties.

This is reflected in numerous tests for assessing various intellectual functions (tests of logical thinking, semantic and associative memory, arithmetic, spatial visualization, etc.). These tests are quite clearly separated from other methods for measuring individual psychological characteristics - personality tests aimed at measuring behavior in certain social situations, interests and emotions of a person.

In most intelligence tests, the subject on a special form is asked to establish the logical relations of classification, analogy, generalization, and others indicated by the instructions between the terms and concepts that make up the test tasks. He communicates his decisions either in writing or by marking one of several options available on the form. The success of the subject is determined by the number of correctly completed tasks, which is used to display the coefficient of intelligence.

The success of the subject is related to the fact (according to G. Eysenku ):

To what extent, in his previous experience, he has mastered the terms and concepts from which the test tasks are built;

To what extent they mastered precisely those mental actions that are necessary to solve the tasks of the test;

And can he arbitrarily update these actions;

To what extent the mental stereotypes that have developed in the subject in his past experience are suitable for solving the tasks of the test.

Thus, the test results reveal rather than the mental potential of the subject, but those features of his past experience, learning, which inevitably affect his work on the test. This circumstance served as the basis for calling the results obtained when applying intelligence tests "test" or "psychometric" intelligence.

Tests of special abilities, creativity, personality.

Achievement Tests - assessment of the achieved level of development of abilities, skills and knowledge. Unlike intelligence tests, which reflect the influence of accumulated experience and general abilities, achievement tests measure the impact of special training programs, professional and other training on the effectiveness of teaching a particular set of knowledge, the formation of various special skills. Thus, achievement tests are focused on assessing a person's achievements after completion of training. Achievement tests used in school psychodiagnostics have significant advantages over the existing assessment of student performance.

Their indicators are focused on measuring mastery of key concepts, themes and elements of the curriculum, and not a specific body of knowledge, as is the case with traditional school assessment. Achievement tests, thanks to a standardized form of assessment, make it possible to correlate the student's level of achievement in the subject as a whole and in its individual essential elements with similar indicators in the class or in any other sample of subjects. This assessment is more objective and requires less time (because they are most often group tests) than the traditional school assessment.

They cover a larger number of topics. Tests provide an opportunity for an unambiguous objective assessment of a student, while exams do not provide such an assessment. For example, in 1994 in Moscow, out of 50,000 graduates, 110 received gold medals, and in Novosibirsk, out of 8,000, 55 graduates. Ratio 1:4.

Creativity Test - Methods designed to study and evaluate the creative abilities of the individual. Creativity is the ability to produce new ideas, find unconventional ways to solve problematic problems. Creativity factors - fluency, clarity, flexibility of thinking, sensitivity to problems, originality, ingenuity, constructiveness in solving them, etc. If the solution of creativity tests can be taken as one of the evidence of the presence of creative abilities in a person, then not solving them is not yet proof of the absence those.

The best known tests for measuring the cognitive aspect of creativity were developed by Joe Gilford et al (1959) and Paul Torrens (1962). In domestic research, based on the allocation of a unit of measurement of creative abilities, called "intellectual initiative", an original technique of "creative field" has been developed. D.B. Epiphany (1983).

Special Ability Tests - methods designed to measure the level of development of certain aspects of intelligence and psychomotor functions, mainly ensuring efficiency in specific, rather narrow areas of activity. Unlike intelligence tests that focus on broad areas of activity, special ability tests focus on specific areas of activity and often serve as a supplement to intelligence tests.

They arose for the purpose of professional selection and career guidance abroad. In foreign psychodiagnostics, the following groups of ability tests are distinguished: sensory, motor, technical (mechanical) and professional (counting, musical, reading speed and reading comprehension, etc.). Complex batteries of abilities are most widely used abroad.

Advantages and disadvantages of the test method.

Tests consist of a series of tasks with a choice of ready-made answers. When calculating the scores for the tests, the selected answers receive an unambiguous quantitative interpretation and are summed up. The total score is compared with quantitative test norms and after this comparison standard diagnostic conclusions are formulated.

The popularity of the test method is explained by the following main advantages of it (below, mainly traditional oral and written exams are taken as a comparison):

1. Standardization of conditions and results. Test methods are relatively independent of the qualifications of the user (performer), for the role of which even a laboratory assistant with a secondary education can be trained. This, however, does not mean that a qualified specialist with a full-fledged higher psychological education should not be involved in preparing a comprehensive conclusion on a battery of tests.

2. Efficiency and economy. A typical test consists of a series of short tasks, each of which, as a rule, takes no more than half a minute to complete, and the entire test, as a rule, takes no more than an hour (in school practice, this is one lesson); a group of subjects is simultaneously subjected to testing at once, thus, there is a significant saving of time (man-hours) for data collection.

3. Quantitative differentiated nature of the assessment. The fragmentation of the scale and the standardization of the test allows us to consider it as a "measuring tool" that gives a quantitative assessment of the measured properties (knowledge, skills in a given area). In addition, the quantitative nature of the test results makes it possible to apply a well-developed psychometric apparatus in the case of tests, which makes it possible to assess how well a given test works on a given sample of subjects under given conditions.

4. Optimum difficulty. A professionally designed test consists of items of optimal difficulty. At the same time, the average subject scores approximately 50 percent of the maximum possible number of points. This is achieved through preliminary tests - a psychometric experiment. If in the course of it it becomes known that about half of the examined contingent copes with the task, then such a task is recognized as successful and it is left in the test.

5. Reliability. This is perhaps the most important advantage of tests. The "lottery" nature of modern exams with the drawing of "happy" or "unlucky" tickets is known to everyone. Lottery for the examiner here turns into low reliability for the examiner - the answer to one fragment of the curriculum, as a rule, is not indicative of the level of assimilation of the entire material. In contrast, any well-designed test covers the main sections of the curriculum (tested area of knowledge or manifestations of some skill or ability). As a result, the opportunity for "tailers" to break into excellent students, and for an excellent student to suddenly "fail" are sharply reduced.

6. The most important social consequence of the advantages of the test method listed above is fairness. It should be understood as being protected from examiner bias. A good test puts all test subjects on an equal footing.

7. Possibility of computerization. In this case, this is not just an additional convenience that reduces the living labor of qualified performers during a mass examination. As a result of computerization, all testing parameters are increasing. There is an opportunity to ensure information security. It is possible to create a "bank of test items", which allows you to technically prevent abuse by unscrupulous examiners. The choice of tasks offered to a particular subject can be made from such a bank by the computer program itself during testing, and the presentation of a specific task to this subject in this case is as much a surprise for the examiner as it is for the subject.

8. Psychological adequacy. This is the most important psychological consequence of optimal complexity. The presence in the test (compared to traditional exam options) of a larger number of short tasks of medium difficulty gives many subjects (especially anxious, insecure) a chance to believe in themselves, to activate the psychologically optimal setting “to overcome”. When such a subject remains face to face with one or two very complex and large tasks and does not see how to cope with them at all, then he loses heart and does not reveal all his possibilities.

And if there are many tasks and some of them clearly begin to “give in” (the subject is sure that he can cope with them), the person in the process of testing is encouraged and begins to “fight” for the maximum result. The property of optimal complexity not only provides the measuring (distinguishing) power of the test, but also ensures the optimal psychological mood of the subjects. A test situation of optimal complexity is an optimal exciter - people experience a normal level of stress (tension) necessary in order to show the highest result. The lack of stress (in the case of an easy test), and even more so the excess (in the case of a difficult one), distort the measurement results.

Testing Disadvantages:

1. The danger of "blind", automatic errors. The blind faith of unskilled performers that the test should work correctly automatically sometimes gives rise to errors and incidents: the test subject did not understand the instructions and began to answer completely differently than the instruction standards require, the test subject for some reason applied distorting tactics, there was a “shift” in the application stencil-key to the answer sheet (for manual, non-computer scoring), etc.

2. Danger of profanity. The outward ease of conducting tests attracts people who do not want to seriously get acquainted with psychodiagnostics.

3. Loss of individual approach, "stressfulness". The test is for everyone. It is quite possible to miss the unique individuality of a non-standard person (especially a child). The subjects themselves feel this, and this makes them nervous - especially in the situation of certification testing. People with reduced stress resistance even have a certain violation of self-regulation - they begin to worry and make mistakes in elementary questions for themselves.

4. Loss of individual approach, "reproductivity". Knowledge tests are designed to identify ready-made, standard knowledge. Most of the tests are not aimed at creative, constructive activities.

5. Lack of trust. The testing procedure may give the subject the impression that the psychologist has little interest in him personally, in his problems and difficulties. Dialogue methods have an undeniable advantage in this regard.

6. Inadequate complexity. Sometimes unskilled "testologists" bring down tests on a child that are too difficult for him by age. He has not yet developed the necessary concepts and conceptual skills to adequately comprehend both the general instructions for the test and the meaning of individual questions.

Tests cannot be made the only comprehensive method of any diagnosis, they require the parallel use of other diagnostic methods. The best guarantee against laymen and profanity is a serious and qualified interest in what kind of experimental and scientific work the developers of the test have done, how fully this work and its results are reflected in the accompanying documentation. These are, first of all, questions of reliability, validity and representativeness.

Questionnaires as a standardized self-report.

Questionnaires are a large group of methods, the tasks of which are presented in the form of questions or statements, and the task of the subject is to independently report some information about himself in the form of answers. The theoretical basis of this method can be considered introspectionism - the psychology of self-observation. The method of questionnaires was initially considered as a kind of self-observation. But with the given answer options, this self-observation, which is given a standardized character, is close to objective testing in many formal ways.

An exploratory tool that asks subjects to answer a variety of written questions. A group of psychodiagnostic methods in which tasks are presented in the form of questions and statements. Designed to obtain data from the words of the subject (standardized self-report).

Types of questionnaires.

A survey is a method in which a person answers a series of questions asked of him. Oral questioning is used in cases where it is desirable to observe the behavior and reactions of the person answering the questions. This type of survey allows you to penetrate deeper into the psychology of a person than a written one, but it requires special preparation, training and, as a rule, a large investment of time to conduct research. The answers of the subjects obtained during an oral survey depend significantly on the personality of the person who conducts the survey, and on the individual characteristics of the one who answers the questions, and on the behavior of both persons in the survey situation.

A written survey allows you to reach more people. The most common form is the questionnaire. But its disadvantage is that, using the questionnaire, it is impossible to take into account the reactions of the respondent to the content of its questions in advance and, based on this, change them. Free survey - a kind of oral or written survey, in which the list of questions asked and possible answers to them is not limited in advance to certain limits. A survey of this type allows you to flexibly change the tactics of research, the content of the questions asked, and receive non-standard answers to them.

personality questionnaires.

Standardized questionnaires that unambiguously and quantitatively assess the degree of expression of the personality traits of the subjects or other personality traits. As a rule, there are no “right” and “wrong” answers in personality questionnaires. They only reflect the degree of agreement or disagreement of the subject with a particular statement. According to the nature of the answers to the questions, they are divided into questionnaires with prescribed answers (closed questionnaires) and with free answers (open questionnaires).

In closed questionnaires, options for answers to the question posed are provided in advance. The subject must choose one of them. The most common is a two- or three-alternative choice of answer (for example: “yes, no”; “yes, no, I find it difficult to answer”). The advantage of closed questions is the simplicity of the procedure for registering and processing data, a clear formalization of the assessment, which is important in a mass survey. At the same time, this form of answer "roughens" the information. Often, subjects have difficulties when it is necessary to make a categorical decision.

Open questionnaires provide free answers without any special restrictions. Subjects give answers of their own choice. Standardization of processing is achieved by assigning arbitrary responses to standard categories. Advantages: obtaining detailed information about the subject; conducting a qualitative analysis of the responses. Disadvantages: the complexity of formalizing the answers and their assessments; difficulties in interpreting the results; cumbersome procedure and time consuming.

Personality Trait Questionnaires - a group of personality questionnaires developed on the basis of identifying personality traits. Directly observed personality traits act as the starting material for constructing questionnaires. In contrast to the construction of typological questionnaires, this approach requires a grouping of personality traits, not those that are not examined. In questionnaires of personality traits, the diagnosis is carried out by the degree of severity of traits. Example: (16 personality factors) - Cattell questionnaire, USK.

Typological questionnaires - a group of personality questionnaires developed on the basis of identifying personality types as integral formations that are not reducible to a set of traits (or factors). This approach requires grouping the subjects themselves, and not their personal characteristics. In typological questionnaires, diagnosis is carried out on the basis of comparison with the corresponding /average/ personality type. Example: G. Eysenck, MMPI.

Questionnaires of motives - a group of personal questionnaires designed to diagnose the motivational-need sphere of a person, which allows you to establish what a person's activity is directed at (motives as the reasons that determine the choice of behavior direction) and how the regulation of behavior dynamics is carried out.

Interest Questionnaires - a group of questionnaires designed to measure interests and choose a professional activity Questionnaires of interests, depending on the saturation of personal indicators, can be attributed to both personal questionnaires and questionnaires.

Value Questionnaires - a group of personal questionnaires designed to measure the values and value orientations of the individual. Values are formed in the process of assimilation of social experience and are found in the interests, attitudes and other manifestations of the personality.

Attitude Questionnaires - a group of questionnaires designed to measure the relative orientation of a person in a one-dimensional continuum of attitudes.

Questionnaires biographical - a group of questionnaires for obtaining data on the history of a person's life. Most often, questions relate to age, health status, marital status, level and nature of education, special skills, career advancement, and other relatively objective indicators. They help to collect the information necessary for a reliable interpretation of test scores.

Question forms: open and closed (dichotomous and alternative). Forms of presentation of results. Ways to improve the reliability of questionnaires (multiple duplication of questions, the introduction of a "lie scale", the rejection of direct questions, etc.).

The specifics of the questionnaire. Questioning is an empirical method of obtaining information based on answers to specially prepared questions that make up the questionnaire. Preparation of the questionnaire requires professionalism. Questioning can be oral, written, individual, group. The survey material is subjected to quantitative and qualitative processing.

Questionnaires-questionnaires serve to obtain any information about a person that is not directly related to his psychological and personal characteristics. They imply a rigidly fixed order, content and form of questions, a clear indication of the form of answers. Questionnaires are classified according to the content and design of questions (open, closed, semi-open). Respondent - a person who answers the questions of a questionnaire or interview.

Features of the interview. An interview is a type of conversation in which the task is to get the interviewee's answers to certain (usually pre-prepared) questions.

Portal for the student. Self-training

Method of conversation in psychodiagnostics. Psychodiagnostic possibilities of conversation

Send your good work in the knowledge base is simple. Use the form below

4. Reflective and non-reflective listening

Similar Documents

Psychodiagnostic conversation as a method of obtaining information based on verbal communication.

Advantages and disadvantages of the method of conversation.

Tests of special abilities, creativity, personality.

Advantages and disadvantages of the test method.

Questionnaires as a standardized self-report.

Types of questionnaires.

personality questionnaires.

Portal for the student. Self-training

Send your good work in the knowledge base is simple. Use the form below

4. Reflective and non-reflective listening

Similar Documents

Psychodiagnostic conversation as a method of obtaining information based on verbal communication.

Advantages and disadvantages of the method of conversation.

Tests of special abilities, creativity, personality.

Advantages and disadvantages of the test method.

Questionnaires as a standardized self-report.

Types of questionnaires.

personality questionnaires.

RELATED ARTICLES