By the end of the XI century. states of Western and Central Europe completed the process of formation of feudal relations. This contributed to the rapid rise of medieval societies in technical, economic and cultural terms.

There were significant shifts in the development of the main branch of the medieval economy - agriculture. Uncultivated lands were mastered, cultivation of the land improved, the three-field system spread, tools of labor (wheeled plow, etc.) were improved. An important technological revolution was the spread of water and windmills. The production of grain and industrial crops—flax, hemp, and woad—expanded. There was a sharp increase in yields and an increase in agricultural output. Animal husbandry received further development - sheep breeding began to play an important role, livestock breeds improved. A new harness appeared - a collar, which contributed to the widespread use of horses in agriculture. New branches of agriculture appeared: horticulture, horticulture, viticulture, cultivation of oilseeds. Wine-making, butter-making, and mill business developed and improved.

Progressive shifts in the development of the medieval economy allowed the peasant to accumulate surplus agricultural products and exchange them for products made by professional artisans. In turn, handicraft activity required more and more specialization, no longer compatible with the labor of the peasant. Technique and technology of handicraft improved. Great success was achieved by metallurgy, blacksmithing and weaponry, leather processing, pottery and construction. Achievements in cloth making should be especially noted. They learned how to make woolen fabrics, which contributed to the gradual displacement of fur and linen clothing throughout Europe (Northern Italy and Flanders were the main centers of cloth making). Thus, handicraft production separated from agriculture, constituting a special form of labor activity, and a professional artisan turned into a small commodity producer. Thus, the prerequisites for the emergence of cities and the development of trade were created.

Village craftsmen made up the original population of the medieval town. New cities appeared near castles and fortresses, the walls of which could serve as reliable protection (Strasbourg, etc.); around the monasteries where a large number of people gathered (Saint Germain, Sant Iago, etc.); near bridges and river crossings (Cambridge, Oxford, etc.); on the shores of bays, bays, convenient for parking of ships, where traditional markets have long operated. Cities acquired great economic importance, becoming centers of crafts and trade. Sometimes these were administrative, military and church centers.

The population of the medieval city was extremely heterogeneous in composition. City dwellers were busy:

In the sphere of production of goods and trade: artisans of various specialties and merchants (who themselves sold their goods), gardeners and fishers; the most representative part of the townspeople were professional merchants - merchants engaged in domestic and foreign trade

Selling services and serving the market: sailors, cabbies, porters, barbers, innkeepers, etc.;

In large cities that were political and administrative centers lived:

· feudal lords with their entourage (servants and military detachments), serving bureaucracy, notaries, doctors, school and university teachers, students, masters and other representatives of the emerging intelligentsia. A significant part of the population was the clergy;

day laborers, unskilled laborers, people who lived by odd jobs, beggars.

Medieval cities arose on the land of kings, secular and spiritual feudal lords. City dwellers fell into land, personal and judicial dependence on them. This created favorable conditions for the active struggle of the urban population against the feudal lords for their rights and independence.

The most important results of this difficult struggle were:

1. The release of the vast majority of citizens from personal dependence.

2. Formation of a special medieval class of townspeople. In economic terms, this estate was associated with trade and handicraft activities. In political and legal terms, members of this estate enjoyed a number of specific privileges and liberties (personal freedom, participation in the city militia, in the formation of the municipality, etc.).

3. Development of city self-government. Cities became the second (after the feudal lords) political force, which contributed to the emergence of new elements in the mechanisms of state power. In the XIII-XIV centuries. in Western Europe there are class-representative institutions - the prototypes of modern parliaments.

In all countries where feudal relations have triumphed, one invariable trend can be traced - political disintegration, the formation of more or less independent destinies, the decline in power and the importance of central power. Only exceptional circumstances, such as the conquest of England in 1066, could prevent or delay this trend.

An economic and cultural upsurge was also observed in Russia, where the final formalization of feudal relations also took place. Great successes were associated with the development of agriculture, and especially agriculture (farming was the main occupation of about 90% of the population). The zone of arable farming has moved far to the northeast. In the more southern regions, the shifting system was replaced by a system with a two-field and three-field crop rotation. Improved tillage techniques. Archaeological material testifies to the presence of a scarf with a narrow blade without a skid, a plow with a plowshare, a scarf with a wide blade, a multi-toothed plow, hoes, sickles, pink salmon scythes, etc. They began to grow new crops. The number of livestock increased sharply. Cattle breeding provided wool, meat, milk, butter, leather, draft animals.

Of great importance in the life of Russian society X - XII centuries. cities played. The urban population of Russia was no more than 1.5-3% of all inhabitants. The Country of Cities "consisted by the 10th century. 20 cities, by the XI century. - 32, and the XII century. – more than 60 cities. True, according to historians, many of them were small fortresses, in which there were heroic outposts, and there was no settlement at all. But two or three dozen cities lived up to their name. These were the political, cultural, trade, craft and defense centers of Russia. Russian towns differed from Western European stone towns by their more spacious streets and manor building principles.

Domestic and foreign trade was actively conducted. Russia's trading partners were Byzantium, Scandinavian and countries and states of Western Europe. Important export items were fur, wax, honey, damask weapons, and imports were cult and luxury items, books, precious metals, etc.

There was a flourishing of the craft. Craft workshops operated in the cities, working mainly to order, but sometimes changing or selling their products on the market. The most important branch of the craft was the processing of iron. Old Russian blacksmiths mastered many technological methods: forging, welding, cementing, turning, inlaying with non-ferrous metals, polishing. The range of iron products reached 150 items. In the forges of the XI - XII centuries. a special type of steel was smelted - damask steel. Russian damask swords were unusually strong and sharp and were highly valued in the East. The largest blacksmith centers in Russia were the cities of Kyiv, Novgorod, Smolensk, Galich and Vyshgorod.

In Russia in the XI-XII centuries. jewelry flourished. Moreover, in terms of the technique and quality of enamel production and the finest casting, Russian artisans were ahead of Western European ones. Other types of crafts also flourished: pottery, carpentry, the manufacture of glassware and jewelry, construction and related crafts - carpentry, carving and hewing of stone, firing lime and brick (plinths). Stone construction is expanding (although on a much smaller scale than in the West), mainly church building.

Thus, in the X - XII centuries. In the development of the countries of Western Europe and Russia, there is a fundamental commonality of many processes.

At this time, in parallel with the entry of feudalism into the stage of maturity, the disintegration of the early feudal states in Western and Central Europe took place. And within the framework of this pan-European process, there is a fragmentation of Russian lands. In historical science, this process is called feudal fragmentation and is considered by researchers as a natural stage in the development of a feudal state, characterized by a high level of development of feudal relations. The period of feudal fragmentation lasted 300 years in Russia - from the 12th century to the end of the 15th century.

Based on the analysis of the socio-economic and cultural development of European countries and Russia, the reasons for feudal fragmentation can be clearly identified:

1. Common to all feudal states:

A) The dominance of natural economy ensured, on the one hand, the development of patrimonial land tenure, a sharp rise in local economy and trade, and on the other hand, the lack of economic specialization of the regions and the restriction of economic ties between individual lands.

B) "Settling" of the squad on the ground, i.e. the transformation of its members into feudal lords, whose most important estate privilege was the right to own land. Inextricably linked with this is the power of the feudal lord over the peasantry, his right to judge and punish without trial. This influenced the weakening of the political dependence of individual lands on the central government. Prerequisites were created for solving military-political (defensive-offensive) tasks by local forces.

2. Specific for Russia:

A) The fall of the role of Kyiv as an all-Russian center due to the appearance of the Polovtsy in the southern Russian steppes, which made the path along the Dnieper dangerous, increasing the outflow of the population from Kyiv and its environs to the northwest.

B) The order of succession of the Kyiv Grand Duke's throne, combining two tendencies of inheritance: from father to son (Byzantine law) and to the eldest in the family (Russian custom), which intensified the internecine struggle.

C) The weakening of the external threat after the defeat of the Khazar Khaganate and the Pechenegs, the decrease in the activity of the Varangians and the stabilization of relations with the Byzantine Empire.

D) The presence of a specific system created by Yaroslav the Wise. After his death (1054), under the Yaroslavichs, internecine wars began to shake Russia. The state unity of Russia wavered. The ancient Russian state turned from a sole monarchy into a federal monarchy, headed by several of the most powerful and authoritative princes - the Yaroslavichs.

The unity of Russia was fully restored by Chernigov Prince Vladimir Monomakh (Prince of Kyiv in 113-1125). After the death of Vsevolod of Kyiv (1093), he became the most popular prince in Russia. On his initiative, a congress of princes was convened in Lubicz in 1097. Its main tasks were: a) ending the internecine struggle; and b) joining forces in the fight against the Polovtsy (in 1093, the Polovtsy carried out a devastating raid on Russia, the princes suffered a crushing defeat + 1095 - a new campaign of the Polovtsy). At this congress, the princes agreed that "each prince should keep his own estates", but act together and obey the senior prince.

In 1113 an uprising broke out in Kyiv. Svyatopolk, hated by the people of Kiev, died, who did business with Jewish usurers (they took 100-200% for debts, and turned the debtors into slaves. The people of Kiev began to smash the houses of usurers and many boyars. "The best people" sent for Vladimir Monomakh, who was able to calm Kyiv.

1. Causes of feudal fragmentation. Socio-economic and political

development of Russia in the period of feudal fragmentation

From the second quarter XII in. in Russia began a period of feudal fragmentation, which lasted until the end XV in. (Western Europe passed this stage in X - XII centuries).

Modern historical science considers the era of feudal fragmentation as a natural progressive stage in the development of feudal society (before the conquest factor interfered with normal development), which created new, more favorable conditions for the further economic, political and cultural development of Russian lands.

“The period of feudal fragmentation is full of complex and contradictory processes that often baffle historians. The negative aspects of the era are especially noticeable: 1) a clear weakening of the general military potential, which facilitates foreign conquest; 2) internecine wars and 3) the increasing fragmentation of princely possessions ... On the other hand, it is necessary to pay attention to the fact that the initial phase of feudal fragmentation (before the factor of conquest intervened in normal development) is characterized not by the decline of culture ... but, on the contrary, by the rapid growth of cities and the bright flowering of Russian culture XII - early XIII in. in all its manifestations."

The main reasons for feudal fragmentation:

1. Growth of local productive forces –one of the main causes of feudal fragmentation. What is it reflected in?

First, there were significant shifts in the development of productive forces in agriculture, which was primarily reflected in the improvement of tools: a wooden plow with an iron plowshare, sickles, scythes, a two-pronged plow, etc. appeared. This raised the level of agricultural production. Arable agriculture spread everywhere. The transition to a three-field system of agriculture began.

Secondly, handicraft production has achieved certain success. The emergence of new agricultural implements made it possible to free up more and more people for the craft. As a result, handicrafts were separated from agriculture. AT XII-XIII centuries there were already up to 60 different craft specialties. Blacksmithing achieved the greatest success; about 150 types of products were produced from iron and steel alone.

Thirdly, the development of crafts was the impetus for the growth of cities and urban population. It was in the cities that handicraft production developed mainly. The number of cities is increasing dramatically. If in Russian chronicles in XII in. 135 cities are mentioned, then by the middle XIII in. their number has grown to 300.

2. Another reason for feudal fragmentation –further strengthening of local centers.

By the 30s. XII in. even on the most remote outskirts of Kievan Rus, a large boyar land ownership developed. Large landowners appeared in the country–princes, sometimes more wealthy than those of Kiev. Often they owned not only villages, but also cities. Communal lands were also seized by the boyars. Church and monastic landownership grew.

Feudal patrimonies, like peasant communities, were natural in nature. Their links to the market were weak and irregular. Under these conditions, it became possible for each region to separate and exist as an independent principality. In each such principality, a local boyar was formed.–the main political and economic power of that time.

3. The expansion of the base of feudalism entailed an intensification of the class struggle, which was also one of the reasons for the formation of independent feudal principalities in Ancient Russia.

The aggravation of the class struggle took place between the feudal lords, on the one hand, and the smerds and the urban poor–with another.

The forms of the class struggle of the peasantry and the urban poor with the oppressors were very diverse: escapes, damage to the master's inventory, extermination of livestock, robberies, arson, and finally, uprisings. The struggle of the peasants was of a spontaneous nature. The performances of peasants and townspeople were scattered. Examples of major uprisings were the uprisings in Novgorod (1136), Galich (1145 and 1188), Vladimir-on-Klyazma (1174-1175). The largest was the uprising in Kyiv in 1113.

4. In order to suppress the actions of the peasants and the urban poor, the ruling circles were required to create an apparatus of coercion in each large feudal estate.

The feudal lords were interested in a firm princely power in the localities, primarily because it made it possible to suppress the resistance of the peasants, who were becoming more and more enslaved by them. Local feudal lords now did not depend on the central government in Kiev, they relied on the military power of their prince.

5. Continuous wars with nomads (Khazars, Pechenegs, Polovtsy, Volga Bulgars) also contributed to the destruction of economic and political ties between Russian lands.

Thus, overdue XI in. prerequisites for the economic independence of large feudal principalities, estates and cities by the middle XII in. turned into a solid economic base for their political liberation from grand ducal power.

As a result of the dismemberment of Kievan Rus on the territory of Rus in XI-XII centuries 13 largest principalities and feudal republics were formed: Novgorod and Pskov lands, Vladimir-Suzdal, Polotsk-Minsk, Turov-Pinsk, Smolensk, Galicia-Volynsk, Kiev, Pereyaslav, Chernigov, Tmutarakan, Murom, Ryazan principalities.

Their princes had all the rights of a sovereign sovereign: they resolved issues of internal structure with the boyars, declared wars, and signed peace. Now the princes fought not to seize power throughout the country, but to expand the borders of their principality at the expense of their neighbors.

With the growth in the number of feudal dependent people, the exploitation of their labor in the patrimonial economy (rather than tribute) became the basis of the economic power of the prince.

Vladimir I distributed across Russia his 12 sons, who were the deputies of the Grand Duke.

According to the will of Yaroslav the Wise, his sons sat down to reign in various Russian regions. From this begins the so-called "specific period": Russia was divided into appanages (in Novgorod–posadnik).

The power of the great Kyiv princes fell into decay, and the grand prince's table turned into an object of struggle between the strongest rulers of other principalities. It should be noted that the representatives of the ruling classes, and not the people, were the carriers of political isolation in Russia.

Political system. The political system of the principalities during the period of feudal fragmentation was not homogeneous. The following varieties can be distinguished:

– strong princely power in the Vladimir-Suzdal land;

– the boyar feudal republic in Novgorod, where the power of the princes almost disappeared;

– a combination of princely power and the political strength of the boyars, a long struggle between them in the Galicia-Volyn principality.

In the rest of the principalities, the political system is close to one of the indicated options. On the example of their principalities and lands, let us consider their characteristic features, their history.

Vladimir-Suzdal land (Moscow, North-Eastern Russia). Of the isolated lands, the principality (or, as it was called at first, Rostov-Suzdal) acquired the greatest importance. It occupied a very vast territory from Nizhny Novgorod to Tver along the Volga, to Gorokhovets, Kolomna and Mozhaisk in the south, including Ustyug and Beloozero in the north. Here to the top XII in. there was a large feudal boyar land ownership.

Huge massifs of black earth, cut into rectangles by forests, were called opolya (from the word "field"). Important river routes passed through the principality, and the Vladimir-Suzdal princes held trade with Novgorod and the East (along the great Volga route) in their hands.

The population was engaged agriculture, cattle breeding, fishing, salt mining, beekeeping, beaver fishing. Crafts were developed in cities and villages. There were many large cities in the principality: Rostov, Suzdal, Yaroslavl, etc.

In 1108, Vladimir Monomakh on the river. Klyazma was founded the city of Vladimir, which later became the capital of all North-Eastern Russia.

The first ruler of the Vladimir-Suzdal principality was Yury Dolgoruky (1125 –1157), son of Monomakh. A major political figure, he was the first of the Suzdal princes to achieve not only the independence of his principality, but also its expansion. For his attempts to occupy and hold cities as far from Suzdal as Kiev and Novgorod, he was nicknamed Dolgoruky.

In 1147 Moscow was mentioned for the first time in the chronicle. –a small border town built by Dolgoruky on the site of the estate of the boyar Kuchka confiscated by him.

Yuri Dolgoruky devoted his whole life to the struggle for the throne of Kyiv. Under him, Ryazan and Murom fell under the influence of the Rostov-Suzdal princes. He actively influenced the policy of Novgorod the Great. After the occupation of Kyiv, Dolgoruky planted his younger sons in Rostov and Suzdal (from the third wife of Elena)–He left Vsevolod and Mikhail, the elder Andrey, in Vyshgorod, near Kiev. But Andrei understood that Kyiv had lost its former role. And after the death of his father, violating his will, he left Vyshgorod and moved to Suzdal, where he immediately behaved as an autocratic ruler.

Andrey Bogolyubsky –the second son of Yuri Dolgoruky from the Polovtsian princess. He was born around 1110 and became the first prince of the Rostov-Suzdal land from 1157 to 1174. At the beginning of his reign, he expelled his younger brothers Mikhail and Vsevolod from the principality, then his nephews and many boyars–close father. Andrew found support among petty feudal lords and artisans, whose number grew rapidly.

Due to the resistance of the boyar nobility of Rostov and Suzdal to his autocracy, Andrei moved the capital of his inheritance to Vladimir-on-Klyazma, and he himself mainly lived in Bogolyubovo (a village he built 11 km from Vladimir).

Assigning to himself the title of the Grand Duke of all Russia, Andrei occupied Kyiv in 1169, which he transferred to the management of one of his vassals. Andrei tried to subjugate Novgorod and other Russian lands. His policy reflected the tendency to unite all Russian lands under the rule of one prince.

Unlike his father, Bogolyubsky main focus he devoted himself to the internal affairs of his principality: he sought to strengthen the princely power, severely suppressed the opposition speeches of the local boyars, for which he paid with his life (he was brutally killed by the boyars-conspirators on June 28, 1174 in his own palace).

Andrey's policy was continued by his brother Vsevolod Big Nest (1176 –1212). Vsevolod had many sons, which is why he got his nickname. Vsevolod brutally dealt with the boyars-conspirators who killed his brother. The struggle between the prince and the boyars ended in favor of the prince. Power in the principality was established in the form of a monarchy. Vsevolod bore the title of Grand Duke and quite firmly held power over Novgorod and Ryazan.

The author of The Tale of Igor's Campaign figuratively emphasized the power of the Vladimir-Suzdal land, wrote that its regiments could splash the Volga with oars, and scoop water from the Don with helmets. During the reign of Vsevolod, the city of Vladimir maintained trade relations with the Caucasus and Khorezm, with the Volga region.

However, despite these successes, both Vsevolod and his son, Grand Duke Yuri Vsevolodovich (1218–1233), were unable to resist the tendencies of feudal fragmentation.

After the death of Vsevolod, feudal strife resumed again in the principality. The process of economic recovery was interrupted by the invasion of the Mongol-Tatars, who subjugated the Vladimir-Suzdal principality in 1238. The principality broke up into a number of smaller lands.

Galicia-Volyn South-Western Russia, Kyiv). Galicia-Volyn principality occupied the northeastern slopes of the Carpathians and the territory between the rivers Dniester and Prut.

In Volyn and in the Galician land, arable farming has long developed, and, in addition, cattle breeding, hunting, fishing, etc. XII in. in the region there were already about 80 cities (the largest: Galich, Przemysl, Kholm, Lvov, etc.).

One of the characteristic features of the Galician land that left an imprint on its history was the early formation of a large boyar land ownership. The enrichment of the boyars was largely facilitated by their extensive trade. Gradually, the boyars turned into an influential political force.

The rise of the Galician principality began in the second half XII in. at Yaroslav Osmomysl (1152 –1187). The chronicler draws him as an intelligent and educated prince who knew different languages.

After the death of Osmomysl, the boyars took an active part in the dynastic struggle for power between his sons from different mothers. Volyn prince took advantage of this turmoil Roman Mstislavich , who managed in 1199 to establish himself in Galicia and unite the Galician land and most of Volhynia as part of the Galicia-Volyn principality. Roman had to endure a difficult struggle with the boyars, echoes of it were preserved in the words attributed to this prince: "Without crushing the bees, there is no honey." The unification of lands contributed to the development of local cities (Galych, Vladimir, Lutsk, etc.) and trade. Roman took the title of Grand Duke, having received recognition in some lands in Russia and abroad (Byzantium). Peaceful relations were established with Poland and Hungary. Under him, the attempts of the Pope of Rome to gain access to Russia to the Catholic clergy failed.

In the Galician chronicle, a description of Roman is preserved, in which his military activity is especially impressive: “He rushed at the filthy ones, like a lion; was angry as a lynx; destroyed them like a crocodile; flew around the earth like an eagle; was brave as a tour." All the activities of Roman Mstislavich were subordinated to the strengthening of the grand ducal power, the unification of all the southwestern lands of Russia.

The death of Roman in one of the battles (1205) led to a temporary loss of the achieved political unity of Southwestern Russia, to a weakening of princely power in it. A devastating feudal war began (1205-1245). The boyars, with the assistance of the papal curia, betrayed the independence of the region, which in 1214 fell under the rule of Hungary and Poland. During the national liberation war against the Hungarian and Polish invaders, led by Mstislav Udaloy and the son of Prince Roman Mstislavich Daniil Romanovich, the conquerors were defeated and expelled; with the help of the service boyars, the nobility and cities, Prince Daniel took possession of Volhynia (1229), Galician land (1238), and then Kiev (1239). In 1245, in the battle near the city of Yaroslav, he defeated the combined forces of Hungary, Poland, the Galician boyars and again united the entire South-Western Russia. The positions of princely power were again strengthened.

Daniel Romanovich Galitsky , Prince of Vladimir-Volyn, Prince of Galicia, Grand Duke of Galicia, Grand Duke of Kyiv (the last prince of Kievan Rus), in childhood and youth lived in Poland and Hungary with his relatives–kings. In Hungary, he held a prominent position at the court of King Andrew II Jerusalem, who had no male offspring, wanted to marry his daughter to Daniel and leave him the Hungarian throne. However, in 1214-1220. Galicia was captured by the Hungarian ban - Kaloman, who proclaimed himself the king of Galicia, and Daniel had to return to his old inheritance - the Vladimir-Volyn principality, so as not to lose him.

In the 20-30s. XIII in. Daniel took an active part in Russian foreign policy. He participated in the Battle of Kalka (1223), and his squad survived, preserved itself to a greater extent than others, and managed to retreat in an organized manner, avoiding capture. Having occupied the Kyiv throne by right of the eldest in the Rurik family, Daniel left Kiev at the end of 1239 and the beginning of 1240. under the pressure of the Mongol-Tatars. But, having returned to Galicia, he is still trying in 1240-1242. organize an anti-Tatar coalition Eastern European states: Galicia-Volyn Kingdom, Poland, Hungary, Czech Republic and Silesia. However, the disagreement of the monarchs of these countries, as well as the intensification of the raids of the Lithuanian princes from the north to Volhynia, force Daniil to abandon plans for returning to Russia and actually link the fate of his principality-kingdom with Catholic Europe, which tore this part of Russia from Russia for as much as 700 years (1239-1939 years), when Western Belarus and Western Ukraine (Volyn and Galician principalities) were again reunited with Russia–USSR).

Novgorod-Pskov land (North-Western Russia). Novgorod-Pskov land occupied a vast territory, bordering on Vladimir-Suzdal land in the east, with Smolensk–in the south and from Polotsk- in the South-West.

Novgorod, one of the largest Russian cities, was located on the main trade route linking the Baltic, Black and Caspian Seas. The economic growth of Novgorod prepared the necessary conditions for political separation into an independent feudal system.

Novgorod before other lands began the struggle for independence from Kyiv. Using the discontent of the Novgorodians (the uprising of 1136), the boyars, who had significant economic power and owned a huge land fund, managed to defeat the Novgorod prince Vsevolod Mstislavich. Vsevolod was expelled. In Novgorod, the orders of the boyar aristocratic republic finally triumphed.

Boyars seized power–owners of vast estates, who were also engaged in conducting extensive trade operations and usury. Formally, the supreme power in Novgorod belonged to the veche –assembly of all male citizens. The veche resolved issues of war and peace, elected senior officials: the posadnik, who was in charge of administration and court; tysyatsky - assistant posadnik, head of the military forces, who was also in charge of the court among the merchants. However, in fact, power was in the hands of the boyars, from among whom the above appointments and replacements (even by inheritance) took place.

The largest feudal lord in Novgorod was bishop (since 1156 archbishop). He kept the treasury of Novgorod, was in charge of state lands, participated in the management of foreign policy, and headed the church court. The bishop had his service feudal lords and his own regiment.

invited the veche and prince , mainly for the leadership of the armed forces of the republic. His rights were severely limited. The prince was warned: “Without a posadnik, you, prince, do not judge courts, do not keep volosts, do not give letters.” Attempts by strong princes from other Russian lands to install in Novgorod a ruler they liked met with a sharp rebuff from the Novgorodians.

For the first hundred years (1136-1236) of independence, up to the Mongol-Tatar invasion, the history of the Novgorod Republic was characterized by a sharp class struggle, which more than once resulted in uprisings of the urban poor and peasants. The largest of these were the uprisings in 1207 and 1228.

In connection with the development of domestic and foreign trade in Novgorod, the role of the merchants was increasing, thanks to which the trade relations of the republic with the Vladimir-Suzdal principality were strengthened.

The Suzdal princes, pursuing a unifying policy, steadily strengthened their positions in the Novgorod Republic. The influence of the Vladimir princes increased markedly in XIII century, when their troops provided Novgorod and Pskov with significant assistance in the fight against external enemies. From 1236 he became a prince in Novgorod Alexander Yaroslavich –grandson of Vsevolod the Big Nest, the future Nevsky.

The development of feudal relations led to the isolation of the Pskov land, where in XIII in. an independent boyar republic was formed.

Thus, by XIII in. the struggle between the forces of feudal centralization and boyar-princely separatism in Russia was in full swing. It was at this time that the process of internal socio-economic and political development was interrupted by external military intervention. She went in three streams:

–from the east - Mongol-Tatar invasion;

–from the northwest and west–Swedish-Danish-German aggression;

- from the southwest - onslaught of Poles and Hungarians.

In popular historical literature, the term feudal fragmentation is associated with the cause of the Tatar-Mongol yoke and all the disasters that have occurred in Russian lands for 500 years. The basis of the feudal mode of production is natural economy (the totality of commodity producers united by ownership of the means of production). The emerging feudal production, designed to regulate relations between feudal lords and dependent peasants, is usually short-term in time of its existence, for example, the Empire of Charlemagne.

In the Old Russian lands, there are 3 ways of forming feudal property: the land of the prince and his relatives; the lands of "put in place" warriors (feudal nobility); the lands of the "best people" of the community (tribal nobility). Due to the underdevelopment of socio-economic relations and the primacy of external causes in the formation of the Old Russian state, the third method was preferable. In Soviet historiography, the economic option for the development of feudal relations in the Old Russian lands was considered a priority, i.e. feudal fragmentation is a natural stage in the development of society. The development of a subsistence economy ultimately leads to the fact that individual subjects of ownership are able to maintain their own apparatus of ownership.

Already in the 50s. 20th century Cherepnin, and then Froyanov put forward a different version of the emergence of feudal relations. The Slavs did not have a classical (in the European sense of the word) division into 2 classes. Most of the commodity producers were communal peasants. The primary causes of feudal fragmentation were internally and externally political. The imperfection of the legislation determined the order of inheritance ("ladder" - the eldest in the family became the head of state). Richard Pipes, the classical supporter of the "Norman theory", argued that the Varangians were so dismissive of the Slavs that they did not even bother to leave any law on the procedure for the transfer of power.

In reality, the very version of the development of ancient Russian society - extensive, forced the Kyiv princes to defend the borders of their brothers, who, due to the peculiarities of the Slavic mode of production, became enemies. The "ladder" principle of inheritance gave rise to a struggle for the throne. Another reason for feudal fragmentation was the weakening of the foreign policy danger. At the end of the XI century. in the wild steppe, the Pechenegs were replaced by the Polovtsy, who very quickly disintegrated themselves into separate warlike groups, with which individual princes learned to negotiate and use for their own purposes. There was no need to create a large squad.

CAUSES OF FEUDAL Fragmentation
DOMESTIC POLITICAL	FOREIGN POLICY	ECONOMIC
A single Russian state did not already exist under the sons of Yaroslav the Wise, and unity was supported rather by family ties and common interests in defense against the steppe nomads. The movement of the princes through the cities along the "Row of Yaroslav" created instability. The decision of the Lyubech Congress eliminated this established rule, finally fragmenting the state. The descendants of Yaroslav were not interested in the struggle for seniority, but in increasing their own possessions at the expense of their neighbors.	The Polovtsian raids on Russia contributed in many respects to the consolidation of the Russian princes to repel external danger. The weakening of the danger from the south broke the alliance of the Russian princes, who in civil strife more than once themselves led the Polovtsian troops.	Marxist historiography brought economic causes to the fore. The period of feudal fragmentation was seen as a natural stage in the development of feudalism. The dominance of natural economy did not contribute to the establishment of strong ties between regions and led to isolation. The emergence of a feudal patrimony with the exploitation of a dependent population required strong power in the localities, and not in the center. The growth of cities, colonization and the development of new lands led to the emergence of new large centers of Russia. Weakly connected with Kyiv.

In the XI century. there was a disintegration of the unified Old Russian state into 13-14 principalities. The most prominent in their development were: Vladimir-Suzdal, Galicia-Volyn and Novgorod principalities. At that time, the process of outflow (in the words of Lev Gumilyov) of the passionately active population, i.e. capable of resettlement and life in a new place, from the historically established places of settlement of the Slavs in northern Russia. The lands of northwestern Russia are exceptionally rich in forests, minerals, protected from nomadic raids. Suzdal, Murom, Rostov, Yaroslavl, Galich, Nizhny Novgorod, Vladimir-on-Klyazma acquired great importance.

The most politically active principalities were the Galicia-Volyn, Vladimir-Suzdal and Novgorod principalities. Kyiv has lost its authority. For the princes, the occupation of the Kyiv throne became a purely symbolic event, however, this fact itself gave rise to strife and civil strife.

The Vladimir-Suzdal principality gained fame under the sixth son of Vladimir Monomakh, Yuri Dolgoruky (1125-1157). He twice fought for the throne of Kyiv. This fact indicates that Kyiv is only the formal capital of the Old Russian state. The son of Yuri Dolgoruky Andrei Bogolyubsky (1157-1174) also fought for the Kyiv throne, but, having become the Kyiv prince, he returned. From his reign, the Vladimir princes received the status of the Great. The principality reached its peak under Andrei Bogolyubsky's brother Vsevolod the Big Nest (1176-1212). Vsevolod dealt with the murderers of his brother, established an autocratic form of government in the principality, which determined the political development of the entire northwestern Russia.

Galicia-Volyn principality. The most famous of the local princes was Yaroslav Osmomysl (1152-1187). He knew 8 foreign languages. The largest and most significant cities were Vladimir Volynsky, Galich, Przemysl, Kholm, Kamenets. The Principality is exceptionally rich in valuable forest species (beech, walnut), coal. Under the Volyn prince Roman Mstislavovich in 1199. the unification of the Galician and Volyn principalities took place. The son of Roman Daniel (1234-1264) began to fight for the unification of the lands against the invaders, but not having received support from the princes, he entered into an alliance with the Pope. Daniel even took the title of king, but did not achieve real help. The fact is that the crusaders could help Russia, but the main goal of their campaigns was enrichment. The Catholic crusaders would not have got anything after the Horde. Daniel became disillusioned with the alliance with the Pope and rejected it. The Galicia-Volyn principality is characterized by the great influence of the nobility in political life. The boyars called Daniel a prince and independently disposed of their lands. This speaks of the influence of the political traditions of Western Europe, where the power of the aristocracy was very great.

Novgorod Principality. The geopolitical position was determined by the conditions of its socio-economic and political development. Compared to other Slavic lands, the conditions for agriculture were unfavorable here. But a lot of furs and salt. Novgorod land was on the way "From the Varangians to the Greeks". And it was trade that determined the social differentiation of the population. There is an opinion of historians that Novgorod and Staraya Ladoga arose as Varangian tax collection centers, where Slovenes, Krivichi and representatives of the Finno-Ugric peoples (Merya) then began to settle. The relations of the Slavs with the Finno-Ugric peoples in this region evolved in different ways: at the early (pre-state) stage, they coexisted quite peacefully, but as the Novgorodians expanded northward, skirmishes began for furs. However, by the XI-XII centuries. organized joint troops to protect against the German and Swedish feudal lords. Novgorod played a significant role in the political history of Ancient Russia. Oleg, Vladimir, Yaroslav began their ascent to the throne of Kyiv from Novgorod, recruiting the Varangians into their squad. These facts indicate that even during the period of statehood, Novgorod was not a mono-ethnic center of the Slavic lands, it was a kind of link between Russia and Europe.

The social elite of the Novgorod society was made up, first of all, by the landowning boyars. The class of boyars was formed here differently than in other regions: they were not the prince's warriors, but the local tribal nobility, therefore, independent of the prince (they were not obliged to him in anything). Intermediaries between the Novgorod boyars and the outside world were merchants (guests) who traded on their behalf. Novgorod imported fabrics, metal products, raw materials for handicraft production, exported furs and handicrafts. Since the raw materials belonged to the boyars, they owned the majority of the profits from trade. The main partners of the Novgorodians were the German city of Lübeck (Gondzee Union between independent cities of Germany) and Swedish merchants from the island of Gotland. Novgorodians themselves made only a few trips to Europe, because. courts in the X-XIII centuries. could not make long voyages.

Craftsmen in Novgorod were largely dependent on the nobility. Very often, the workshops of artisans themselves were located on the territory of boyar estates. The political structure of the Novgorod land is very often called the Novgorod feudal or aristocratic republic. In reality, political power was concentrated in the hands of 300-400 families (as a rule, boyar families), which were the subjects of political law, i.e. members of local governments - Veche. Rich merchants could also take part in its work. Veche chose the head of local self-government posadnik and thousand. In modern historical literature, opinions about the functions of the thousandth differ. Classically: tysyatsky led the people's militia. However, now they believe that if this was his function, then it was secondary. First of all, the tysyatsky was responsible for collecting taxes, because. By profession, Novgorod artisans and merchants were divided into hundreds, which united into thousands. The veche also elected the archbishop of Novgorod. This was a unique phenomenon, because in all other lands, the bishop was appointed by the Kyiv Metropolitan, and then approved by the Kyiv Metropolis. The archbishop was responsible for foreign policy, sealed all the international treaties of the Novgorodians, and was in charge of the treasury of Novgorod.

Administratively, the city was divided into districts - ends. Initially, there were 3 of them, each with its own Veche, which elected the headman of Konchak. The ends were divided into streets, where there were also Veche (artisans and boyars). The prince never played a decisive political role in Novgorod. In 1136 Novgorodians drove out Vsevolod (1078-1093). Since then, they began to invite the most noble representatives of the Rurik family to reign, who formally were the owners of the Novgorod land, personified the connection of Novgorod with Russia in general. Moreover, it is impossible, using the example of Alexander Nevsky, to assume that the prince was invited as the commander of the Novgorod army (exceptional cases). Novgorod, as a rule, invited juvenile representatives of the Rurik dynasty. Following the example of Novgorod, the Pskov feudal republic was organized, which, however, did not play an independent role from the Novgorod one.

Kyiv remained the center of the Russian lands, but only formally, and the priority in the religion of the capital was also preserved.

The unknown author of The Tale of Igor's Campaign, addressing the Russian princes, urged them to unite, to stop the bloody civil strife, which led to tragic consequences for the Russian lands. From this outstanding work of ancient Russian literature itself, it is clear that the very idea of ​​the unity of the Russian land did not disappear, civil strife was extremely hard on the population. Feudal fragmentation is an objective and natural process. It leads to the development and flourishing of culture in the material and spiritual direction. But under our conditions the process of feudal fragmentation proceeded differently than in Western Europe. The Russian princes attracted the Polovtsians as allies. Feudal fragmentation weakened the principalities, primarily in terms of their ability to defend against enemies. This actually led to the death of the Old Russian civilization.

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Feudal fragmentation, its causes

The state existed from 882 until the first third of the twelfth century.

Time in Russian history from the second third of the 12th century to the middle of the 15th century was called the period of feudal fragmentation.

Feudal fragmentation is a natural phenomenon in the history of every country. Feudal fragmentation takes place during the transition from early feudalism to classical feudalism. This is a natural stage, which necessarily comes with the establishment of feudal relations.

The first main reason that gives rise to others is the establishment of subsistence farming. The establishment of subsistence farming contributes to the fact that farms become economically closed. They don't need connections. Each economy is self-sufficient and the meaning of close trade ties disappears.

Feudalism is characterized by an agrarian economy. Of course, the connections are preserved, the craft is developing. But still, these are closed farms.

If earlier warriors and princes lived at the expense of booty, now all the profit, the income of the princes comes not from military campaigns, but from the exploitation of dependent peasants. Those. accent changes. It is much more convenient to sit at home with family members and relax when peasants work for you.

In other words, from the middle of the 11th century, when not military affairs, but the exploitation of the peasants, the prince's combatants no longer want to fight, separatist tendencies appear.

There are socio-political reasons for the emergence of separative tendencies. When Svyatoslav destroyed the Khazar Khaganate, he thereby made a big mistake, because it was a cover for the Russian lands from the nomads and after its destruction, the nomads poured into the Russian lands.

The Pechenegs have now been replaced by the Cumans. And by this time, Kievan Rus is a vast expanse: from the banks of the Dniester to the upper reaches of the Oka and Volga. And naturally, the Kyiv squad could no longer manage the state, and, above all, protect it. Vladimir, of course, created a warning system, but the squad simply could not respond quickly.

The boyars, who were getting richer, began to create their own squads using the funds they received from the peasants. The squad appears at each specific prince.

Another socio-economic reason contributing to isolation is the development of feudal relations. With the advent of feudal-dependent peasants, inequality and dependence appear. In 1029 - uprisings, etc. In other words, uprisings against the feudal lords. That is why we say that from the 11th century the class struggle begins to grow. Each feudal lord created a squad, the help of the Grand Duke was no longer needed by the feudal lords.

But in Russia there were also reasons of a subjective order. Yaroslav the Wise before his death, in order to prevent a battle between his sons, divided his state into 5 parts between his sons and his grandson. And he introduces the "patrimonial principle": the eldest son is the Main Principality of Kiev, and the throne of Novgorod; further, the second son received a principality with a lower status, the third son received an even less prestigious principality. The last son got the most seedy principality. If the eldest son dies, then the second son takes his place, and the eldest grandson takes the place of the last, and when the second son dies, the second-oldest grandson takes the last place.

It was a "generic principle", because. the throne passed not within the family, but within the clan - from brother to brother. And there was a rule that a nephew could not be older than his uncle.

This principle partly saved Russia from strife in the second half of the 11th century. Yaroslav the Wise wisely distributed when someone should reign. But this could not be preserved for a long time, because. every father worries more about his son than about his brother. Naturally, from the end of the century, princely strife appeared. But until the end of the 11th century, Russia remained the Federation of specific principalities, the form of the state that it was under Yaroslavl the Wise and his father Vladimir I.

However, confusion soon arose.

It increased so much that in 1097 Yaroslavichi and his grandchildren gathered in the city of Lyubech and began to discuss who and how to rule, how to resolve relations. They decided that everyone keeps their own patrimony and bequeaths it to anyone, but they defend their homeland together. Those. the confederation is preserved. Each is individual, except for the protection of global lands.

In 1113, an uprising took place, Svyatopolk was brought from Kyiv, and according to the rules, according to the will, Oleg was to take the throne. But the people of Kiev choose Vladimir at the veche. He ruled from 1113 to 1125.

His reign, and then his son Rostislav the Great - the last time, when there was still United Russia.

Then Russia will break up into a number of principalities that are in no way connected with each other. At first it was 15 principalities, then there were more than 50 of them, and by the middle of the 14th century, there were more than 250 principalities.

This is a patchwork quilt. During the time of feudal fragmentation on the lands, three types of statehood were identified that existed among the Slavs.

The first type is autocratic power, a monarchy. It occurs in the northeast of Russia. How did it differ from Kievan Rus? Northeast, and it has been rising since the time of Monomakh's grandson Vladimir. After the death of Mstislav, the throne of Kyiv from 49-57 years, is occupied by the youngest son of Vladimir Monomakh - Yu.V. Dolgoruky is still a typical prince for Kievan Rus. He no longer holds all of Russia, but he is sitting in Kyiv. After his death in the 57th ode, his eldest son A.Yu. Bogolyubsky. In 1169, tired of the strife, he leaves Kyiv and leaves, making Vladimir his residence. Since that time, the residence passes into the Vladimir principality. The Kiev principality ceases to be an advanced principality.

The foundations of autocratic power are emerging. Why is a new type of government emerging? In Kievan Rus, the princes were newcomers, they move from principality to principality. They came to the earth, i.e. they were strangers.

And now the farmers came to the land of the prince. This was, as it were, the basis or prerequisite for the formation of state property, i.e. the prince gave the land, but did not take it away. This becomes the economic basis of autocratic power. On the basis of the Vladimir branch, the Muscovite kingdom would subsequently arise.

The second type of government arises in the northwest - Pskov. This is a specific area. There are barren lands, the main occupation was craft and trade.

From the beginning of fragmentation, the paths from the Varangians to the Greeks freeze and become unsafe, and artisans are guided from the Russian direction to the Western European one. From the cities it was possible to safely go to sea. Therefore, the northwest begins to contact more with Western Europe than with Russia.

In Europe, by that time, a Hanseatic merchant union was emerging. We are entering there. Communicating with Hamburg, Venice, etc., Novgorod absorbs their traditions and form of government. A feudal republic arose in Novgorod and Pskov.

The power of the prince becomes minimal. It only applies to military affairs. He has no administrative power. The highest legislative power belonged to the people's veche - the boyars, merchants, etc. Veche hires the prince or dismisses him - for protection. Alexander Nevsky was fired and hired again 5 times.

Thus, the prince in Novgorod had no power, no property. He served for a salary in the Novgorod squad.

The supreme administrative power belonged to the posadnik. Veche chose the posadnik from the boyars, and he was, as it were, the mayor of the city, he owned the executive power.

Tysyatsky - he was elected head of the administration, the court, and led the militia on the battlefield. They were chosen from artisans. And later - from the boyars.

And one more position - Novgorod Archbishop. He was different from the archbishops of other principalities. He seemed to be in charge. He was actually the Minister of Foreign Affairs. He received delegations, signed treaties. He traveled to embassies, kept the Novgorod treasury in the Cathedral.

The Novgorod Republic was phenomenal, it lasted until 1478, until Ivan III annexed Novgorod to the Moscow kingdom.

And here, although there are different forms of government, nevertheless, there appear, as it were, two centers for the formation of the Great Russian nationality, because common language, traditions, beliefs, although the culture and folklore of the north differs from the center.

The third center is the southwest, or "Chervonnaya Rus". It is similar to Kievan Rus - Galicia-Volyn, Polotsk and other principalities. They were located on rich fertile lands. The land was valued, and a large boyar landholding was preserved.

Unfortunately, these lands, starting from the 14th century, were subordinate to the state that arose at that time - the great "Lithuanian and Russian" principality. Then this principality was united by Poland. Another form of religion arises. Orthodoxy is being replaced by the Uniate Church (based on the Florentine one). Other religion, language. Polish pressure. Here, from the 14th-15th century, two other nationalities were born - Ukrainian and Belarusian. There is a different ethnic composition here, different religious traditions, it's still a different culture.

Thus, feudal fragmentation was a long period in Russian history, however, feudal fragmentation had a negative impact on the defense capability of Russian lands.

From the middle of the 13th century, Russia was conquered by the Tatar-Mongol Yoke, and this Yoke was preserved for 2.5 centuries.

The reasons and factors for the fragmentation of Ancient Russia, saw what led to the creation of new state centers, reviewed the largest of these centers and considered the significance of this period in the history of Russia.

This period was an important prerequisite for the formation of a single and integral state. Feudal fragmentation in Ancient Russia was a natural result of the economic and political development of early feudal society. The formation in the Old Russian state of large land ownership - estates - under the dominance of natural economy inevitably made them completely independent production complexes, the economic ties of which were limited to the nearest district.

The process of advancing feudal fragmentation was objectively inevitable. He made it possible for the developing system of feudal relations to be more firmly established in Russia. From this point of view, one can speak of the historical progressivity of this stage of Russian history, within the framework of the development of the economy and culture.

Feudal fragmentation is an objective and natural process. It leads to the development and flourishing of culture in the material and spiritual direction. But under our conditions the process of feudal fragmentation proceeded differently than in Western Europe. The Russian princes attracted the Polovtsians as allies. Feudal fragmentation weakened the principalities, primarily in terms of their ability to defend against enemies. This actually led to the death of the Old Russian civilization.